FOOTNOTES:
[1] This dissertation was submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Education of Columbia University in 1922.
[2] I. The sources for this dissertation are:
1. Public Documents. Senate: 38 Cong., 1 Sess., Vol. 1, No. 1—Letter from freedmen's aid societies, Dec. 17, 1863. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Vol. 2, No. 27—Reports of assistant commissioners, Dec. 1, 1865, to March 6, 1866. 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Vol. 1, No. 6—Reports of assistant commissioners, Jan. 3, 1867. House Executive Documents. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Vol. 7, No. 11; 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Vol. 3, No. 1; 40 Cong., 2 Sess., Vol. 2, No. 1; 40 Cong., 3 Sess., Vol. 3, No. 1; 41 Cong., 2 Sess., Vol. 6, No. 142; 41 Cong., 3 Sess., Vol. 1, No. 1; 42 Cong., 2 Sess., Vol. 1, No. 1—Reports of Howard as Commissioner, Dec. 1865-Dec. 1871. United States Statutes at Large, Vols. 13-17. (Boston).
2. Reports of General Superintendent and the Societies. J. W. Alvord, Schools and Finances of Freedmen (Washington, 1866); J. W. Alvord, Semi-annual reports, 1867-'70; J. W. Alvord, Letters from the South, relating to the condition of freedmen, Addressed to General O. O. Howard (Washington, 1870); American Missionary Association, Annual report, 1862-1872; Educational Commission for freedmen, Annual report, No. 1, 1862-'63 (Boston, 1863); and New England Freedmen's Aid Society, Annual report, No. 2, 1863-'64; New York National Freedmen's Relief Association, Annual report, 1865-'66 (N. Y., 1866). Ibid., Brief History with 4th annual report, 1865; Friends Association of Philadelphia for the Aid and Elevation of Freedmen, Annual report, 1866-71; Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Annual report, 1869-'72; American Baptist Home Mission Society, Annual report, 1863-'72; and Board of Missions for Freedmen of the Presbyterian Church, Annual report, 1869-'70.
3. Newspapers and Periodicals. The New York Times; The New York Tribune; The Charleston Daily Courier; The Darlington New Era; The Columbia Phoenix; The Nation. The Atlantic Monthly, vol. XII (Sept., 1863). Edward L. Pierce—"The Freedmen at Port Royal"; Atlantic Monthly, vol. XII (May-June, 1864). Charlotte S. Forten, Life on the Sea Islands, The North American Review, vol. CI (July, 1865); William C. Gannet, The Freedmen at Port Royal; The Southern Workman, vol. XXX (July, 1901). Laura M. Towne, Pioneer Work on the Sea Islands; The American Missionary, 1862-'72, organ of the American Missionary Association; The American Freedman, 1866-'68 (incomplete), organ of American Freedmen's Union Commission; The National Freedman, 1865-66 (incomplete), organ of New York National Freedman's Relief Association; Pennsylvania Freedmen's Bulletin, 1866-'67 (incomplete), organ of Pennsylvania Freedmen's Relief Association; Freedmen's Record and Freedmen's Journal, 1865-'68 (incomplete), organ of New England Freedmen's Aid Society; The Freedman, London, 1866 (incomplete), organ of London Freedmen's Aid Society; and The Baptist Home Mission Monthly, 1878-'80, organ of American Baptist Home Mission Society.
4. Diary, Reminiscences, and Autobiography. Eliza Ware Pearson (editor), Letters from Port Royal, written at the time of the Civil War (Boston, 1906); Rupert S. Holland (editor), Letters and Diary of Laura M. Towne, written from the sea islands of South Carolina, 1862-1884 (Cambridge, 1912); Henry N. Sherwood (editor), Journal of Mrs. Susan Walker, March 3d to June 6th, 1862. Quarterly publication of the Historical and Philosophical Society of Ohio, vol. 1, No. 1, 1912; Eliz Hyde Botume, First days among the Contrabands (Boston, 1893); Oliver O. Howard, Autobiography, 2 vols., vol. 2 (New York, 1907); and A. Toomer Porter, The History of a Work of Faith and Love in Charleston, S. C. (New York, 1882).
5. Description and Travel. Charles Nordhoff, The Freedmen of South Carolina; some account of their appearance, condition and peculiar customs (New York, 1863); Whitelaw Reid, After the War, A Southern Tour, May 1, 1865, to May 1, 1866 (New York, 1866); and Sidney Andrews, The South Since the War as Shown by 14 Weeks Travel in Georgia and the Carolinas, 1866.
II. Secondary Sources. Myrta L. Avary, Dixie After the War (New York, 1906); Laura J. Webster, Operation of the Freedmen's Bureau in South Carolina, Smith College Studies in History, vol. 1, 1915-'16; Paul S. Pierce, The Freedmen's Bureau, University of Iowa Studies (Iowa City, 1904); Thomas Jesse Jones, Negro Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletins, 1916, Nos. 38 and 39; Colyer Meriwether, History of Higher Education in South Carolina, U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, No. 3, 1888; William W. Sweet, The Methodist Episcopal Church and the Civil War (Cincinnati, 1912); Amory D. Mayo, Work of Northern Churches in the Education of the Freedmen. Advanced sheets. U. S. Bureau of Education. Chapter V, 1903; Bowyer Stewart, The Work of the Church in the South during the Period of Reconstruction (Episcopalian). Hale Memorial Sermon, 1913 (Chicago, 1913); J. P. Hollis, Early Period of Reconstruction in South Carolina. Johns Hopkins University. History and Political Studies, 1905; Negro Year Book, 1918-'19 (Tuskegee, Alabama); Charleston Year Book, 1880; and W. E. B. DuBois, Souls of Black Folk (Chicago, 1903).
[3] Not to be confused with the more familiar Gen. W. T. Sherman mentioned later.
[4] Gannet, North American Review, vol. 101 (1865), p. 2.
[5] Laura M. Towne, Southern Workman, July, 1901, "Life on the Sea Islands"; Journal of Mrs. Susan Walker; Charles Nordhoff, The Freedmen of South Carolina.
[6] The Nation, vol. I (1865), p. 744. Sidney Andrews, The South Since the War, p. 228.
[7] Charlotte S. Forten, in The Atlantic Monthly, vol. XIII (May, 1864), p. 593; Botume, First Days among the Contrabands, p. 11.
[8] New York National Freedmen's Relief Association, Annual Report, 1866, pp. 5-6.
[9] Ibid., pp. 8-9.
[10] Journal of Susan Walker, p. 11; Boston Ed. Commission, Annual Report, 1863, p. 7; Letters from Port Royal, pp. 2-3.
[11] Pierce, in The Atlantic Monthly, vol. XII, 1863, p. 299.
[12] Ibid., p. 292.
[13] Nordhoff, The Freedmen of South Carolina, p. 12.
[14] Journal of Susan Walker, p. 14.
[15] Congressional Globe, 41 Cong., 3 Sess., vol. I, No. 1.
[16] J. W. Alvord, Fifth Semi-annual Report (Jan. 1, '68), p. 4.
[17] New York Tribune, June 17, 1862.
[18] "Cabins of slaves for religious meetings."
[19] Botume, First Days among the Contrabands, p. 42.
[20] The American Missionary, vol. VI (Aug., 1862), p. 186.
[21] House Executive Documents, 41 Cong., 2 Sess., vol. VI, No. 142, p. 4.
[22] Pierce, in The Atlantic Monthly, vol. XII (1863), p. 303.
[23] The Nation, vol. I (1865), p. 745.
[24] Laura M. Towne, Southern Workman, July, 1901, p. 337. Nordhoff, p. 10.
"Oh, none in all the world before
Were ever glad as we!
We're free on Carolina's shore,
We're all at home and free.
"We hear no more the driver's horn
No more the whip we fear,
This holy day that saw Thee born
Was never half so dear.
"The very oaks are greener clad,
The waters brighter smile;
Oh, never shone a day so glad
On sweet St. Helen's Isle.
"Come once again, O blessed Lord!
Come walking on the sea!
And let the mainlands hear the word
That sets the islands free!"
See Pierce, in The Atlantic Monthly, vol. XII, p. 305; Letters from Port Royal, p. 133.
[26] The Nation, vol. I (1865), p. 747.
[27] Botume, First Days among the Contrabands, p. 64.
[28] The Nation, vol. I (1865), p. 746.
[29] N. E. Freedman's Aid Society, Annual Report, 1864, p. 15.
[30] Senate Executive Documents, 38 Cong., 1 Sess., vol. I, No. 1, pp. 2-6.
[31] House Executive Documents, 41 Cong., 2 Sess., vol. VI, No. 142, p. 11.
[32] Ibid., 39 Cong., 1 Sess., vol. VII, No. 11, p. 49.
[33] National Freedman, Oct., 1865, p. 300.
[34] Howard, Autobiography, vol. II, p. 221.
[35] Statutes at Large, XIV, p. 176.
[36] Ibid., p. 486.
[37] U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bulletin, 1916, No. 38, pp. 269-271; Annual Reports of Societies, 1863-1868.
[38] The Freedmen's Record (1865-1874), quoted in Bulletin, 1916, No. 38, p. 297.
[39] The Freedman, August, 1865, p. 12.
[40] J. W. Alvord, Semi-annual Report, July 1, 1869, p. 81.
[41] W. W. Sweet, Methodist Episcopal Church and the Civil War, p. 175.
[42] A. D. Mayo, Northern Churches and the Freedmen, p. 300.
[43] A. D. Mayo, Northern Churches and the Freedmen, p. 291.
[44] U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), No. 39, p. 16.
[45] National Freedman, May 1, 1865, p. 122; Ibid., April 30, 1865, p. 150. American Freedman, May, 1866, p. 29.
[46] Charleston Year Book (1880), p. 122.
[47] See Carter G. Woodson, Education of the Negro Prior to 1861, p. 129.
[48] Sidney Andrews, The South Since the War, p. 98.
[49] National Freedman, June 1, 1865, p. 150.
[50] National Freedman, Nov. 15, 1865, p. 314; Ibid., May, 1866, pp. 139-140.
[51] J. W. Alvord, Report, Jan. 1, 1868, p. 27. American Freedman, July-August, 1868, p. 442.
[52] The American Freedman, May, 1866, p. 261. This does not, however, indicate in all cases the number of schools at each town.
[53] The school at Camden increased in size the next year.
[54] J. W. Alvord, Report, Jan. 1, 1870, p. 25.
[55] Freedmen's Aid Society of the M. E. Church, Annual Report, 1871, pp. 19-20.
[56] Mayo, Northern Churches and the Freedmen, p. 300.
[57] Letters and Diary of Laura M. Towne, p. 221.
[58] American Missionary Ass'n Annual Report, 1870, p. 221.
[59] History of the A. M. A., p. 36; Annual Report, 1868, p. 47; Mayo, p. 287.
[60] The Nation, vol. 1 (1865), p. 778.
[61] American Baptist Home Mission Society, Annual Report, 1872, p. 26.
[62] Merriwether, History of Higher Education in South Carolina, p. 125; Annual Report (1872) F. A. S., p. 17.
[63] Charleston Year Book (1880), pp. 126-127; Annual Report (1870) Presbyterian Committee, p. 12.
[64] Porter, Work of Faith and Love, p. 6; Stewart, Work of the Church during Reconstruction, p. 63.
[65] Annual Report (1866) Friends Ass'n, p. 8.
[66] A. M. A. Annual Report (1864), p. 16.
[67] Freedmen's Journal, Jan. 1, 1865, p. 3.
[68] Ibid., p. 7.
[69] National Freedman, Feb., 1866, p. 49.
[70] Letters from Port Royal; Letters and Diary of Laura M. Towne.
[71] Pennsylvania Freedmen's Bulletin, Oct., 1866, p. 1.
[72] Baptist Home Mission Monthly (1879), p. 6.
[73] Columbia Phoenix, March 21, 1865.
[74] Merriwether, History of Higher Education in South Carolina, p. 115.
[75] House Executive Documents, 39 Cong., 1 Sess., vol. VII, No. 11, p. 13.
[76] J. W. Alvord, Semi-annual Report (July 1, 1867), p. 25.
[77] The Nation, vol. III, Oct. 25, 1866.
[78] Alvord, Semi-annual Report (Jan. 1, 1870), p. 26.
[79] The New Era, July 28, 1865.
[80] Alvord, Report, Aug. 6, 1866, p. 5.
[81] New York Times, Aug. 14, 1866.
[82] Porter, Work of Faith and Love, p. 6; The Nation, vol. II (1866); p. 770.
[83] Charleston Courier, Feb. 15, 1867; American Freedman, April, 1867, p. 204.
[84] The school referred to here is the one already mentioned, the Penn Normal and Agricultural School. It is an excellent community school and one especially fitted for St. Helena, the population of which is still largely colored. See United States Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), No. 39, p. 483. Miss Towne remained in service 39 years, Miss Schofield 48 years, and Miss Munro at Mt. Pleasant 45 years.
[85] United States Census, 1860.
[86] Hurd, Law of Freedom and Bondage, II, p. 98.
[87] Baptist Home Mission Monthly, June, 1879, p. 182.
[88] Freedmen's Record, April, 1868, p. 50.
[89] Freedmen's Aid Society, Annual Report (1871), p. 13.
[90] H. Ex. Docs., 40 Cong., 2 Sess., vol. II, No. 1, p. 8.
[91] J. W. Alvord, Report on Schools and Finances of Freedmen, July, 1866, p. 6.
[92] American Freedman, July, 1868, p. 446.
[93] National Freedman, Oct., 1865, p. 299.
[94] Whitelaw Reid, After the War, pp. 89-91.
[95] National Freedman, June, 1866, p. 169.
[96] Freedmen's Record, April, 1868, p. 52.
[97] Anderson Intelligencer, July, 1867, quoted in The American Freedman, Aug., 1867, p. 264.
[98] American Freedman, Feb., 1867, p. 168.
[99] Letters from Port Royal, p. 37; The Freedmen's Journal, Jan. 1, 1865, pp. 13-15; W. C. Gannet, North American Review, vol. CI (1865), p. 24.
[100] Pierce, in Atlantic Monthly, vol. 12 (1863), p. 305.
[101] A. M. A. Annual Report, 1866, p. 27; 1867, pp. 32-33; National Freedman, May, 1866, p. 142.