E
E, the second vowel and the fifth letter of the English alphabet. It occurs more frequently in English words than any other letter of the alphabet. Its long or natural sound in English coincides with the sound of i in the Italian and French languages, as in here, mere, me. It has also another principal sound, a short one, heard in met, men. It has besides a sound like a in bare, as in there, where, &c., and the obscure sound which is heard in her. As a final letter in English it is generally silent, but it serves to indicate that the preceding vowel is to have its long sound, as in mane, cane, plume. When two e's come together the sound is generally the same as that of the single e long, as in deem, esteem, need (compare, however, pre-exist, &c.).
E, in music, is the third note or degree of the diatonic scale, answering to the mi of the Italians and French.
Eadie (ē´di), John, D.D., a Scottish preacher and theologian, born 1810, died 1876. He was educated at Glasgow University, and entered the ministry of the Secession Church, becoming in 1843 professor of biblical literature in the Divinity Hall of the Church, a post which he continued to hold after the Secession body was merged in the United Presbyterian Church (in 1847). Among his works are Biblical Cyclopædia; Analytical Concordance to the Scriptures; Ecclesiastical Cyclopædia; Commentary on the Greek Text of Ephesians, and similar works on Colossians, Philippians, and Galatians; and The English Bible. He was one of the scholars engaged on the Revised Version of the New Testament.
Ead´mer, an English monk, the friend and biographer of St. Anselm. In 1120 he was chosen Bishop of St. Andrews; but as the Scottish king refused to recognize the right of the Archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate him, he returned to England and died a simple monk about 1124. Besides the life of St. Anselm, Eadmer wrote lives of St. Wilfrid, St. Dunstan, St. Odo, and other English saints, as well as a valuable history (Historiæ Novorum) of events in England and the English Church from 1066 to 1122.
Eagle (Lat. aquila, Fr. aigle), the general name of raptorial birds that form a group or sub-family (Aquilīnæ) of the great family
Falconidæ, which includes the eagles, falcons, and hawks. The eagle is popularly regarded as the noblest and most courageous of the rapacious birds. It soars to a greater height than any other European bird, from which circumstance the ancients considered it as the bird or messenger of Jove. The genus Aquĭla, which includes the most typical eagles, is distinguished by its long and powerful bill, the curve commencing at the cere, by its wings reaching to the tip of the tail, and by its tarsi being feathered to the toes. The imperial eagle (A. mogilnik) of Central Europe, North-East Africa, India, and China is probably the species to which the popular belief in the courage, strength, and nobleness of eagles is to be traced. A. chrysaëtus, the golden eagle, is the chief British species. It measures over 6 feet from tip to tip of the expanded wings, and 3 feet from the beak to the end of the tail. The adults have the body brownish, becoming darker with age; the feathers of the head and neck pointed, and of a golden-red hue. This species is found all over the northern hemisphere. It was once common in the Highlands of Scotland, but is now becoming rare. The Kirghis and other tribes of Central Asia use the golden eagle to kill antelopes, foxes, and even wolves. Another British eagle is the erne or sea-eagle (Haliaëtus albicilla) found near the sea-coast or lakes, and feeding largely on fish. The general colour is greyish-brown, the head pale-coloured, the tail white. The bald eagle (Haliaëtus leucocephălus), found in North America and North-East Asia, is the symbol of the United States, though Franklin deplores the selection on account of his mean and dishonest habit of robbing the industrious osprey of the fish caught by him. Like all members of the genus, his diet is less restricted than that of the true eagles; and he even takes carrion. See also Harpy Eagle.
Eagle, as a symbol. The eagle first appears as a war standard amongst the Persians, through whom it reached the Egyptians. As the standard of the Roman armies it was first used by Marius, and afterwards took the place of all the other emblems at the head of the legions. It was first made of wood, then of silver, and finally, under Cæsar and his successors, of gold. In the Mediæval Ages the eagle became the heraldic emblem of the Holy Roman Empire, and was made double-headed in the fourteenth century. When the Holy Roman Empire fell to pieces in 1806, the double-headed eagle was retained by Austria. The double-headed eagle was assumed by Tsar Ivan III in 1472, and became the national military symbol of Russia; the single-headed eagle was assumed by the modern German Empire in 1871, and by the United States of America. The American eagle stands with outspread wings guarding a shield, with the motto E pluribus unum. The eagle was also the badge of several orders, the
chief of which were the order of the Black Eagle, founded by the Elector of Brandenburg in 1701, and the highest order in Prussia; the order of the Red Eagle, also a Prussian order, and founded in 1705; and the Russian order of the White Eagle, originally Polish, and instituted in 1325.
Eagle, a gold coin in the United States of the value of ten dollars, or £2 sterling, first coined in 1795. There are also half-eagles, quarter-eagles, and double-eagles.
Eagle-hawk, a name sometimes applied to small South American eagles (genus Morphnus), with short wings and long legs.
Eaglehawk, a gold-mining town in Victoria, Australia, 4 miles from Bendigo. Pop. 8130.
Eagle-owl, a name for several large horned owls, such as Bubo ignavus (the great horned owl), little inferior in size to the golden eagle, found in many parts of Europe and sometimes in Britain. An allied species, the Virginian horned owl (B. virginianus), is common in the United States.
Ealing, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Middlesex, the former a few miles west of London. Pop. 61,222.
P, Concha. E.C., External canal. D, Drum. H, Hammer. A, Anvil. E, Eustachian tube. S. Stirrup, S.C, Semicircular canals. C, Cochlea. Arrows denote the direction of vibration.
Ear, the organ of hearing. In the higher vertebrates it is divided into the outer, middle, and inner ear. The external ear, which is a cartilaginous funnel for collecting the sound waves and directing them inwards, is composed of the concha, or projecting part, and of the auditory canal, which extends from the concha to the membrane of the tympanum or drum. This membrane is a partition stretched obliquely across the bottom of the auditory canal, which it separates from the middle ear or tympanum; it is semi-transparent and very delicate. It vibrates with the waves of sound which strike against it, and transmits the vibrations to certain little bones of the cavity of the tympanum. These bones, which have been named respectively the hammer (malleus), the anvil (incus), and the stirrup (stapes), transmit the vibrations to the internal ear, forming a chain communicating at one end with the membrane just mentioned, and at the other with the inner ear. The internal ear consists of a complicated system of tubes known as the membranous labyrinth, containing fluid in which waves are set up by the vibrations transmitted to it by the little bones from the drum membrane. The lower part of the labyrinth is coiled like a snail shell, and is called the cochlea. It is the real organ of hearing. The upper part consists of three semicircular canals, the function of which is to record the position and movements of the body in space. The middle ear communicates with the pharynx by the Eustachian tube, through which air from the mouth may be introduced into the tympanic cavity, so as to permit vibrations of the drum membrane. In the external auditory canal of the ear is produced the cerumen or ear-wax. The cut shows P the concha, E.C. the external canal, D the drum membrane partly removed, S the stirrup, A the anvil and H the hammer, the small bones communicating with the drum and vestibule, C cochlea, S.C semicircular canals, E Eustachian tube.—Cf. Sir Thomas Wrightson, An Enquiry into the Analytical Mechanism of the Internal Ear.
Ear-cockle, a disease in wheat caused by the presence in the grain of worms belonging to the genus Vibrio. It is called in some parts of England purples.
Earl (A.Sax. eorl; Dan. jarl), a degree of the British nobility between marquess and viscount, the title of highest antiquity in England. The title was made hereditary by William the Conqueror, and for a time was used interchangeably with that of count, the corresponding title on the Continent. The wife of an earl is still called a countess. The earl was the highest in rank of the nobility until Edward III created a duke in 1357, and Richard II a marquess in 1385. The first earl of England is the Earl of Arundel. An earl's coronet is composed of eight pearls raised upon points, with small leaves between, above the rim. See Peer.
Earle, John, English bishop and writer, born about 1601, died 1665. He was educated at Oxford, and, after writing some short poems, gave to the world anonymously in 1628 Microcosmographie, or a Piece of the World discovered in Essays and Characters—a work full of wit, humour, and admirable character-painting. He was tutor to Charles II, accompanied him during his exile, and was held by him in the highest esteem. In 1662 he was consecrated Bishop of
Worcester, and next year was translated to Salisbury.
Earle, Rev. John, Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born in 1824, and died in 1903. He studied at Oriel College, Oxford, where he obtained first-class honours in classics, and was elected a fellow (1848). In the following year he took orders, and was appointed for five years university professor of Anglo-Saxon. In 1857 he became rector of Swanswick, near Bath, and in 1871, a prebendary of Wells. The five years' rule having been rescinded, he was re-elected professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford in 1876, and continued to hold the position, together with the rectory of Swanswick, until his death. Among his contributions to the study of Anglo-Saxon and modern English are the following: Two Saxon Chronicles Parallel (1865); The Philology of the English Tongue (1871); A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon (1877); English Plant Names from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century (1880); Anglo-Saxon Literature (1884), a very useful and informing little manual; Handbook to the Land Charters and other Saxonic Documents (1888); English Prose: its Elements, History, and Usage (1890); The Deeds of Beowulf (1892), a translation of the well-known Anglo-Saxon epic; The Psalter of 1539 (1894); and A Simple Grammar of English now in Use (1898). He also wrote a book on Bath, Ancient and Modern (1864).
Earlestown, a town of Lancashire, England, 14 miles east of Liverpool. There are here engineering-works, sugar-works, and other establishments. Pop. 9020.
Earl-marshal, a great officer of England, who had, anciently, several courts under his jurisdiction, as the court of chivalry and the court of honour. He is the head of the College of Arms (Heralds' College), grants armorial bearings, and determines all claims in connection with them. Since 1672 the office is hereditary in the family of Howard (Dukes of Norfolk). There was also an earl-marshal of Scotland, the office being hereditary in the Keith family until 1716, when it was abolished.
Earlom, Richard, English mezzotinto engraver, born 1743, died 1822. His engravings from Reynolds, Hogarth, Van Huysum, &c., and from Claude's Liber Veritatis, are exceptionally fine, and are standard works in their department.
Earlston (originally Ercildoun), a village of Scotland in Berwickshire. Near it are the ruins of the ancient tower, which belonged to the famous Thomas the Rhymer. Pop. 1749.
Peterborough Cathedral. Part of the West Front Lincoln Cathedral. Early English Pillars in the Eastern Transept
Early English Architecture, the first of the Pointed or Gothic styles of architecture that prevailed in England. It succeeded the Norman in the reign of Richard I (1189), and continued to the end of the reign of Henry II in 1272, a period of 123 years, when it gradually merged into the Decorated style. One of the leading peculiarities in this style is the form of the windows, which are narrow in proportion to their height, and terminate in a pointed arch, resembling the blade of a lancet (and therefore often called the Lancet style). Throughout the early period of the style they are very plain, particularly in small churches; but in cathedrals and other large buildings the windows, frequently combined two or more together, are carried to a great height, are richly and deeply moulded, and the jambs ornamented with slender shafts. On the eastern and western fronts of small churches the windows are often combined in this manner, with a circular window above and a richly moulded door below; but in large buildings there is often more than one range of windows, and the combinations are very various. Though separated on the outside, these lancets are in the interior combined into one design, thus giving the first idea of a compound window. The doorways are in general pointed, and in rich buildings sometimes double; they are usually moulded, and enriched with the tooth-ornament. The buttresses are often very bold and prominent, and are frequently carried up to the top of the building with but little diminution, and terminate in acutely pointed pediments, which, when raised above the parapet, produce in some degree the effect of pinnacles. In this style, likewise, flying-buttresses were first introduced (see Buttresses), and the buttresses themselves much increased in projection owing to the comparative lightness of the walls, which required some counter-support to resist the outward pressure of the vaulting. The roof in the Early English style appears always to have been high pitched, and the towers surmounted by lofty pointed spires, as at Salisbury Cathedral. In the interior the arches are usually lancet-shaped, and the pillars often reduced to very slender proportions. As if to give still greater lightness of appearance, they are frequently made up of a centre pillar, surrounded by slight detached shafts, only connected with the pillar by their capitals and bases, and bands of metal placed at intervals. These shafts are generally of Purbeck marble, the pillar itself being of stone, and from their extreme slenderness they sometimes appear as if quite inadequate to support the weight above them. The earliest example of Early English architecture is the choir of Canterbury, followed by the choir of Lincoln Cathedral, but some of the best examples are to be seen in Salisbury Cathedral. The architects of this style carried their ideas of lightness to the utmost limits of prudence, and their successors have been afraid to imitate their example. The abacus of the capitals is generally made up of two bold round mouldings, with a deep hollow between. The foliage is peculiar, generally very gracefully drawn, and thrown into elegant curves; it is usually termed stiff-leaved, from the circumstance of its rising with a stiff stem from the neck-mould of the capital. The trefoil is commonly imitated, and is very characteristic of the style. The mouldings of this style have great boldness, and produce a striking effect of light and shade. They consist chiefly of rounds separated by deep hollows, in which a peculiar ornament, called the dog's-tooth, is used, whenever ornament can be introduced. This ornament is as characteristic of the Early English as the zigzag is of the Norman. See Dog's-tooth.—Cf. F. Bond, An Introduction to English Church Architecture, from the 11th to the 16th Century.
Earnest, in law, any sum paid in advance, to bind parties to the performance of a verbal agreement, or something given by a buyer to a seller as a pledge of adherence to a bargain. The party is then obliged to abide by his bargain, and is not discharged upon forfeiting his earnest. In England the general view is that the sum paid as earnest, however small, is part of the price.
Ear-ring, an ornament for the ear, consisting of a ring or hook passing through the lobe, with a pendant of diamonds, pearls, or other jewels frequently attached. Ear-rings were commonly worn amongst the Oriental nations, and by both sexes, especially in Babylonia and Assyria, from the earliest times. Amongst the Greeks and Romans the wearing of ear-rings was usually confined to women. In England the Romanized Britons and the Anglo-Saxons wore them, but the fashion declined in the tenth century, and was again introduced in the sixteenth century, in Queen Elizabeth's time.
Earsdon, an urban district or town of England, South Northumberland, several miles north-west of Tynemouth, with productive collieries. Pop. 10,568.
Earth, the planet which we inhabit, a nearly spherical body which every twenty-four hours rotates from west to east round an imaginary line called its axis—this axis having as its extremities the north and south poles—while in the course of a year it completes a revolution round the sun. To an observer whose view is not obstructed, the visible part of the earth appears as a circular and horizontal expanse, on the circumference of which the heavens appear to rest. Accordingly, in remote antiquity, the earth was regarded as a flat, circular body, floating on the waters. But even in antiquity the spherical form of the earth began to be suspected. It is only on this supposition that we can explain how the horizon of vision grows wider and wider the higher the position we choose, how the tops of towers and mountains at a distance become visible before the bases, how the hull of a ship first disappears as she sails away, and how, as we go from the poles towards the equator, new stars become visible. Besides these proofs there are many others, such as the circular contour of the earth's shadow seen on the moon during an eclipse. The mere fact that the earth can be circumnavigated does not, as is sometimes assumed, prove it to be globular. But its surface, land and ocean, has been almost all explored and accurately mapped, and the relative distances and directions found to obtain between the places on its surface are consistent only with its possessing such a shape.
The earth is not, however, an exact sphere, but is very slightly flattened at the poles, so as to have the form known as an oblate spheroid. In this way the polar diameter, or diameter from pole to pole, is shorter than the diameter at right angles to this—the equatorial diameter. The most accurate measurements make the polar diameter almost 27 miles less than the equatorial, the equatorial diameter being found to be 7926.7 miles, and the polar 7900 miles. The earth is regarded as divided into two halves—the northern and the southern hemisphere—by the equator, an imaginary line going right round it midway between the poles. In order to indicate with precision the position of places on the earth additional circles are imagined to be traced upon the surface in such a manner that those of the one set all pass through both poles, while those of the other are drawn parallel to the equator. The former are called meridians, the latter parallels of latitude, and by reference to them we can state the latitude and longitude, and thus the exact position, of any place.
Many experiments by various methods have been made in order to determine the average density of the earth, and the total quantity of matter it contains. Amongst these methods may be mentioned: (1) that of measuring the deflection of a plumb-line due to a mountain's attraction, and thereby comparing the mass of the earth with that of the mountain; (2) that founded on the difference of oscillation period of a pendulum when placed at the summit of a mountain and when at the sea-level; (3) by the determination of the difference of gravity at the top and the bottom of a deep mine, by pendulum experiments; (4) Cavendish's experiment with the torsion balance, which attempts to compare the attractive force of two large lead balls upon two small lead balls with that exercised by the earth. From these and other experiments it has been calculated that the mean density of the earth is to that of water as about 5½ to 1.
The earth, in common with the other planets, moves round the sun, completing its revolution in about 365 days and 6 hours. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, with the sun in one of its foci. Hence the earth is not equally distant from the sun throughout the year; it is over 3,000,000 miles nearer at one time than another, its least distance (perihelion distance), according to recent calculations, being about 91,340,000 miles; its greatest (aphelion distance), 94,450,000; and the mean distance, 92,897,000 miles. From this it may be calculated that the velocity of the earth in its orbit is about 18½ miles a second. About 3rd Jan. the earth is nearest the sun, and about 4th July farthest from it. This position of matters, which is subject to slow alteration in the course of ages, at present tends to moderate the seasonal variations in the northern hemisphere, and to intensify them in the southern. The passage of the earth round its orbit causes the sun to appear as if it described an annual circuit of the heavens; and hence it is that at one time of the year one group of stars is seen in the neighbourhood of the sun near sunrise or sunset, and at another time another group. This apparent path of the sun is the ecliptic, and corresponds with what would be the path of the earth as seen from the sun; and the groups of
stars through which the sun successively passes form the zodiac.
The earth's daily motion about its own axis takes place in twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes, and four seconds of mean time. This diurnal revolution is the occasion of the alternation of day and night. As the axis on which the earth performs its diurnal rotation is inclined towards the plane of its path about the sun at an angle of 66½°, and the angle between the plane of the ecliptic and the plane of the earth's equator is therefore 23½°, the sun ascends in the heavens, as seen from our northern latitudes, from 21st March to 21st June (the summer solstice), to about 23½° above the celestial equator, and descends again towards the equator from 21st June to 23rd Sept.; it then sinks till 22nd Dec. (the winter solstice), when it is about 23½° below the equator, and returns again to the equator by 21st March. This arrangement is the cause of the seasons, and the inequality of day and night attending them. For all places removed from the equator, day and night are equal only twice in the year (at the equinoxes). At the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere the north pole of the earth is turned towards the sun, and the south pole away from it, and for places within 23½° of the former there is a period of longer or shorter duration during which the sun is continually above the horizon throughout the twenty-four hours of each day, while round the latter there is an equal extent of surface within which the sun for similar periods is below the horizon. (See Day.) The reverse state of matters occurs at the winter solstice. The circles bounding these regions are called respectively the arctic and the antarctic circle, and the regions themselves the polar or frigid zones. Throughout a region extending to 23½° on each side of the equator the sun is directly overhead at any place twice in the year. The circles which bound this region are called the tropics, that in the northern hemisphere being the tropic of Cancer, that in the southern the tropic of Capricorn, while the region between is the torrid zone. The regions between the tropics and the polar circles are respectively the north and south temperate zones.
From the evidence furnished by volcanoes, hot springs, sinking of mines, &c., it is known that the earth has a high internal temperature. Taking the average of the various observed rates of increase this temperature seems to increase 1° F. for every 60 feet of descent. Assuming this to continue, the rocks at a depth of 2 miles would be as hot as boiling water, and at a depth of 50 miles the heat would be such as at the surface would melt every known solid. This being so, various theories as to the internal condition of the earth have been proposed: (1) that a thin envelope or crust surrounds a molten interior. It can be shown, however, that as tides must be produced in such a molten mass the cool outer crust would be unable to withstand the enormous force of these unless it were about 2000 miles thick. (2) That the interior is solid, with spaces here and there filled with liquid or gaseous material. This theory assumes that there are within the earth enormous cavities filled with molten rock, which escapes, when local pressure is removed, in the form of volcanic outbursts. (3) That the earth consists of a thin
crust, a large solid nucleus, and a liquid film between the nucleus and the crust. (4) That the earth is solid to the centre, but any part may become liquid if local pressure is removed. On this theory it is supposed that if water should percolate to liquefied rocks, it would be converted into steam, and produce the various volcanic phenomena.
The question of the constitution of the earth's interior has in recent years been much investigated by means of seismographic records. These appear to indicate that there are three distinct divisions. The outer crust has a thickness of from 20 to 40 miles. It possesses a high power of resistance to all kinds of stress. Beneath it is a large shell possessing a density and elasticity resembling fine steel. This shell has a high rigidity against changing forces of shorter duration, like tidal action, but in its outer parts at least yields in time to unvarying long-continued stress. The third or innermost division of the earth is probably molten, as it can transmit compressional waves, but yielding immediately to distortional or twisting forces, is unable to transmit distortional waves. This innermost portion appears to be a sphere of radius approximately one-half that of the earth as a whole. The transition between the crust and intermediate shell is abrupt, but that between the latter and the central portion is more gradual.
The earth (like the other planets) is believed to have condensed and solidified from a gaseous or nebular condition, and to have once had a far higher temperature than now. If such were the case, the outer surface, losing heat by radiation, would be the first part to cool quickly; while the interior, losing its heat by conduction, would not cool so rapidly, and, therefore, would naturally have a higher temperature than the portion at the surface. This is what all observations indicate the condition of the earth to be, and the shape of the earth also indicates that it must once have been in a fluid state. Calculations have been made of the time which has elapsed since solidification commenced, the estimates being in general of the order of hundreds of millions of years. See Nebular Hypothesis.
Another feature that the earth as a whole presents is its magnetism. When a magnetic needle is balanced on a point, it remains at rest in one position only, pointing then nearly due north and south. This can be explained only on the supposition that the earth acts as a great magnet. It has, in fact, two poles—a north and a south magnetic pole—which are not very far from the geographical poles. The magnetic equator, where the vertical force is zero and the dipping needle takes a horizontal position, does not diverge greatly from the geographical equator. The earth acts upon all magnets as they act upon each other, and it is for this reason that they point north and south.
The surface of the earth contains over 196,000,000 sq. miles, of which about two-sevenths is dry land, the remaining five-sevenths being water. The land is arranged into masses of irregular shape and size, the greatest connected mass being in the eastern hemisphere. The chief masses receive the name of continents, detached masses of smaller size being islands. The surface of the land is variously diversified, exhibiting mountains, valleys, plains, plateaus, deserts, &c. The water area of the earth is divided into oceans, seas, bays, gulfs, &c., while rivers and lakes may be regarded as features of the land surface. The great phenomena of the oceans are currents and tides. The population of the whole earth is estimated at from 1600 to 1700 millions. The earth is attended by the moon as a subordinate or secondary planet. See also such articles as Climate, Currents, Ocean, Earthquake, and Seasons.—Bibliography: A. von Humboldt, Cosmos; E. Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants; T. G. Bonney, The Story of our Planet; T. M. Reade, The Evolution of Earth Structure; Theory of Geomorphic Changes; A. T. Swaine, The Earth: its Genesis and Evolution, considered in the Light of the most Recent Scientific Research.
Earthenware, a name applied to the commoner sorts of pottery-ware. The older kinds of earthenware, such as Majolica, Delft-ware, Faïence, and Palissy-ware, are not only glazed, but are besides elaborately coloured and enamelled and ornamented with raised figures of various kinds. See Pottery.
Earth-houses, a name generally given throughout Scotland to underground buildings, also known as 'Picts' houses' or 'Picts' dwellings'. The earth-house in its simplest form consists of a single irregular-shaped chamber, formed of unhewn stones, the side walls gradually converging towards the top until they can be roofed by stones of 4 or 5 feet in width, all covered in by a mound of earth rising slightly above the level of the adjacent ground. In the more advanced form of these structures two or three chambers are found. Earth-houses are frequent in the north-east of Scotland, occasionally thirty or forty being found in the same locality. Querns, bones, deers' horns, earthen vessels, cups and implements of bone, stone celts, bronze swords, and the like, are occasionally found in connection with them. Very similar structures, known as beehive-houses, occur also in Ireland and Cornwall.
Earth-nut, the Conopodium denudatum, an umbelliferous plant common in woods and fields in Britain. The leaves are ternately divided, and the small white flowers are in terminal
umbels. The tuber or nut is about 4 or 6 inches below the surface, at the termination of a long slender root. It is brown, the size of a chestnut, of a sweetish farinaceous nature, resembling in taste the common chestnut. Swine are very fond of the nuts, and fatten rapidly where they are abundant. The name is frequently applied to Carum Bulbocastănum, which has a similar tuber. See Ground-nut.
Earthquake, a shaking of the earth's surface, propagated from place to place by a wave motion. It may vary in intensity from the slightest perceptible tremor to a violent shock which bursts open chasms and changes the appearance of the ground. Earthquakes originate in the crust of the earth, generally at only a very few miles depth, and probably never lower than about 30 miles. The point of origin is called the centre or seismic focus, and the place on the surface vertically over it the epicentre. It is rather difficult to tell the depth of the focus. Mallet estimated this by projecting backward the direction of travel of the wave at different points, as judged from the inclinations of the rents in buildings, &c., assumed to be at right angles to the line of propagation. The accuracy of this method has been improved by substituting evidence of direction as given by seismographs. The focus of an earthquake is often submarine, and subsequent to the shock transmitted through the solid earth a great sea-wave may invade the land and produce far more disastrous effects.
In some cases an earthquake may be caused by a fall of rock in some subterranean cavity. This gives only a minor and local shock. The vast majority of earthquakes are certainly tectonic, originating from the snapping of strata under great strain, or the further slipping of portions of the earth's crust along previously existing fault planes. Such dislocations probably arise sometimes from the variations of weight supported by the earth's crust in neighbouring regions, due to the transport by rivers of material, which they erode at one place and deposit at another. A further cause is the contraction undergone by the earth in its secular cooling. There are also earthquakes of volcanic origin, accompanying eruptions, but these are not usually of any great violence, nor do they involve any large area. The coasts of the Pacific Ocean—American, Asiatic, and East Indian—are much visited by earthquakes, in especial the Japanese Islands. The other band of greatest frequency has a direction outlined by the Azores, Alps, Mediterranean, and the Caucasus and Himalaya Mountains. It may be noted that all the regions specially affected are distinguished by steep gradients of the earth's surface.
AB, Surface of earth. F, Focus. E, Epicentre. 1-4, Successive positions of earthquake wave. S, S, Cracked walls; the cracks being at right angles to CF and DF give some indication of the depth of focus.
In recent years much information has been obtained by the investigation of earthquakes by various kinds of seismograph. One single instrument at a particular station, e.g. a Milne seismograph, will enable the distance of the epicentre to be calculated. From the results of three stations, the precise locality can practically always be told. With additional or particular forms of instruments, this may even be possible by means of the records at one station. Earthquake waves are found to consist of distinctly defined types. The first to arrive are the preliminary tremors or first-phase waves, then the second-phase waves, next the third-phase or large waves, and lastly the concluding waves, consisting largely of 'echoes' or reflected vibrations. The speed of the preliminary tremors is found to be only about 2 miles per second for very short distances, but for a quadrant of the earth's surface they travel at an average of about 7 miles per second, a speed which is only slightly exceeded for still greater distances. The second-phase waves travel with a little under two-thirds of these velocities. These two classes of wave have been proved to travel through the earth, approximately along chords, but with the path slightly bent, convex towards the earth's centre. The first-phase waves are longitudinal, or waves of compression; the second-phase are transverse, or waves of distortion. The greater speed for greater distances is due to the track being more through the earth's interior and less through its outer portions, as the interior transmits wave-motion much more rapidly than the crust. The rigidity at some depth from the surface has been shown to be of the same order of magnitude as the rigidity of steel. The third-phase waves are of much longer vibration period and wide amplitude, and have been compared to a groundswell on the sea. Their time of passage from the epicentre to any place is proportional to the distance measured round the earth's surface, and it is clear that they travel on the surface, and not through the interior. Their speed is nearly 2 miles per second. The difference in time between the arrival of the preliminary tremors at any station and the arrival of the second-phase waves, or between the second-phase and third-phase waves, enables the distance of
the epicentre to be easily found, as these differences, of course, become greater with increasing distance.
The number of earthquakes has been found to be enormously greater than was at one time supposed; in fact, small tremors are occurring daily in one part or another of the earth. Great and destructive shocks are generally preceded by minor shocks in the same district, and they are always followed for months afterwards by a series of gradually lessening after-shocks. Among the most remarkable earthquakes of modern times were those which destroyed Lima in 1746, and Lisbon in 1755; more recently destructive earthquakes visited Calabria in 1857, Peru and Ecuador in 1868, the Island of Ischia in 1884, Japan in 1896, North India and Calabria in 1905, San Francisco in 1906, Messina and Reggio in 1908. One of the greatest earthquakes of recent times was that which visited the provinces of Kansu and Shensi in North-West China, on 16th Dec., 1920. (See Seismograph.)—Bibliography: J. Milne, Earthquakes and other Earth-Movements; C. Davison, A Study of Recent Earthquakes; C. G. Knott, The Physics of Earthquake Phenomena.
Earths, a term applied in geology to certain loosely aggregated siliceous and aluminous materials, the detritus of pre-existing rocks. In chemistry the term earth is given to certain metallic oxides, such as the 'alkaline earths' lime, baryta, and strontia; also to alumina and a series known as the 'rare earths'. The earths were regarded as simple bodies until Sir H. Davy proved them to be compounds of oxygen with metals.
Earth-shine, in astronomy, a name given to the faint light visible on the part of the moon not directly illuminated by the sun, due to the illumination of that portion by the sunlight which the earth reflects on her. It is most conspicuous when the illuminated part of the disc is small, as soon after new moon. This phenomenon is popularly described as 'the old moon in the new moon's arms'.
Earth-tongue. See Geoglossum.
Earthworks (in fortification) are military works formed chiefly of earth and designed either as permanent or temporary defences. They are cheaper, more easily repaired, and expose their defenders to less risk from broken stone than stone-works. See Entrenchments.
Earthworm, the name applied to segmented worms (Annelids) that burrow in the soil, and belong to the ord. Oligochæta, a subdivision of the bristle-worms (Chætopoda). They have a long, cylindrical body, divided by transverse furrows into numerous rings. The mouth is destitute of jaws, and they have no eyes, tentacles, or other head appendages. They are hermaphrodite. The commonest British forms are chiefly species of Lumbricus and Allolobophora. They feed on earth and various kinds of animal and vegetable matter, and move by the contractions of successive parts of the body aided by a double row of bristles. They are of great service to the agriculturist by loosening the soil and increasing its depth. This is chiefly the result of their mode of nourishment, since they deposit the soil they have swallowed, after digestion, in heaps called worm castings which bring up rich fine soil to the surface, gradually covering the upper layer sometimes to the extent of several inches.
Ear-trumpet, an artificial instrument for aiding the collection of the vibrations or waves of sound, and carrying them in an intensified form to the internal parts of the ear. They are generally made of tin, vulcanite, or gutta-percha, and are of various forms. A small kind known as ear-cornets or acoustic auricles, attached to the ear by a spring, is sometimes used in slight cases of deafness.
Earwig (Forficŭla), a common orthopterous insect whose name is derived from its supposed habit of insinuating itself into the ears of persons. This is practically impossible, yet the notion is widely spread, as appears from the names given to the earwig in different languages, as in Fr. perceoreille (pierce-ear), in Ger. ohrenhöhler (ear-borer). Much damage is sustained by gardeners from the depredations of these insects among fruit and tender vegetables, which constitute their proper food. The earwig is about three-quarters of an inch in length, having the wings folded under very short and truncate elytra or wing-cases, and the extremity of the abdomen armed with a horny forceps.
Easement, in law, a right or privilege which one proprietor may have to use the land of another in connection with the needs of his own land, as the use of a way, a water-course, &c. The right to an easement may be acquired either
by grant or by uninterrupted enjoyment for a period of years.
East, one of the four cardinal points, being the point in the heavens where the sun is seen to rise at the equinox, or the corresponding point on the earth; that point of the horizon lying on the right hand when one's face is turned towards the north pole. By the East, in an indefinite sense, is often meant Syria, Arabia, Persia, India, and the eastern part of the world generally.
Eastbourne, a municipal borough and flourishing watering-place of England, county of Sussex, on the English Channel, near Beachy Head; also a parliamentary division of Sussex. The town is handsomely built, having fine parades and well-planted walks and drives. Pop. 52,544.
East Cape, the most easterly point of Asia, projecting into Behring's Strait nearly opposite Cape Prince of Wales in Alaska.
Easter, the festival commemorating the resurrection of Christ, observed in the Roman Catholic, the Greek, Anglican, Lutheran, and other branches of the Christian Church. By the first Christians it was considered to continue the feast of the passover, at which the paschal lamb, a type of Christ, was sacrificed. Hence its name in Greek (pascha), French (pâques), and other Romance languages is taken from the Hebrew pesach, passover. The English name, according to the Venerable Bede, comes from the Anglo-Saxon Eostre (from Teutonic Austrō), a goddess of light or spring, whose festival was celebrated in April. There was long a dispute in the Christian Church as to the proper time for holding Easter, the Christians of the East celebrating it on the same day as that on which the Jewish passover fell, that is, the 14th of Nisan (hence they were called quarto decimani), while the majority of the Church celebrated it on the Sunday next after this day. The controversy was decided by the Council of Nice (Nicæa) in 325, which settled that it was to be reckoned as at present, namely, that Easter is the first Sunday after the full moon which happens upon or next after the 21st of March; and if the full moon happens on a Sunday, Easter-day is the Sunday after, but, properly speaking, for the 'full moon' in the above the 'fourteenth day of the moon' should be substituted.—Cf. Sir J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough.
Easter Dues, or Offerings, in the Church of England, certain dues paid to the parochial clergy by the parishioners at Easter as a compensation for the tithe for personal labour.
Easter Eggs. The egg was anciently a symbol of the mother goddess and of birth: the sun emerged from the cosmic egg. The Saxon goddess Easter was a life-giver. On Easter Day, the day of Christ's resurrection, eggs (Pasche eggs) were dyed in symbolic colours, and boiled hard to be rolled or used in egg-breaking contests. The Jews have eggs at the Passover Feast.
Easter Island, or Rapanui (discovered by the Dutch Admiral Roggeven, on Easter, 6th April, 1722), an island, 12 miles long, in the South Pacific Ocean, long. 109° 17' W., lat. 27° 6' S., and utilized for grazing sheep and cattle. It now belongs to Chile, from which it is 2000 miles distant. Pop. 250 in 1916. The Routledge Expedition reported, in 1919, that the inhabitants are of mixed Polynesian and Melanesian origin. Their ancient bird-cult shows very close resemblances to that of the Solomon Islands. Numerous gigantic stone images of a soft 'volcanic ash' were being worshipped when the island was first visited by Europeans in the eighteenth century. Some still lie partly constructed in a crater quarry. These images date back a few centuries, and resemble those made until recently in wood on this island and elsewhere in Oceania, and bear symbols used on these and in tattooing. Local legends of the earliest settlements from distant islands and of local tribal wars still survive. The present inhabitants are undoubtedly descendants of the image-makers and worshippers. Cf. K. Routledge, The Mystery of Easter Island.
Eastern Bengal and Assam, a province of India, under a Lieutenant-Governor, formed in 1905 by disjoining from Bengal the three divisions of Chittagong, Dacca, and Rajshahi (with the exception of Darjeeling) and uniting Assam with them, as also the state of Cooch Behar. It was formed in order to provide for the better government both of the area belonging to it and of that of Bengal, which was regarded as having become rather unwieldy, its population being still 54 millions. On 1st April, 1912, however, Assam was separated from Eastern Bengal and reconstituted. Its area is about 53,000 sq. miles, and the pop. nearly 6,750,000.
Eastern Churches, a collective term for the Greek, Armenian, Coptic, Abyssinian, Syrian, and other kindred Churches, as distinguished from the Latin, or Western Church.
Eastern Question, The, an international political problem which occupied the attention of European statesmen during the last two centuries, and even since 1453, when the Turks established their empire and gained sway over the Balkans. It deals with the relations of the Balkan nationalities, Turkey, and the Great Powers to each other. Russia, Germany, Austria, Greece, France, Italy, and Great Britain were all interested in the Near East and in the Eastern Question ever since the Treaty of Kutshuk-Kainardji in 1774. The Levantine commerce and the Mediterranean ports were, and still are,
of vital importance not only to Russia, but also to the Balkan States and to the neighbouring European powers. The occupation of Egypt by Great Britain, the Russo-Turkish War of 1878, the proclamation of Bulgaria's independence, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, all contributed to the complication of the Eastern Question. This complication was further increased by Italy's occupation of Tripoli in 1911, by the Balkan Wars (1912-3), and by the construction of the Bagdad Railway with the aid of German capital. It is no exaggeration to say that the Eastern Question was one of the causes which led to the outbreak of the European War of 1914. The Peace Treaties of Versailles, Sèvres, and St. Germain have not yet settled the Eastern Question, and the peace in the Near East is still a problem which occupies the attention of European diplomatists.—Bibliography: W. A. Phillips, Modern Europe; R. W. Seton Watson, The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans.
Eastern Rumelia. See Bulgaria.
Easter Term, one of the four regular terms of the courts of common law in England, beginning on the 19th April, and continuing till the middle or end of May.—In Oxford University, a term beginning 13th April, ending 27th May; in Cambridge, beginning 18th April, and ending 24th June.
East India Company, a great English company, originally simply a trading association, which played an important part in the history of Hindustan. It was formed in 1599 in London, with a subscribed capital of about £30,000, for the purpose of trade with the East Indies. A charter was granted to it by Queen Elizabeth on 31st December, 1600, for fifteen years, renewable for a similar period. In this charter the Company is styled, "The Governor and Company of the Merchants of London trading into the East Indies". The first voyages resulted in large profits. In 1609 the charter was renewed by James I, and made perpetual, reserving power to the Crown to recall it at three years' notice. Additional power was granted to the Company of seizing and confiscating ships and goods of contraband traders, either in the British dominions or in any of the places where they were authorized to trade. Among the motives which had induced the Company to press for this renewal of their charter was the necessity they had experienced from the jealousy of the Dutch and Portuguese to send out vessels fitted not only for trade, but for defence and indeed attack. Accordingly Captain Best, who commanded the eighth expedition, attacked four Portuguese war galleons, convoying 200 sail of merchantmen, off Surat, and gained a complete victory, which so impressed the Great Mogul that he immediately made a treaty with Captain Best, giving the English full liberty to trade in his dominions. This treaty was concluded on 6th Feb., 1613. It was followed at once by a resolution of the Company to trade on a joint-stock. £429,000 was raised as capital, and apportioned in fitting out four voyages for 1613, 1614, 1615, 1617. In 1617 and 1618 the Company was so enlarged as to include 954 proprietors, while a new joint-stock of £1,600,000 was subscribed. In 1619 a treaty was made with the Dutch, by which the two companies were to work in harmony for twenty years; but in 1629 the Dutch massacred the leading members of the English factory at Amboyna. In the feeble reigns of James and Charles I, however, the outrage remained unredressed, and the English Company, ill supported by the Crown, was often reduced to great straits. Their trade, impeded by the Dutch, became unprofitable, and, to add to their difficulties, Charles I in 1635 gave a licence to a rival company. At length, under Cromwell, the Company received a new charter. A territorial footing had been acquired in Madras in 1640, to which settlement was given the control of all the factories in Bengal and the Coromandel coast, the Supreme Council in India still remaining at Surat. A new charter, granted by Charles II in 1660, enlarged the powers of the Company, giving it political and judicial authority in the factories and colonies established by it, with the right to appoint governors. On the Revolution of 1688 the Company was involved in new difficulties, and in 1692 the Commons presented an address to the Crown praying for their dissolution. At this time, by an accidental failure to pay a tax upon their stock, the Company formally forfeited their charter, and were compelled to accept its renewal with the important proviso of a reservation to the Crown of the right to alter or modify its conditions. The maximum stock to be held by any individual was fixed at £10,000, every £1000 of which was to give a vote, while the right of membership was thrown open to all British subjects. The Scottish Parliament also sanctioned a company, but a war with Spain and the bitter opposition of the English Parliament made difficulties under which this company succumbed. Meantime the misconduct of the English company had so strengthened its enemies that, in spite of all its opposition, a resolution in favour of the formation of a new company passed the House of Commons on 4th May, 1698, and this company was actually constituted by Act 9 William III cap. xliv. This Act provided for the extinction of the old company, but an amalgamation was eventually arranged in 1708. The possessions of the old company at the time of amalgamation, upon which the valuation of £330,000 was placed
in 1700, included a large number of places in India, a footing having been by this time acquired in each of the three presidencies, besides possessions in Persia, Cochin-China, and Sumatra. The dividends of the Company rose rapidly after the amalgamation, and finally settled at 8 per cent; and it procured without difficulty, at various periods, a prolongation of its exclusive privileges until 1780, still with three years' notice. In the meantime the French possessions had, as well as the English, been growing in power and importance in the East, and on the outbreak of the war of the Austrian Succession in 1741 commenced those struggles (Clive being the first great English leader) by which a mercantile company was led on to establish British supremacy over nearly the whole of India. In 1766 the right of the Company to acquire territorial possessions formed a subject of parliamentary inquiry; and the question of the political rights of the Company being thus opened up, the ministry began to act on their view of it by sending out a Crown plenipotentiary to India. A regulating Act was passed in 1773 remodelling the powers of the Company, and placing it completely under the control of Parliament, providing for the establishment by the Crown of courts of judicature in India. The charter, which expired in 1780, was renewed till 1791. The Renewal Act provided that the Company, which was already bound to submit to the Government all dispatches received from India, should submit for approval all dispatches proposed to be transmitted thither. In 1784 another Act established a board, afterwards known as the Board of Control, to superintend, direct, and control all acts, operations, and concerns relating to the civil and military government or revenues of India. The board was to consist of a principal Secretary of State, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and four Privy Councillors nominated by the Crown. The directors of the Company were bound to submit all their papers except those referring to commercial matters to this board, and obey its instructions. From this time the political power of the Company was little more than nominal. While the right of nominating the servants of the Company was still left to the directors, the absolute right of recall was vested in the Crown. A subsequent Declaratory Bill regulated the power of the Board of Control to send out troops at the expense of the Company. In 1813 the charter was renewed on condition that the right of exclusive trade should be restricted to China, while the India trade should be thrown open to all British subjects. A Church establishment for India was also provided by this Act. The appointment of governors-general, governors, and commanders-in-chief was no longer to be valid without the direct sanction of the Crown. The renewal of the Company's charter in 1834 took place amid continued opposition to their mercantile, and even to their legislative privileges. It continued them in all their possessions except the Island of St. Helena, put an end to the exclusive right of trade with China, and enacted that the Company should with all convenient speed close their commercial business, and make sale of all their property not retained for Government purposes; all their other property was to be held in trust for the Crown, which was to take over their debts and guarantee their dividend out of the revenues of India. The stock was valued at £6,000,000, which was to bear interest at 10 per cent, and be redeemable after 30th April, 1874, on payment of £12,000,000. The Company was now fairly in liquidation, and on the outbreak of the mutiny of 1857 it was felt indispensable to vest the government of India directly in the Crown, and this was accordingly done in 1858. Henceforth the Company existed only for the purpose of receiving payment of its capital, and of the dividends due upon capital until its repayment.—Bibliography: J. Bruce, Annals of the East India Company; Sir W. W. Hunter, History of British India; W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Trade in Modern Times; J. Macpherson, The History and Management of the East India Company; W. Foster and F. C. Danvers, Letters received by the East India Company from its Servants in the East (6 vols.).
East Indies, the name loosely applied to Hindustan, the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and a portion of the Eastern Archipelago, but excluding the Philippine Islands, New Guinea, and Australia.
Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock, English painter, president of the Royal Academy, born at Plymouth 17th Nov., 1793, died at Pisa 23rd Dec., 1865. He studied at the Royal Academy, London, and at Paris. In 1817 he visited Italy and Greece, and painted besides other pictures his Pilgrims arriving in Sight of Rome. In 1830 he was elected member of the Royal Academy, and in 1850 became its president, receiving at the same time the honour of knighthood. From 1843 to 1847 he was keeper of the National Gallery, of which he was afterwards director for
about ten years. Sir Charles is also known as a writer on art by his Materials for a History of Oil-painting. Among his most noteworthy pictures are: Lord Byron's Dream (in the Tate Gallery), Greek Fugitives, Escape of the Carrara Family, Christ blessing Little Children, Christ lamenting over Jerusalem.
East London, a seaport on the east coast of Cape Province, at the mouth of the Buffalo River, now an important outlet for the produce of this region, connected by railway with Cape Town. Pop. 20,867.
East Main, a considerable river of Canada, having a westward course to James Bay, the southern extension of Hudson Bay, and forming the boundary between Quebec province and Ungava territory.
Easton, a city of Pennsylvania, United States, at the junction of the Delaware and Lehigh Rivers, 75 miles S.W. of New York. It contains iron-foundries, tanneries, and breweries. Pop. 32,000.
East River, a strait in New York State, separating New York from Brooklyn and connecting Long Island Sound with New York Bay, about 20 miles long. The Brooklyn Bridge, and the Williamsburg, Queensboro, and Manhattan Bridges now cross the river.
East St. Louis, a town of the United States, in Illinois, on the east bank of the Mississippi, opposite St. Louis, and connected with it by a great steel arch bridge and another bridge, carrying numerous lines of railway. Pop. 58,547.
Eastwood, a town of England, in Notts, on the Derbyshire border, with coal-mines, 8½ miles W.N.W. of Nottingham. Pop. 4692.
Eau (ō), a French word signifying water, and used in English with some other words for several spirituous waters, particularly perfumes, as eau de Cologne, and eau de Luce.—Eau de Cologne is a fragrant water, made originally and in most perfection in Cologne by a manufacturer named Farina, by whose successors the only genuine water is said still to be manufactured. It consists of spirits of wine flavoured by different essential oils blended so as to yield a fine fragrant scent. It was invented in Northern Italy by one of the Farina family, who afterwards settled in Cologne.—Eau Créole, a highly esteemed liqueur made in Martinique by distilling the flowers of the mammee apple with spirit of wine.—Eau de Luce ('water of Luce'), so called from the name of its inventor, is made by dissolving white soap in spirit of wine, and adding oil of amber and sal ammoniac. It is a milky fluid, antispasmodic and stimulant.—Eau de Vie ('water of life'), a term used by the French for the coarser kinds of brandy, cognac being the name of the best.
Eau Claire (ō klār), a city of Wisconsin, United States, at the junction of the Eau Claire and Chippewa Rivers, a great lumbering centre. In 1910 Eau Claire adopted the commission form of government, being the first city in the state to do so. Pop. 18,310.
Eaux-bonnes (ō-bon), a watering-place, France, department of Basses Pyrénées, about 25 miles south of Pau. The hot sulphur springs are said to have great efficacy in affections of the chest. Pop. 622.—Near it is Eaux Chaudes, also with warm springs.
E´bal, a mountain of Western Palestine about half-way between Jerusalem and Nazareth, on the north side of a narrow valley, on the south side of which and directly opposite stands Mt. Gerizim with Nablous almost between. Here the Israelites set up an altar on their entrance into the Holy Land and had the law solemnly read to them by Joshua (Jos. viii 30-35). At the east end of the valley are Jacob's Well and Joseph's Tomb.
Ebbsfleet, a hamlet in the Isle of Thanet, county Kent, memorable as the place where the first Anglo-Saxon invaders landed.
Ebbw-vale, a town of England, in Monmouthshire, with ironworks, steelworks, and collieries. Pop. 30,540.
Ebena´ceæ, a nat. ord. of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, consisting of trees and shrubs, of which the wood is very hard, and frequently of very dark colour in the centre, as ebony. The leaves are alternate, and generally coriaceous and shining; calyx gamosepalous and persistent, with three or six equal divisions; corolla with imbricated divisions. The fruit is a globular berry containing a small number of compressed seeds. The principal genus is Diospўros, which yields ebony and iron-wood.
Ebers (ā´bėrz), Georg Moritz, German Egyptologist and novelist, born 1st March, 1837, at Berlin, died in 1898. He studied at Göttingen, and afterwards at Berlin, where he devoted himself to Egyptology. In 1870 he was made professor at the University of Leipzig, but he had to resign in 1889. In 1869 and 1870 he travelled extensively in Egypt and Nubia. Two years later he again visited Egypt, where he discovered the medical papyrus, known as the Papyrus Ebers. His most important works have been translated into English, such as Egypt, Descriptive, Historical, and Picturesque; and the novels An Egyptian Princess, Uarda, Homo Sum, The Emperor, The Sisters, all dealing with old Egyptian life; The Burgomaster's Wife, and Only a Word.
Eberswalde (ā´berz-va˙l-de), a town in Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, on the Finow Canal, 27 miles north-east of Berlin. It has a school of forestry, piscicultural establishment, botanic gardens, well-frequented mineral springs, and industrial works of various kinds. Pop. 26,064.