Mr. Nicholson's Prize Essay.
On a Rotation of Crops, and the most profitable mode of collecting, preserving, and applying Manures.
(Communicated to the Albany County Agricultural Society.)
[CONTINUED.]
In the spring of the third year, we propose to sow the ground with barley, after two or three ploughings—seed, two and a half bushels to the acre. At the same time also, give the ground at least 12 pounds of red clover seed to the acre, which may be carefully mixed with the barley, and sown together. Harrow the ground before sowing, and harrow in the seed, after it has been prepared in the manner before directed; then, if the farmer is in possession of the roller, let this be passed over the ground, particularly if it be somewhat dry; for, in such case, barley, being covered with a husk, requires a close envelopement with earth, in order that the progress of its germination be not either partially or wholly retarded. Next spring give the ground a top dressing of gypsum, of from one to two bushels to the acre, as circumstances may seem to require.—Two clover crops are to be expected this season. The next, either one or two may be taken, according to the climate, but usually one only in more northerly regions; and in this case let the second growth be laid prostrate, by the roller passing over it in the same direction in which the plough is to follow, in order that the growth may be carefully turned under, which will form an excellent lay for winter wheat, or for rye, if the climate is not adapted to the growth of the former crop. In suitable climates, wheat will succeed on a good clover lay even on light sandy lands. It is believed, however, that the species of wheat which is considerably cultivated in Pennsylvania, called spelt, (triticum spelta) may be successfully cultivated in any part of the northern states where wheat of the common sorts do not flourish.—When the sward has thus been turned under, let the surface be levelled by running the harrow lightly over it, in the same direction in which the plough runs, and then cover the seed with the harrow, run in a similar direction. Let the seed wheat be prepared in the manner before described, and let it be free from any mixture of rye, or the seeds of cockle, or other weeds. Next spring give the ground another top dressing of gypsum, in order that a growth of white clover may rise after harvest, as this will afford considerable fall feed, and a fresh sward to be turned under in the latter part of the fall, the effect of which will be explained when speaking of manures, &c.
Thus our rotation requires six seasons for its completion, and is composed of six or more different and successive crops. In exhibiting our plan, we intend it merely as an outline of what we deem at least one of the best and most profitable systems of culture that can be pursued in good arable lands, where all obstructions to the most complete culture have been removed.—Other courses may probably be devised which may be as good, but we feel confident there can be none better. We consider this rotation as comprehending a sufficient variety of crops for every purpose of affording the land rest by changes; and although a course of rotation might be made to include a greater variety of crops, still the profits of them in the aggregate, would probably be less than in the plan we propose. We insist much on the culture of root crops for the greatest possible profits. In some instances the growths of roots and vines we propose, as well as of the grain crops, might be substituted for others, and sometimes, for the sake of further variety of growths, particularly of roots, it might be advisable; all this must, however, depend on the soil, and on other circumstances. If the soil be rich and deep, perhaps the mangel wurzel, should have a preference to the common turnip, and the pumpkin, in the first years crop, and perhaps in such soil the cabbage culture should sometimes come in for a share.
We should hardly advise that crops of carrots or of parsnips should ever enter the list of a general rotation of crops, as they require peculiar soils, and uncommon preparation. They are very valuable crops for particular purposes, but their uses for feeding and fatting cattle seem to be in a great measure superseded by the less expensive culture of the crops before-mentioned. There are, however some mellow fertile soils, of sandy texture, where these roots, particularly carrots, may be cultivated with great advantage. A very serious objection to the culture of parsnips is, that in the soils most suitable for them they extend so deeply that their extraction from the earth is a matter of no small difficulty.
In recommending the alternate culture of the pumpkin with the corn crop, we have been influenced by two considerations; firstly, from an account we have lately seen of a trial made of the culture of the large sort of pumpkin by itself, in which at the rate of 25 tons to the acre were raised; and, secondly we are of opinion that in cultivating the crop in the way we propose, nearly as great a product may be obtained as if the ground were planted entirely with this crop.—Growing in drills by itself it will not impede the growth of the corn, nor do we conceive that this crop will be injured by the extension of the pumpkin vines over the ground; whereas if the two crops were planted together in the same hills, or drills, as is commonly practised, the growth of the one must, in a great measure, serve to rob the other of its due share of nutriment. The large sort of pumpkin, to which we have reference, has been raised of the weight of upwards of 150 pounds, but it is probably less nutritious, because less sweet, than pumpkins of the common sorts. Another large sort, which we have seen exhibited in this county, of more than four feet in length, is probably entitled to a preference for culture, as it appears to be as sweet as pumpkins of the smaller kinds.
In selecting seed for the pumpkin crop, take such plants as bear the greatest weight of pumpkins, and from the largest of these let the seed be preserved.
We have next to speak of the rotations proper for clayey lands, or those which have more or less alumin in their composition. Lands of this description are various, as well in regard to their natural fertility, as to their being more or less inclined to a superabundance of moisture. Some are naturally too wet for cultivating even grain crops with success, and should therefore be kept for mowing and grazing lands. Some again may be merely too wet for crops of winter grain, and in such case spring crops should be substituted, while at the same time the lands should be more applied to the business of the dairy, and of the grazier. In the mean time, let the possessor of lands which are naturally too wet, proceed to laying at least a part of them dry, by hollow drains; and then by making his barn dung principally into heaps of compost, in which lime and sand shall be considerably used as additional ingredients, and applying such compost manure to the drilled crops before-mentioned, and in the manner before directed, he will find no difficulty whatever in pursuing the course of crops we have recommended, nor of raising them of luxuriant growth. Where clayey lands are naturally dry enough for winter crops, we advise to a similar course of crops, with the manure prepared and used in a similar manner. In all stiff soils, however, an important point in husbandry, is to keep the ground, while under a course of crops, in a mellow crumbly state; and for this purpose nothing is more conducive than frequent deep ploughings, and raising the ground into high narrow ridges, as well to lie in that state during winter, as for the culture of all the drilled crops in particular. The ridges are to be formed by four gathering furrows, and in cleaving the ridges down new ones are formed with the middle or highest part of each where the last furrows were of the former ridges. When, therefore, the manure is to be used for the drilled crop, it is to be laid in the furrows, between the ridges, and then covered over with two gathering furrows run on each side, and thus the beds or ridges for the crop prepared.
If, however, it should still be found that some clays, even with this management for the purpose of ameliorating them, should still be found unsuitable for Indian corn, and for the turnip and ruta baga crops, we can only advise that, for the former, the Windsor bean, and for the two latter the mangle wurzel and the cabbage crop, be made substitutes. The Windsor bean is considerably cultivated in the clay lands of Great Britain; and Mr. Deane, in his Farmer's Dictionary, says its growth on such lands in this country is luxuriant. Perhaps in place of this species of the bean, another, which is cultivated in the southern states, and is there called the cow pea, should be prefered.
It should be further observed, that gypsum, when applied as a top dressing to clay lands, particularly those which are too wet, has but very little effect; but when they are laid dry by hollow drains, and thrown into ridges as before-mentioned, the effect of this manure upon them is nearly the same as in other dry arable lands.—And as we conceive it essentially necessary that all clay lands which are to be cultivated for spring crops, as well as all other soils which are naturally too wet, should lie in ridges during the winter, we advise that, at the beginning of the rotation we have mentioned, such lands have a second ploughing in the fall, for the purpose of being laid in such ridges. When thus laid they are easily reduced to a mellow state in the spring; but if this be neglected, they will usually be found, more or less, in hard baked clods, a state very unfit for good cultivation.
In Great Britain it is found essentially requisite that clay lands should be effectually summer fallowed as often as every sixth year; as well for the purpose of extirpating growths of weeds, as for mellowing the soil, and rendering it more lively. A fallowing there is performed by many repeated ploughings and harrowings during the summer. But it should be remembered that the climate of that country is very different from this. Their wheat harvest is in autumn, their summers being wet and cool. Here we have time after the harvest is over to cleanse and enliven the soil by repeated ploughings and harrowings.
On hard gravelly lands, which are unfit for any crops of roots, except perhaps potatoes, no very extensive rotation can be had to advantage without plentiful manuring. Gypsum has a powerful effect on such lands, and with the aid of this manure alone even the poorest of gravels may be made to yield good crops of buckwheat and of red clover; and on a lay of this latter crop turned under, a tolerable good crop of rye may be had. St. Foin, and some other tap rooted grasses, flourish in such soils better than might be expected. Gravelly lands require very deep and frequent ploughings, in order to make them sufficiently retentive of moisture. They are usually much assisted by compost manures where clay, mud, upland marl, &c. form a considerable share of the ingredients. But as there are different degrees of fertility in gravelly lands, according to the nature of the gravel, and its greater or less predominance in the soil, we can lay down no definite course of crops that in all cases would be found most advisable. Say, however, that with effectual deep ploughings, and plenty of suitable manure for the drills, the first crop shall be Indian corn, intermixed with the potato and the pumpkin growths, as before-mentioned; next spring, oats, or barley, if the ground will answer for this crop. As soon as this crop comes off, turn the stubble under, and harrow in buckwheat for a green dressing, in the manner mentioned in treating of manures, and on this growth, turned under, sow rye, if the ground is too gravelly for wheat. Sow the clover seed the next spring, in the quantity before-mentioned, and then harrow the ground, which will serve the purpose of covering the seed, and also of assisting the growth of the crop of wheat, or rye, as the case may be. The advantage derived from harrowing these crops in the spring has been well ascertained by experiment. After the second year's growth of clover has been fed or mowed off, turn over the ground in the fall to commence the rotation anew.
When we speak of gravelly lands, we do not mean to include those which are, properly speaking gravelly loams; for soils of this description are generally well fitted for the rotation first mentioned. By gravelly lands we mean those where gravel is mostly predominant, as we call those lands sandy where silex forms the greatest proportion of the soil, and of these something is now to be said.
As a specimen of what may be called light sandy lands we will refer to much of those lying between Albany and Schenectady. These, like the gravelly lands just mentioned, are not, in their natural state, calculated for the production of many different crops in perfection, nor indeed for any without manure. With the aid of gypsum alone, however, good crops of peas, and of buckwheat, may be had on most of these lands, tolerable of red clover, and on the lay of clover turned under, middling crops of rye may be had. Probably, with this manure, valuable crops of pumpkins might be raised on them. Lands of this description have, however, very essential properties, which gravelly lands do not possess; they are much easier cultivated than the harder soils, and, in proportion to their natural fertility, no lands are better adapted for root crops of almost every sort, or for the grasses whose roots extend deep into the earth, among which are clover of different kinds, St. Foin, Lucerne, &c.—Such lands are least adapted for crops of wheat and Indian corn; but when sufficiently manured with clay, or upland marle, which is better, they will yield tolerable crops of the latter, and also of the former, when raised on a lay of red clover.
Where little else than the contents of the barn yard and gypsum can be had for manuring sandy lands of the above description, the common turnip and ruta baga culture would not, perhaps, be advisable, but the rotation should be something like the following: First year, potatoes and pumpkins in alternate drills, manured and treated as before described; second, peas, soaked in the solution before-mentioned, and rolled in gypsum before sowing, with a top dressing of that manure; third, buckwheat, treated in the same manner, and clover seed sown with the crop; third and fourth, clover, with a top dressing of gypsum each spring; fifth, rye, on the clover turned under, as before described, which completes the course.
But where upland marle, or even clay, can be had, for the purpose of forming compost manures with the barn dung and the addition of some lime, as is described under manures, &c. we should advise to the rotation first described, or something similar, in which the root crops should form a prominent part; and in such case, let the manure be plentifully applied to the drilled crops. At first, perhaps, some of the crops would not be so abundant; but under this management the soil would be constantly improving, and of course the crops increasing. At first, perhaps, rye should be substituted for the wheat crop, but each addition to the soil of the caluminous and calcarious matter, of which the compost is principally composed, would render the land better adapted for grain crops of every description.
It is a matter of the first importance to the cultivator to possess an adequate knowledge of the different substances which may be used with advantage for fertilizing his land, of the different soils to which such substances are best adapted, of the proper quantities to be used, and of the most advantageous time and manner of their application. There is but little even of the richest earths that will not become exhausted with constant cropping without manure; and soils are seldom so sterile, but that with a proper application of suitable manures to them, they may be made the residence of plenty.
Manures are of different kinds: of animal, of vegetable, of fossil, and of mixed; of each of which notice will be taken in their order.
The flesh of animals is an excellent manure for all soils, and is used to a considerable extent on the sea coast, where fish are caught in plenty. It is believed that flesh is used to most advantage in composts, and the same may be observed with more certainty in regard to the use of the blood. The shavings of the horney substances of animals, have very desirable effects as a manure, in dry soil, by enduing such with a greater power to retain moisture: and the same may also be observed of the hair and wool. The bones, when calcined, are also valuable, as they are principally phosphate of lime. The miasma, produced by the putrefaction of the flesh and blood of animals, is also food for plants, or at least its presence assists their growth. The urine is a fertilizer principally by reason of the salt it contains, and probably also by its producing miasma.
When animals die, it is usual to let them lie above ground, to the annoyance of the public; but, if covered with earth, this together with the flesh, &c. of the animal, would be converted into good manure.
Of vegetable substances, it may be generally observed, that almost every sort of vegetable, not of woody texture, buried in the soil while green, is more or less efficacious as a manure; and that many sorts of these, when turned under where they grew, and while in a green state, will add much more fertility to the soil than their growth extracted from it; but that the same growth, when suffered to ripen on the ground, and then turned under, after the exhaustion of its juices, will not generally repay the soil the nutriment it extracted from it while growing. It would seem that the ripening of plants is the principal cause of the exhaustion of soils, and, for this reason, green dressings, that is, ploughing of green crops under, has been found advantageous in enriching lands. Where green dressings are resorted to, as a manure, such growth should be selected for the purpose as are cheap in the article of seed, and at the same time quick and bulky in their growths. Buckwheat has been much used for the purpose, though perhaps some other plants should be preferred. The growth should be turned under when in blossom; and, in order that this be done effectually, it should be laid prostrate, by running the roller over it, in the same direction in which the plough is to follow; after which, the ground should not be stirred again till this manure has sufficiently rotted. Generally, we think it would be most advisable to sow on the lay or furrow, by which the green crop is turned under.
There may be some instances where manuring with green dressings may be advisable, particularly where it can be done without preventing the growth of any intervening crop: Where this is not practicable, we should hardly advise to this method of manuring, unless in cases where other manures were not to be obtained. One case we will however mention, where a green dressing might be given to advantage. Suppose, for instance, a crop of rye, oats, or barley, harvested, and the ground cleared of the crop by the 20th of July; in that case, let the stubble be immediately turned under, and the ground harrowed in with buckwheat; by the 20th of September this growth would be fit to be turned under, when a crop of wheat might be sown on the lay. It should be understood, that rye is one of the best crops to precede a crop of wheat, or to follow it. In the same manner, therefore, the crop for a green dressing may be raised in the wheat stubble turned under, and the green crop turned under for a crop of rye.
But the contents of the barn-yard, and the excrements of cattle, are the principal sources of manure of the vegetable kind; and of these it is necessary to treat particularly, as well of the qualities of the different sorts, as of their most advantageous applications to soils. The sorts of dung or excrement to be noticed, are those of horses, neat cattle, sheep, and swine. The dung of swine is most valuable, where properly applied; that of sheep is the next; that of cows ranges in the third degree, and that of horses in the fourth. The dung of the latter, if suffered to lie in a heap till it becomes thoroughly heated, assumes a white, or mouldy colour, and is then of but little value. It is of a warm nature, and is best adapted for being well buried in moist or clayey soils; cow dung on the contrary, is most suitable for dry soils; sheep dung answers best on the soils for which that of horses is best suited, but is very valuable for almost any soil. Hog dung should only be applied to dry arable lands, and is most powerful in those of a sandy or gravelly nature. Dung, of all sorts, loses much of its valuable qualities by exposure to frequent rains, particularly when lying at but little depth over a considerable surface. Its good qualities are best preserved by lying in large heaps, and if under cover so much the better. The stercorary is the most effectual method for preserving barn dung, and it is believed that every farmer will find his money well expended in the erection of this receptacle for the contents of that part of his barn-yard, which is not used in the spring. The stercorary may serve for a sheep fold during winter, and will thus answer a two fold purpose. It may be, for instance, 40 feet in length, 16 in breadth, and of suitable height. The floor is to be made of a layer of clay, with the surface smoothly paved with small stones, and highest in the middle, so that the juices of the dung may run off to the sides, where a gutter receives this liquid, and carried it into a reservoir, sunk at one end, into which a pump is to be fixed to raise the liquid and throw it back over the heap. The floor, gutter, and reservoir, are on a plan similar to those of a cider press. The liquid that runs from the heap is the most valuable part, and should never be lost: this plan is therefore calculated to preserve it; and, for the purpose of absorbing the whole of it, any dry vegetable matter, or rich earth, may be laid over the heap, and this liquid thrown on that, which will serve to convert the whole into good manure. The juices and the soluble and gaseous parts of the excrements of cattle, together with the stale, are what principally affords nutriment for growing plants; and every means by which these can be saved, by their being absorbed in other substances, of rich earthy or vegetable matter, would seem to be well worthy of attention. We will next designate what is usually considered the methods most proper for the application of dung.
Where lands are in grasses of the fibrous rooted kinds, it is the generally received opinion of the best cultivators, that barn dung, as well as every other kind, should be applied as a top dressing, that is, by spreading it on the surface; but that for tap rooted grasses, or those whose roots extend deeply, as well as for all grain and root crops, this manure should be buried in the soil, at such depths as are best suited to the nature of the roots of the plants to be cultivated. The operation of barn dung, and of all vegetable and animal substances used in manure, seems to be this: If laid at a certain depth beneath the surface of the soil, in the progress of their decomposition their soluble parts pass into the form of gas, or vapour, and of course rise to the surface, and in their ascent are more or less absorbed by the roots of the plants; on the contrary, if these manures be laid on the surface, these soluble parts, in the progress of decomposition, never become aeriform, but are washed downwards, in their liquid state, where they are in like manner absorbed by the roots of the plants. This is probably as correct an explanation as can be given of the effect of these manures. It is well known, that ground long used as a graveyard, becomes very fertile, notwithstanding the substances which are the cause of such fertility, are laid at a very great depth.
It has been held by some English writers that barn dung should be well rotted previous to its application as a manure, but this opinion is rejected by Sir Humphrey Davy, one of the most scientific agriculturists of Great Britain, and also by Arthur Young, Esq. Mr. Davy contends that this manure may in most instances be as well applied fresh as in any other way, by its being laid at a proper depth beneath the surface, and that in scarcely any instance it is advisable that it should undergo more than the first stage of decomposition before it is used. When well rotted it is, however, more efficacious for a single crop, but its use is of much shorter duration. It seems, also, to be generally agreed that using this manure for drill crops, burying it at a good depth, and raising the plants over the dung thus buried, is the best possible way in which it can be used. We lately saw an account published of upwards of 100 bushels of Indian corn to the acre being raised by this mode of culture. The success of Mr. Cobbett, and others, in raising great crops of ruta baga by this method of using this manure, seems to demonstrate its utility, if evidence was wanting further than what appears in English publications on the subject.
The plan that we would therefore recommend, is, to apply the fresh barn dung to all drill crops which are to be put in the ground in the spring, and for these we refer to what has been said under rotation of crops. The shortest dung should be used for these purposes, except for potatoes, and it should, as far as practicable, be applied to the soils best adapted for each kind of dung, as has before been mentioned. The longer or more strawey parts of the dung we should advise to be laid in the stercorary, if this building has been provided, or else somewhere under cover; or if no cover can be afforded, let it be thrown into a heap about 3 or 4 feet high; and wherever it be laid let it be stirred up from the bottom in the course of about five or six weeks after it has thus been heaped or otherwise stored away, after which it will soon be found well fitted for being used for the crop of ruta baga. It is also advisable to cover the heap with a layer of good earth, which will serve to absorb and retain much of the steam or gaseous matter that rises from the heap, and when saturated with this, and mixed with the mass of dung, will be found a valuable addition.
(To be continued.)