REMARKS.
In this mode it is intended that every two feet of ground should bear one plant: and as an acre contains 43,560 square feet, there will be half of that number of plants on an acre, and the roots must weigh nearly five pounds each, on an average, to yield forty-eight tons. The land must indeed be strong to produce so heavy a crop. If our lands, enriched and prepared in the best manner conveniently in our power, can be made to yield half as much, we shall have reason to be satisfied: especially as the Mangel Wurtzel, quantity for quantity, contains more than twice as much nutritive matter as the Ruta Baga, and even 50 per cent. more than Carrots; according to the experiments (by analysis) of a celebrated English Chymist, Sir Humphrey Davy, which he stated to the British Board of Agriculture. These experiments were made with the red and white Beets; but it is presumed that the Mangel Wurtzel produces as much nutriment as any other Beet.
Instead of 6 it may be advisable to apply at least 12 cubit yards (that is 6 such cart loads as were before-mentioned) of manure to an acre; and to distribute the same in deep furrows 4 feet apart. This would give four square feet of ground to each plant, the plants being at a foot distance one from another in the rows, four feet apart, would admit the use of the common horse plough in their cultivation.
Carrots and the Mangel Wurtzel possess one eminent advantage; that they are not, to my knowledge, annoyed by insects at any period of their growth. Whereas the Ruta Baga and other turnips, while in the seed leaf, are injured (in England whole fields are often destroyed) by a small black fly: and the Ruta Baga (like cabbages) when far advanced in growth, is sometimes infested, and in dry seasons half ruined, by plant lice; as was my small crop in 1818.
The Mangel Wurtzel also possesses one peculiar advantage above all other root crops, that as soon as the tops or leaves, are full grown, they may be stripped off (leaving only the small heart-leaves uninjured) and given to cattle and swine.—This stripping may be repeated once or twice; and it is said that the roots thrive better for the stripping. If not stripped off many of the under leaves perish. The leaves are pronounced excellent for increasing the richness and quantity of milk in cows; and so are calculated to supply the deficiency of herbage in the common pastures, which generally fail, more or less, by the beginning of August. An acre twice stripped will yield several tons of leaves.
The Ruta Baga. This root may be cultivated in the manner just described for the Mangel Wurtzel; the ground being prepared in the same manner. In England, they appear to be most commonly grown in rows 27 inches apart, with the plants at a foot distance in the rows. But William Cobbett, who in a small book, published in New York, has minutely described his own practice, both in England and America, asserts, that the largest crops are attainable by growing the Ruta Baga in rows four feet apart, with the plants about 10 inches or a foot distant from each other in the rows: and in this mode of culture, he has raised, in England, 30 tons to the acre.
For this mode of culture, the manure, being deposited in furrows 4 feet apart, is covered by 4 back furrows, 2 on one side and 2 on the other, of each line of manure; by which little ridges are formed: and if the ploughing be deep (as it ought to be) there will be a deep gutter between every two ridges.—The tops of the ridges being made fine with a light harrow, or with rakes, the seeds are sown with a drilling machine; or by hand, which Mr. Cobbett says he prefers to a drill. Two men sowed for him 7 acres in 3 days, using about 4 pounds of seed, in this manner; a man went along by the side of each ridge, and put down 2 or 3 seeds in places at about 10 inches from each other, just drawing a little earth over, and pressing it on the seed, in order to make it vegetate quickly, before the earth became too dry. But, he adds, the 7 acres might have been sown by one man in a day, by just scattering the seeds along on the top of the ridge, where they might have been buried with a rake, and pressed down with a spade or shovel, or other flat instrument. But he used a light roller, to take two ridges at once, the horse walking in the gutter between.
The time of sowing the seeds must vary with the climate. On Long Island, (state of New York) Mr. Cobbett's trials of one year led him to prefer the 26th of June; but in our own county, I would not pass the middle of that month. Indeed I think it expedient (in order to ascertain the fittest time) to commence sowing the seed as soon as the ground can be prepared after the planting of Indian corn, and to continue to sow, in small plots, weekly, until the middle of June.
As soon as the plants are fairly up, hoes and the fingers are to be used, taking out all the plants but 1 in each 10 or 12 inches. As soon as weeds appear, hoeing is to commence; hoeing the tops of the ridges to the width of about 6 inches, showing the plants distinct and clean. Then the plough is introduced, taking a furrow from the side of one ridge, going up the field, a furrow from the other ridge coming down, then another furrow from the same side of the first ridge going up, and another furrow from the same side of the other ridge coming down. In taking away the last two furrows, you go within three inches of the turnip plants. Thus a ridge is formed over the original gutter. The next process is, to turn these furrows back again to the turnips. This hoeing and ploughing is to be repeated, when the appearance of the weeds requires it; and afterwards, the few weeds which may rise are to be hoed or pulled up. In this way, Mr. Cobbett thinks, a thousand bushels of Ruta Baga may be raised on an acre that will yield 50 bushels of Indian corn.
In describing the culture of the Mangel Wurtzel, transplanting was mentioned, to fill vacant places. The same may be practised with the Ruta Baga. But unless those vacant spots be dug afresh, the transplanted roots will be much inferiour to their transplanted neighbours; as I found in my last year's experiment. And Mr. Cobbett mentions the like difference in his practice.—At the same time he strongly recommends the raising of the Ruta Baga, by transplanting, for entire crops, as for preferable to the sowing of the seeds, and letting the plants grow where their seeds first vegetated. But then he considers it indispensable to perform this transplanting on ground fresh ploughed. And by sowing the seeds in beds, to raise plants, as we do for cabbages, a month's more time is allowed to prepare the ground for their reception. In the work of transplanting, the plain dibble before described is a necessary instrument. The hole made by it must be fully as deep as the length of the root; and this being introduced (taking care in putting it into the hole not to bend its point) the dibble is thrust down by its side, and by a dexterous twist, or circular motion of the hand, the earth is pressed close against the root, in its whole length. The largest crop of Ruta Baga he ever raised in England, Mr. Cobbett says, was by transplanting, on 17 acres, which produced 33 tons to the acre; the rows (on ridges) 4 feet asunder, and the plants a foot asunder in the rows.
In this mode of raising the Ruta Baga, by transplanting the entire crop, so much time is gained for preparing the ground, that two crops of weeds may be destroyed, by that number of ploughings; the first in the beginning of June, and the second immediately before transplanting. But Mr. Cobbett recommends a previous deep fall-ploughing, and another deep ploughing in April, of the ground intended for the Ruta Baga. The like two deep ploughings will be equally proper and beneficial for the Mangel Wurtzel and Carrots.
Among the advantages of the transplanting method, mentioned by Mr. Cobbett, one is, that it "saves almost the whole of the after culture. There is no hoeing, no thinning of the plants; and not more than one ploughing between the ridges."
Harvesting of Roots. The Mangel Wurtzel, growing chiefly above the surface, and thus exposed to frost, should be taken up the latter end of October or beginning of November, according to the nature of the season. The harvesting of Carrots may follow that of the Mangel Wurtzel; and the Ruta Baga succeed the Carrots. In the first experimental culture of the roots, in which but small quantities are raised, they can be preserved in dry cellars not liable to freezing. Where large quantities are raised, they may be deposited in heaps, sufficiently covered, in a dry field. The common method of heaping and covering roots in the field, and which Mr. Cobbett practised with the Ruta Baga, is perhaps, as good as any. Holes of a round or square form are dug about a foot deep, and about fifty bushels are put into each, piling up the roots above the level of the surface of the land, sloping to the top: then covering them with straw, throw earth over the whole to a depth sufficient to guard them from frost. Smooth the surface of this earth by beating it close with the back of a spade, or other instrument, the better to cast off rain. On Long Island and in Pennsylvania, a covering of earth, a foot or 15 inches deep has been found sufficient. A greater depth will probably be necessary here. In throwing up this cover, a trench will be formed on all sides of the heap, to receive the water running off it. It may be well to sink the bottom of the trench lower than the bottom of the hole in which the roots are deposited. Where large quantities are to be thus preserved, several loads may be put into one hole: and then oblong heaps will be best as requiring less labour in covering them. A quantity of roots, for feeding cattle till the middle of December, may be kept in a barn or stable covered with straw or any dry litter. I would begin feeding with Mangel Wurtzel—follow next with Carrots—and conclude with Ruta Baga; for the latter root will keep sound until the commencement of the summer succeeding their growth.
All the roots, especially the Mangel Wurtzel and Carrots, should be fully dried before they are housed, or covered in the field, to guard them against rotting.
Roots for raising Seed. Of the Mangel Wurtzel I would select large and fair roots of a red colour, whose bodies have grown most above ground, and with a moderate, if not the smallest, quantity of leaves; for although these are valuable for stripping, the roots are much more valuable; and I am inclined to think those with small tops are least liable to rot.
Of Carrots, large and fair roots of the deepest yellow colour, and with the smallest tops in proportion to the size of the roots, are to be preferred.
With regard to the Ruta Baga, Mr. Cobbett says, it is apt to degenerate, if the seed be not saved with care. "We in England (said he) examine well to find out those that run least into neck and green. We reject all such as approach at all towards a whitish colour, or which are even of a greenish colour towards the neck, which there ought to be a little of a reddish cast."
Varieties of plants of the same kind (the different sorts of cabbages, for instance, or of Indian corn) if growing near together and bearing seed, will impart to one another their respective peculiarities, and injuriously, whenever it is desired to preserve their distinct qualities unmixed, and to prevent an inferiour engendering with one of a superiour quality; the impregnating dust of the flowers of plants falling on the flowers of other plants of the same kind, producing effects similar to the crossing of animals of the same kind but of different breeds. In a word, the sexual system exists in plants as well as among animals; only in plants the male and female are generally united in the same plant; as in Indian corn, the male impregnating dust (the farina) is in the tassel or flower, at the top: the ear is the female, and from every cell of the future grain proceeds a thread, which together constitute what is called the silk, on which the farina falling causes the cells to fill, and become, when ripe, kernels of corn. In most fruits, as the apple and pear, the male and female are in the same flower. But in hemp, some of the plants are exclusively male, and others exclusively female.
The Ruta Baga, therefore, when set out for bearing seed, should be placed at a distance from every other seed plant of the Turnip or Cabbage kind. So likewise the Mangel Wurtzel intended to bear seed, should not be set near any other seed beet plants. It may not be amiss to add, that for the same reasons, pumpkins, squashes, melons, cucumbers, in all their varieties, in order to preserve them in purity, should be planted at some distance from each other.
Pumpkins, as food for domestic animals, seem closely connected with the roots before-mentioned. Every farmer knows their value for milk cows, for fattening cattle, and for swine. Their consumption conveniently precedes that of the Mangel Wurtzel.
With ample supplies of the Vegetables whose culture I have mentioned and described, our present Stocks may be better fed, their numbers enlarged, our coarse fodder be more advantageously consumed, our manure increased, and pork and beef and the products of the dairy, probably doubled. The latter, in particular, are miserably deficient, from the want of juicy food for cows, in continuance of the supply yielded by our common pastures just at midsummer. Pumpkins and the roots, indeed, will not be ready to keep up that supply; but oats and barley, and above all Indian corn, may be sown and planted, to be cut green, and carry along our cows to the last of September, when pumpkins will begin to ripen. The consumption of these green crops and roots, by producing vast additions to our manure, will enable us to enrich our fields, and to make annual additions to the products of our farms.
The immense importance of providing for cows a full supply of food, and of food which they relish, to the extent of their appetites, has been demonstrated by many examples of very large products of milk, butter and cheese, from cows so supplied. The following statement from a recent English publication, is a further illustration of the fact:—"A farmer, some years since, kept eighteen cows upon a Common, and was often obliged to buy butter for his family. The Common was enclosed, (which deprived the farmer of his pasture,) and the same person supplied his family amply with milk and butter, from four cows well kept."
III. On Indian Corn and Winter Grain.
The ancient, and to this day the general practice, in cultivating Indian corn, has been to plant it in squares, and in the course of its growth to draw up earth about the stems of the plants, forming hills; under the idea of supporting them against strong winds; but the necessity or utility of this practice has long been doubted. I have sometimes cultivated Indian corn without raising any hills about the plants; and, from the result, am satisfied that hills are not necessary. If, indeed, winter wheat, or rye, is to be sown among the corn, at its last dressing, I think the hilling must be injurious; for the richer mould being drawn up into hills, the intervals are robbed of what is requisite to produce an even crop.
I am aware that some intelligent farmers consider it bad husbandry to sow winter grain among Indian corn—to double-crop the ground. But if this be rich, and in fine tilth by deep ploughing before the corn crop is put in, and good and clean tillage accompanying its growth, I can perceive no solid objection to the practice. With us, the early sowing of winter grain is of the first importance, to insure a full crop, early ripe, and most secure from mildew. The husbandry of Mr. Ducket, already described, justifies the practice. I know it is already common amongst us; but without the deep tillage which enabled him to put in seven crops with only four ploughings. With such complete tillage, of a soil so enriched as to yield forty or fifty bushels of Indian corn to the acre, grown on a level, without hills or ridges; and if, in harvesting the corn, it be cut close to the ground; I see no reason why grass seeds may not properly be sown on the winter grain, in the spring. In this way, may be obtained a crop of Indian corn the first year—a crop of wheat or rye the second year—and hay the third and fourth years; and all from one deep ploughing, and a handsome culture of the Indian corn.
By the early sowing of winter grain among Indian corn, it quickly vegetates, and sends forth numerous branches; and soon covering the ground, prevents or checks the growth of weeds. Probably, too, the plants, acquiring so much strength by early sowing (for the roots must multiply and extend in proportion to the growth above ground) are less liable to be winter-killed.
IV. On Live Stock.
I have now to present to your notice the other of the three celebrated English Farmers, described by Arthur Young—Mr. Bakewell—the most distinguished improver of live stock, on principles of his own, in Great Britain. "The principles he began upon (says Mr. Young) were fine forms, small bones, and a true disposition to make readily fat, which is indeed inseparable from small bones, or rather fine bones, and fine forms, or true symmetry of the parts." Before Bakewell's day, the rules which governed Breeders of Live Stock, Mr. Young pronounces a tissue "of absurdities."
He began his improvements of sheep, by selecting from the best in his neighbourhood. And so little had any correct principle of improvement been known, or regarded, that a guinea or half a guinea extraordinary would give Mr. Bakewell the choice of any sheep in any flock. And his uncommon sagacity enabled him, by the best selections and judicious crossings, to form a breed distinguished above all others, for the disposition to fatten, early maturity, a form indicating strength of constitution, weight in the most valuable parts, with lightness of offals. Mr. Young expresses his opinion, that there is not a breed of any sort of live stock in Great Britain, that does not derive its improvement from the skill, knowledge and principles of Mr. Bakewell. Another eminent Agriculturalist declares, (and Mr. Young does not think he exaggerates) "that Mr. Bakewell enabled those who followed his ideas, to produce two pounds of mutton where only one was produced before."
Mr. Young adds, that Bakewell was the most careful feeder of stock that he ever met with, and who made his food go the farthest. To horses and cattle in stalls, he did not permit more than a handful of hay to be given at a time; and the same economy was used in all other feeding.—But his stocks were so large as to require one or more persons to be appropriated to that service. This practice, in our small farms and with our small stocks, cannot be fully adopted; but it may be imitated, in some degree, during the season (winter) most requiring such attention. By feeding them in this manner, the cattle will doubtless eat more, but they will waste less; so that while, in the whole, no more fodder will be consumed, the stock will be put into much better plight.
Cleanliness, also, will materially contribute to the health and thriving of stock. The common cattle-stalls of our country are so ill contrived, and so straitened in their dimensions, that the cattle are constrained to lie down, in part in their own dung. This dries and forms a thick coat on their hind quarters, from which they are not relieved till they shed their hair in the spring. They are thus rendered uncomfortable; to be uncomfortable is to suffer some degree of pain; and no one will suppose that animals in pain can thrive, or preserve their plight, with the same food, equally with others perfectly at ease. Even hogs, though prone to wallow in the mire, in warm weather, are always pleased with a dry bed, and thrive best when kept clean. I have some where read an account of an experiment made with two, confined in separate pens, and fed exactly alike: one was suffered to be constantly foul with the mire of his sty; the other, washed every day, and kept clean, far outstripped the former in thriving.
It may be useful to add some further information on Live Stock, from the writings of Sir John Sinclair, President of the British Board of Agriculture. He proposed to a gentleman in England,[10] who is eminent for his knowledge and accurate observations relative to plants and animals, some questions concerning Live Stock. In one of his answers, he says—"I have found the food animals generally require, to keep them in proper condition, is much more nearly proportioned to their height and length, than to their weight." In confirmation of this opinion, he adds, that one of his neighbours made a comparative experiment with the Devon and Hereford cows; and though fond of the former for their neatness, he gave them up, because "they would not nearly live upon the same food which supplied animals stouter and more compact, of the same weight."
To the question, "What is the best shape for feeding with little food?" Mr. Knight answers—"The more deep and capacious the chest, and the shorter and lower any animal is, relative to its weight, the better adapted it will be to live and fatten upon little food; the more labour it will also go through; and I have always found the short legged oxen to be the best labourers. Mr. Marshall also observes, in his Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, that the best labouring ox he ever saw, had the shortest legs."
I will detain the Society no longer than to make a few observations.
V. On Orchards.
I advert to this subject for the purpose of suggesting the utility of propagating Sweet Apples.
After providing a due proportion of apples for the table, and the ordinary purposes of cookery, I do not hesitate to express my opinion, that for all other uses, sweet apples are entitled to the preference. The best cider I ever tasted in this country, was made wholly of sweet apples. They afford also a nourishing food to man and all domestic animals. What furnishes a more delicate repast than a rich sweet apple baked and eaten with milk? I recollect the observation made to me by an observing farmer, before the American revolution, that nothing would fatten cattle faster than sweet apples. Mentioning this, a few years since, to a gentleman of my acquaintance in an adjoining state, he informed me, that he was once advised to give sweet apples to a sick horse. Happening then to have them in plenty, the horse was served with them, and he soon got well: and continuing to be fed with them, he fattened faster than any other horse he had ever owned (and he had owned many) that was fed with any other food.
Mentioning to the same gentleman, what I had long before heard, that a good molasses might be made of sweet apples, he confirmed the fact by an instance within his own knowledge: and further expressed his opinion (and I have not known a man whose practical judgment was entitled to more respect) that it would not be difficult, by forming orchards of sweet apples, to supply molasses for the general consumption of the United States. I have never tasted any sweet apple molasses; but I suppose it has not (nor has honey) the rich sweet of molasses from the sugar-cane; yet, for family uses in general, it would be a useful substitute for the latter. The process in making it I suppose to be very simple.—The apples being ground, and the juice (or cider) expressed, at the cider-mill, it is immediately boiled, (that is, before any fermentation takes place) and the scum being taken off as it rises, the boiling is continued until the liquor acquires the consistence of molasses.
Sweet apples are of different degrees of sweetness. Those of the richest kinds should be chosen for the purpose of making molasses. But in grafting, the cions should be taken (as they ought to be for all kinds of fruit) not from old, worn out trees, but from those whose originals are in full health and vigour.—For it has been satisfactorily ascertained in England, (and proofs of it are not wanting in our own country) that fruit trees have their infancy, (springing from seeds) youth, maturity, and old age; and that when they have reached this last stage, it is in vain that attempts are made to continue them. Or if the cions take, and grow for a few years, they are unproductive, and soon decay. The reason is plain: every cion is a part of the tree from which it is taken; and if this be in a state of decrepitude, so will be the cion; and although grafted on a youthful, thrifty stock, it will be of no avail.