1859
In the United States, Oregon is admitted to the Union as a free State. Petroleum oil obtained in Pennsylvania by method of boring wells. Silver discovered in Nevada. Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and United States arsenal captured by a force under leadership of John Brown, his purpose being to hold the place as a refuge for fugitive slaves. Brown is besieged by citizens, State militia, and Federal marines; makes stout defense, but is captured, tried for treason, and executed. Sympathy mingled with reprobation in the North and alarm in the South over John Brown's act; his execution arouses indignation among the abolitionists and helps to precipitate approaching national conflict over slavery.
Washington Irving, American author and diplomat, the first to win foreign recognition for American literature; Prescott, American historian; Rufus Choate, American lawyer and orator; and Horace Mann, American educator and statesman, died.
In Europe, Austria, distrustful of the rapid strengthening of the Italian kingdom of Sardinia, issues an ultimatum demanding its disarmament. Sardinia promptly replies with a formal declaration of war; following this, Austria receives a declaration of war from Napoleon III, who has been secretly cooperating with Sardinia. Austrians defeated in battles of Montebello, Palestro, Magenta, and Melegnano. The entry of Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel into Milan is followed by the battle of Solferino, in which the Austrians, being again defeated, are compelled to sue for peace. Lombardy restored to Sardinia. Later in the year the Treaty of Zürich was signed by Sardinia, France, and Austria. In this war splendid service is rendered by the patriot Garibaldi and his "Chasseurs of the Alps." In Naples, Ferdinand II ("Bomba"), notorious for his abuses, dies and is succeeded by his son, Francis II. Death of the Austrian diplomatist and statesman, Prince Metternich, and of Alexander von Humboldt, German philosopher and traveler.
In England, the second Derby ministry resigns, and Lord Palmerston again succeeds as prime minister, holding position during remainder of life. Henry Hallam, historian and essayist; Leigh Hunt, poet, essayist, and critic; Brunel and Stephenson, civil engineers; De Quincy, essayist; and Lord Macaulay, historian, essayist, and poet, died. Publication of Darwin's "Origin of Species."
In Spain, war is declared and waged successfully against Morocco for attacking Spanish possessions on northern coast of Africa (see 1860). Death of Ludwig Spohr, German musician. In Africa, Livingstone explores Lake Nyassa. In Mexico, General Miramon defeats the Liberal party of Juarez and assumes presidency. Miramon government borrows large sums in France. Juarez declares confiscation of church property. In China, during a river engagement between English and Chinese, the American Commodore Tatnall assists the English, declaring that "blood is thicker than water."
Severe earthquakes at Quito, Ecuador, and at Erzeroum, Asia Minor.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year.