REARING ANIMALS AND MAKING COLLECTIONS

Much good work in observing the behavior and life-history of some kinds of animals can be done by keeping them alive in the schoolroom under conditions simulating those to which they are exposed in nature. The growth and development of frogs and toads from egg to adult, as well as their feeding habits and general behavior, can all be observed in the schoolroom as explained in Chapter [XII]. Harmless snakes are easily kept in glass-covered boxes; snails and slugs are contented dwellers indoors; certain fish live well in small aquaria, and many other familiar forms can be kept alive under observation for a longer or shorter time. But from the ease with which they are obtained and cared for, the inexpensiveness of their live-cages, and the interesting character of their life-history and general habits, insects are, of all animals, the ones which specially commend themselves for the schoolroom menagerie. In the technical notes in the chapter ([XXI]) devoted to insects are numerous suggestions regarding the obtaining and care of certain kinds of insects which may be reared and studied to advantage in the schoolroom. In the following paragraphs are given directions for making the necessary live-cages and aquaria for these insects.

Live-cages and aquaria.—Prof. J. H. Comstock has so well described the making of simple and inexpensive cages and aquaria in his book, "Insect Life," that, with his permission, his account is quoted here.

Live-cages.—"A good home-made cage can be built by fitting a pane of glass into one side of an empty soap-box. A board, three or four inches wide, should be fastened below the glass so as to admit of a layer of soil being placed in the lower part of the cage, and the glass can be made to slide, so as to serve as a door (fig. [166]). The glass should fit closely when shut, to prevent the escape of the insects.

Fig. 166.—Soap-box breeding-cage for
insects. (From Jenkins and Kellogg.)

"In rearing caterpillars and other leaf-eating larvæ, branches of the food-plant should be stuck into bottles or cans which are filled with sand saturated with water. By keeping the sand wet the plants can be kept fresh longer than in water alone, and the danger of the larvæ being drowned is avoided by the use of sand.

"Many larvæ when full-grown enter the ground to pass the pupal state; on this account a layer of loose soil should be kept in the bottom of a breeding-cage. This soil should not be allowed to become dry, neither should it be soaked with water. If the soil is too dry the pupæ will not mature, or if they do so the wings will not expand fully; if the soil is too damp the pupæ are liable to be drowned or to be killed by mold.

"It is often necessary to keep pupæ over winter, for a large proportion of insects pass the winter in the pupal state. Hibernating pupæ may be left in the breeding-cages or removed and packed in moss in small boxes. Great care should be taken to keep moist the soil in the breeding-cages, or the moss if that be used. The cages or boxes containing the pupæ should be stored in a cool cellar, or in an unheated room, or in a large box placed out of doors where the sun cannot strike it. Low temperature is not so much to be feared as great and frequent changes of temperature.

Fig. 167.—Lamp-chimney and
flower-pot breeding-cage for
insects. (From Jenkins and Kellogg.)

"Hibernating pupæ can be kept in a warm room if care be taken to keep them moist, but under such treatment the mature insects are apt to emerge in midwinter.

"An excellent breeding-cage is represented by fig. [167]. It is made by combining a flower-pot and a lantern-globe. When practicable, the food-plant of the insects to be bred is planted in the flower-pot; in other cases a bottle or tin can filled with wet sand is sunk into the soil in the flower-pot, and the stems of the plant are stuck into this wet sand. The top of the lantern-globe is covered with Swiss muslin. These breeding-cages are inexpensive, and especially so when the pots and globes are bought in considerable quantities. A modification of this style of breeding-cage that is used by the writer differs only in that large glass cylinders take the place of the lantern-globes. These cylinders were made especially for us by a manufacturer of glass, and cost from six to eight dollars per dozen, according to size, when made in lots of fifty.

"When the transformation of small insects or of a small number of larger ones are to be studied, a convenient cage can be made by combining a large lamp-chimney with a small flower-pot.

"The root-cage.—For the study of insects that infest the roots of plants, the writer has devised a special form of breeding-cage known as the root-cage. In its simplest form this cage consists of a frame holding two plates of glass in a vertical position and only a short distance apart. The space between the plates of glass is filled with soil in which seeds are planted or small plants set. The width of the space between the plates of glass depends on the width of two strips of wood placed between them, one at each end, and should be only wide enough to allow the insects under observation to move freely through the soil. If it is too wide the insects will be able to conceal themselves. Immediately outside of each glass there is a piece of blackened zinc which slips into grooves in the ends of the cage, and which can be easily removed when it is desired to observe the insects in the soil.

"Aquaria.—For the breeding of aquatic insects aquaria are needed. As the ordinary rectangular aquaria are expensive and are liable to leak we use glass vessels instead.

"Small aquaria can be made of jelly-tumblers, glass finger-bowls, and glass fruit-cans, and larger aquaria can be obtained of dealers. A good substitute for these is what is known as a battery-jar (fig. [168]). There are several sizes of these, which can be obtained of most dealers in scientific apparatus.

"To prepare an aquarium, place in the jar a layer of sand; plant some water-plants in this sand, cover the sand with a layer of gravel or small stones, and then add the required amount of water carefully, so as not to disturb the plants or to roil the water unduly. The growing plants will keep the water in good condition for aquatic animal life, and render changing of the water unnecessary, if the animals in it live naturally in quiet water. Among the more available plants for use in aquaria are the following:

"Waterweed, Elodea canadensis.

"Bladderwort, Utricularia (several species).

"Water-starwort, Callitriche (several species).

"Watercress, Nasturtium officinale.

"Stoneworts, Chara and Nitella (several species of each).

"Frog-spittle or water-silk, Spirogyra.

"A small quantity of duckweed, Lemna, placed on the surface of the water adds to the beauty of an aquarium.

"When it is necessary to add water to an aquarium on account of loss by evaporation, rain water should be used to prevent an undue accumulation of the mineral-water held in solution in other water."

Fig. 168.—Battery-jar aquarium. (From Jenkins and Kellogg.)

Making collections.—Much is to be learned about animals by "collecting" them. But the collecting should be done chiefly with the idea of learning about the animals rather than with the notion of getting as many specimens as possible. To collect, it is necessary to find the animals alive; one learns thus their haunts, their local distribution, and something of their habits, while by continued work one comes to know how many and what different kinds or species of each group being collected occur in the region collected over. Collecting requires the sacrifice of life, however, and this will always be kept well in mind by the humane teacher and pupil. Where one set of specimens will do, no more should be collected. The author believes that high-school work in this line should be almost exclusively limited to the building up of a common school collection. Let a single set of specimens be brought together by the combined efforts of all the members of the class, and let it be well housed and cared for permanently. Each succeeding class will add to it; it may come in time to be a really representative exhibition of the local fauna.

The high-school collection should include not only adult specimens of the various kinds of animals, forming a systematic collection, as it is called, but also all kinds of specimens which illustrate the structure and habits of the animals in question and which will constitute a so-called biological collection. Specimens of the eggs and all immature stages; dissections preserved in alcohol or formalin showing the external and internal anatomy; nests, cocoons, and all specimens showing the work and industries of the various animals; in short, any specimen of the animal itself in embryonic or postembryonic condition, or any parts of the animal, or anything illustrating what the animal does or how it lives, all these should be collected as assiduously as the adult individuals. Each specimen in the collection should be labelled with the name of the animal, the date, and locality, and the name of the collector, with any particular information which will make it more instructive. If such special data are too voluminous for a label, they should be written in a general note-book called "Notes on Collections" (kept in the schoolroom with the collection), the specimen and corresponding data being given a common number so that their association may be recognized. In the following paragraphs are given brief directions for catching, pinning up, and caring for insects, for making skins of birds and mammals, and for the alcoholic preservation of other kinds of animals.

Fig. 169.—Insect killing-bottle; cyanide
of potassium at bottom, covered with
plaster of Paris. (From Jenkins and
Kellogg.)

Insects.—For catching insects there are needed a net, a killing-bottle, a few small vials of alcohol, and a few small boxes to carry home live specimens, cocoons, galls, etc. For preparing and preserving the insects there are needed insect-pins, cork- or pith-lined drawers or boxes, and small wide-mouthed bottles of alcohol.

The net, about 2 feet deep, tapering and rounded at its lower end, is made of cheesecloth or bobinet (not mosquito-netting, which is too frail), attached to a ring, one foot in diameter, of No. 3 galvanized iron wire, which in turn is fitted into a light wooden or cane handle about three and a half feet long.

The killing-bottle (fig. [169]) is prepared by putting a few small lumps (about a teaspoonful) of cyanide of potassium into the bottom of a wide-mouthed bottle holding about four ounces, and covering this cyanide with wet plaster of Paris. When the plaster sets it will hold the cyanide in place, and allow the fumes given off by its gradual volatilization to fill the bottle. Insects dropped into it will be killed in from two or three to ten minutes. Keep a little tissue paper in the bottle to soak up moisture and to prevent the specimens from rubbing. Also keep the bottle well corked. Label it "Poison," and do not breathe the fumes (hydrocyanic gas). Insects may be left in it over night without injury to them.

Butterflies or dragon-flies too large to drop into the killing-bottle may be killed by dropping a little chloroform or benzine on a piece of cotton, to be placed in a tight box with them. Larvæ (caterpillars, grubs, etc.) and pupæ (chrysalids) should be dropped into the vials of alcohol.

In collecting, visit flowers, sweep the net back and forth over the small flowers and grasses of meadows and pastures, look under stones, break up old logs and stumps, poke about decaying matter, jar and shake small trees and shrubs, and visit ponds and streams. Many insects can be collected in summer at night about electric lights, or a lamp by an open window.

When the insects are brought home or to the schoolroom they must be "pinned up." Buy insect-pins, long, slender, small-headed, sharp-pointed pins, of a dealer in naturalists' supplies (see p. [453]). These pins cost ten cents a hundred. Order Klaeger pins, No. 3, or Carlsbaeder pins, No. 5. These are the most useful sizes. For larger pins order Klaeger No. 5 (Carlsbaeder No. 8); for smaller order Klaeger No. 1 (Carlsbaeder No. 2). Pin each insect straight down through the thorax (fig. [170]) (except beetles, which pin through the right wing-cover near the middle of the body). On each pin below the insect place a small label with date and locality of capture. Insects too small to be pinned may be gummed on to small slips of cardboard, which should be then pinned up. Keep the insects in drawers or boxes lined on the bottom with a thin layer of cork, or pith of some kind. (Corn-pith can be used; also in the West, the pith of the flowering stalk of the century plant.) The cheapest insect-boxes and very good ones, too, are cigar-boxes. But unless well looked after they let in tiny live insects which feed on the dead specimens. For a permanent collection, therefore, it will be necessary to have made some tight boxes or drawers. Glass-topped ones are best, so that the specimens may be examined without opening them. A "moth-ball" (naphthaline) fastened in one corner of the box will help keep out the marauding insects.

Fig. 170.—Insect properly "pinned up." (From Jenkins and Kellogg.)

Butterflies, dragon-flies, and other larger and beautiful-winged insects should be "spread," that is, should be allowed to dry with wings expanded. To do this spreading- or setting-boards (figs. [171] and [172]) are necessary. Such a board consists of two strips of wood fastened a short distance apart so as to leave between them a groove for the body of the insect, and upon which the wings are held in position until the insect is dry. A narrow strip of pith or cork should be fastened to the lower side of the two strips of wood, closing the groove below. Into this cork is thrust the pin on which the insect is mounted. Another strip of wood is fastened to the lower sides of the cleats to which the two strips are nailed. This serves as a bottom and protects the points of the pins which project through the piece of cork. The wings are held down, after having been outspread with the hinder margins of the fore wings about at right angles to the body, by strips of paper pinned down over them.

Fig. 171.—Setting-board with butterflies
properly "spread." (After
Comstock.)

"Soft specimens" such as insect larvæ, myriapods, and spiders should be preserved in bottles of alcohol (85 per cent). Nests, galls, stems, and leaves partly eaten by insects, and other dry specimens can be kept in small pasteboard boxes.

For a good and full account of insect-collecting and preserving, with directions for making insect-cases, etc., see Comstock's "Insect Life," pp. 284-314.

Birds.—In collecting birds, shooting is chiefly to be relied on. Use dust-shot (the smallest shot made) in small loads. For shooting small birds it is extremely desirable to have an auxiliary barrel of much smaller bore than the usual shotgun which can be fitted into one of the regular gun-barrels. In such an auxiliary barrel use 32-calibre shells loaded with dust-shot instead of bullets. Plug up the throat and vent of shot birds with cotton, and thrust each bird head downward into a cornucopia of paper. This will keep the feathers unsoiled and smooth.

Birds should be skinned soon after bringing home, after they have become relaxed, but before evidences of decomposition are manifest. The tools and materials necessary to make skins are scalpel, strong sharp-pointed scissors, bone-cutters, forceps, corn-meal, a mixture of two parts white arsenic and one part powdered alum, cotton, and metric-system measure. Before skinning, the bird should be measured. With a metric-system measure carefully take the alar extent, i.e. spread from tip to tip of outstretched wings; length of wing, i.e. length from wrist-joint to tip; length of bill in straight line from base (on dorsal aspect) to tip; length of tarsus, and length of middle toe and claw.

To skin the bird, cut from anus to point of breast-bone through the skin only. Work skin away on each side to legs; push each leg up, cut off at knee-joint, skin down to next joint, remove all flesh from bone, and pull leg back into place; loosen skin at base of tail, cut through vertebral column at last joint, being careful not to cut through bases of tail-feathers; work skin forward, turning it inside out, loosening it carefully all around, without stretching, to wings; cut off wings at elbow-joint, skin down to next joint and remove flesh from wing-bones; push skin forward to base of skull, and if skull is not too large (it is in ducks, woodpeckers, and some other birds), on over it to ears and eyes; be very careful in loosening the membrane of ears and in cutting nictitating membrane of eyes; do not cut into eyeball; remove eyeballs without breaking; cut off base of skull, and scoop out brain; remove flesh from skull, and "poison" the skin by dusting it thoroughly with the powdered arsenic and alum mixture. Turn skin right side out, and clean off fresh blood-stains by soaking them up with corn-meal; wash off dried blood with water, and dry with corn-meal. Corn-meal may be used during skinning to soak up blood and grease.

Fig. 172.—Setting-board in cross-section to show construction. (After Comstock.)

There remains to stuff the skin. Fill orbits of eyes with cotton (this can be advantageously done before skin is reversed); thrust into neck a moderately compact, elastic, smooth roll of cotton about thickness of the natural neck; make a loose oval ball of size and general shape of bird's body and put into body-cavity with anterior end under the posterior end of neck-roll; pull two edges of abdominal incision together over the cotton, fasten, if necessary, with a single stitch of thread, smooth feathers, fold wings in natural position, wrap skin, not tightly, in thin sheet of cotton (opportunity for delicate handling here) and put away in a drawer or box to dry. Before putting away tie label to leg, giving date and locality of capture, sex and measurements of bird, and name of collector. Before bird is put into permanent collection it should be labelled with its common and scientific name.

The mounting of birds in lifelike shape and attitude is hard to do successfully; and a collection of mounted birds demands much more room and more expensive cabinets than one of skins. For instructions for the mounting of birds see Davie's "Methods in the Art of Taxidermy," pp. 39-57; or Hornaday's "Taxidermy and Zoological Collecting." For a more detailed account of making bird-skins, see also these books, or Ridgway's "Directions for Collecting Birds."

In collecting birds' nests cut off the branch or branches on which the nest is placed a few inches above and below the nest, leaving it in its natural position. Ground-nests should have the section of the sod on which they are placed taken up and preserved with them. If the inner lining of the nest consists of feathers or fur put in a "moth-ball" (naphthaline).

To preserve birds' eggs they should be emptied through a single small hole on one side by blowing. Prick a hole with a needle and enlarge with an egg-drill (obtain of dealers in naturalists' supplies, see p. [453].) Blow with a simple bent blowpipe with point smaller than the hole. After removing contents clean by blowing in a little water, and blowing it out again. After cleaning, place the egg, hole downward, on a layer of corn-meal to dry. Label each egg by writing on it near the hole a number. Use a soft pencil for writing. This number should refer to a record (book) under similar number, or to an "egg-blank," containing the following data: name of bird, number of eggs in set, date and locality, name of collector, and any special information about the eggs or nest which the collector may think advisable. The eggs may be kept in drawers or boxes lined with cotton, and divided into little compartments.

For detailed directions for collecting and preserving birds' eggs and nests, see Bendire's "Directions for Collecting, Preparing, and Preserving Birds' Eggs and Nests" or Davie's "Methods in the Art of Taxidermy," pp. 74-78. [21] Mammals.—Any mammal intended for a scientific specimen should be measured in the flesh, before skinning, and as soon after death as practicable, when the muscles are still flexible. (This is particularly true of larger species, such as foxes, wildcats, etc.) The measurements are taken in millimetres, a rule or steel tape being used. (1) Total length: stretch the animal on its back along the rule or tape and measure from the tip of the nose (head extended as far as possible) to the tip of the fleshy part of tail (not to end of hairs). (2) Tail: bend tail at right angles from body backward and place end of ruler in the angle, holding the tail taut against the ruler. Measure only to tip of flesh (make this measurement with a pair of dividers). (3) Hind foot: place sole of foot flat on ruler and measure from heel to tip of longest toe-nail (in certain small mammals it is necessary to use dividers for accuracy). The measurements should be entered on the label, along with such necessary data as sex, locality, date, and collector's name.

Skin a mammal as soon after death as possible. Lay mammal on back and with scissors or scalpel open the skin along belly from about midway between fore and hind legs to vent, taking care not to cut muscles of abdomen. Skin down on either side of the body by working the skin from flesh with fingers till hind legs appear. Use corn-meal to stanch blood or moisture. With left hand grasp a leg and work the knee from without into the opening just made; cut the bone at the knee, skin leg to heel and clean meat off the bone (leaving it attached of course to foot). In animals larger than squirrels skin down to tips of toes. Do the same with other leg. Skin around base of tail till the skin is free all around so that a grip can be secured on body; then with thumb and forefinger hold the skin tight at base of tail and slowly pull out the tail. In small mammals this can be done readily, but in foxes it is often necessary to split the skin up along the under side and dissect it off the tail-bones. After the tail is free skin down the body, using the fingers (except in large mammals) till the fore legs are reached; treat the fore legs in the same manner as hind legs, thrusting elbow out of the skin much as a person would do in taking off a coat; cut bone at elbow; clean fore-arm bone. Skin over neck to base of ears. With scalpel cut through ears close to skull. With scalpel dissect off skin over the head (taking care not to injure eyelids) down to tip of nose, severing its cartilage and hence freeing skin from body. Sew mouth by passing needle through under lip and then across through two sides of the upper lip; draw taut and tie thread. Poison skin thoroughly. Turn skin right side out. Next sever the skull carefully from body, just where the last neck-vertebra joins the back of the skull. It is necessary to keep the skull, because characters of bone and teeth are much used in classification. Remove superfluous meat from the skull and take out brain with a little spoon made of a piece of wire with loop at end. Tag the skull with a number corresponding to that on skin, and hang up to dry. A finished specimen skull is made by boiling it a short time and picking the meat off with forceps, further cleaning it with an old tooth-brush, when it is placed in the sun to bleach. Care must be taken always not to injure bones or dislodge teeth.

Mammals are stuffed with cotton or tow; the latter is used in species from a gray squirrel up. Large mammals stuffed with cotton do not dry readily, and often spoil. Being much thicker-skinned than birds, mammals require more care in drying and ordinarily require a much longer period. Soft hay may be substituted for tow; never use feathers or hair. Roll a longish wad of cotton about the size of body and insert with forceps, taking care to form the head nearly as in life. Split the back end of the cotton and stuff each hind leg with the two branches thus formed. Roll a piece of cotton around end of forceps and stuff fore legs. Place a stout straight piece of wire in the tail, wrapping it slightly to give the tail the plump appearance of life. (If the cotton cannot be reeled on to the wire evenly, leave it off entirely.) Make the wire long enough to extend half way up belly. Sew up slit in belly. Lay mammal on belly and pin out on a board by legs, with the fore legs close beside head, and hind legs parallel behind, soles downward. Be sure the label is tied securely on right hind leg.

For directions for preparing and mounting skeletons of birds, mammals, and other vertebrates, see the books of Davie and Hornaday already referred to.

Fishes, batrachians, reptiles, and other animals.—The most convenient and usual way of preserving the other vertebrates (not birds or mammals) is to put the whole body into 85 per cent alcohol or 4 per cent formalin. Batrachians should be kept in alcohol not exceeding 60 per cent strength. Several incisions should always be made in the body, at least one of which should penetrate the abdominal cavity. Anatomical preparations are similarly preserved. By keeping the specimens in glass jars they may be examined without removal. Fishes should not be kept in formalin more than a few months, as they absorb water, swell, and grow fragile.

Of the invertebrates all, except the insects, are preserved in alcohol or formalin. The shells of molluscs can be preserved dry, of course, in drawers or boxes divided into small compartments.

[INDEX]

☞Illustrations are indicated by an asterisk

Acanthia lectularia, *[188].
Acarina, [230].
Acmara spectorum, *[248].
Actinozoa, [97], [102].
Adaptation, [407].
Adder, spreading, [321].
Ægialitis vocifera, [349].
Agalenidæ, [235].
Agkistrodon piscivorous, [323].
Aix sponsa, [347].
Albatross, [346].
Alca impennis, [345].
Alce americana, *[385], [396].
Alligator, [326].
Alligator mississippensis, [326].
Alternation of generations, [96].
Amblophtes rupestris, [282].
Amblystoma, [297], [298].
Amblystoma maculatum, [299].
Ameiurus, [282].
Amœba, *[32];
structure and life of, [31].
Amphioxus, [278].
Anaconda, [324].
Anas boschas, [347].
Anatomy defined, [3].
Anguilla, [284].
Anguillula, [140].
Anolis principalis, [319].
Anosia plexippus, anatomy of larva of, [177];
external structure of, [171], *[172];
life of, [175];
mimicked by Basilarchia archippus, *[433].
Anseres, [347].
Ant, little black, *[224];
little brown, [223].
Antelope, *[395], [396].
Antenna of carrion beetle, *[184].
Antilocapra americana, *[395], [396].
Antrostomus vociferus, [356].
Ant, [212], [218], [223].
Anura, [299].
Ape, [401].
Aphidiæ, [200].
Apis florea, comb of, *[222].
Apis mellifica, *[218].
Appearance, terrifying, [430].
Aquarium, [457].
Aquarium, battery-jar, *[461].
Aquila chrysætos, [342].
Arachnida, [144], [229].
Arctomys monax, [391].
Ardea herodias, [358].
Ardea virescens, [347].
Argiope sp., *[236].
Argonaut, [257].
Argonauta argo, [257].
Ariolimax californica, *[252].
Arthogastra, [230].
Arthropoda, [144].
Ascidian, [259], *[261].
Aspidiotus aurantii, *[198].
Asterias sp., structure and life of, [108].
Asterias, *[109];
cross-section of, *[112].
Asterias ocracia, *[122].
Asterina mineata, *[122].
Asteroidea, [120], [121].
Attidæ, [235].
Auk, great, [345].
Aves, [327].
Aythya vallisneria, [347].
Ayu, [283].
Back-swimmer, [197], [199].
Balanus, *[153].
Balæna glacialis, [393].
Balæna mysticetus, [393].
Barbadoes earth, [82].
Barnacle, *[153], [155];
sessile, [155];
stalked, [155].
Barn-owl, [353].
Bartramia longicauda, [349].
Bascanium constrictor, [321].
Bass, [282].
Bat, hoary, *[392].
Batrachia, [291].
Batrachians, [291];
body form and structure of, [292];
classification of, [295];
life-history and habits of, [295];
structure of, [292].
Bat, [391].
Bead-snake, [322].
Bear, [398].
Beaver, [391].
Bed-bug, *[188].
Bee, [212];
solitary, [216].
Beetle, great water-scavenger, [163];
external structure, *[164];
internal structure, *[167];
antenna of carrion, *[184];
Colorado potato, [209].
Beetle, [206];
carrion, [209];
whirligig, [206].
Bell-animalcule, structure and life of, [75].
Bills of birds, [362].
Bipinnaria, [119].
Bird, frigate, [346];
man-of-war, [346];
outline of body showing external regions, *[330];
ruby-throat humming, nest and eggs of, *[357].
Bird-louse, *[194].
Birds, [327];
bills and feet of, [362];
body form and structure of, [336];
care of young, [366];
classification of, [340];
collecting, [466];
determining, [359];
development and life-history of, [339];
feeding habits of, [370];
flight and songs of, [364];
migration of, [367];
molting of, [361];
nesting of, [366];
protection of, [370].
Bird-skins, making, [466].
Bison bison, [396], *[397].
Bittern, [348].
Blacksnake, [321].
Blissus leucopterus, [198].
Blood, circulation of, in mammal, *[376].
Blood of toad, structure of, [40].
Blow-fly, [201], [202];
section through compound eye of, *[185].
"Bob Jordan" (monkey), *[400].
Bobwhite, [350].
Bombus, [216].
Bombyx mori, anatomy of larva of, *[178].
Bonasa umbellus, [350].
Books, reference, [454].
Borer, peach-tree, *[210].
Botaurus lentiginosus, [348].
Box tortoise, [315].
Brachynotus nudus, *[153].
Brains of vertebrates, *[378].
Branch, defined, [73].
Branta canadensis, [347].
Breeding cage, [458], [459].
Brittle-stars, [120], [121], [122].
Bubo virginianus, [353].
Buffalo, [396], *[397].
Bufo lentiginosus, [301];
dissection of, [5].
Bullfrog, [299].
Bumblebee, [216].
Bunodes californica, [103].
Buteo, [353].
Butterfly, external structure of, [171], *[172];
life of, [175];
monarch, anatomy of larva of, [177];
dead leaf, *[429];
mimicked by viceroy, *[433].
Butterflies, [205];
setting-board for, *[466], [467].
Buzzard, turkey, [352].
Cachalot, [393].
Cage, lamp-chimney and flower-pot breeding, *[459];
soap-box breeding, *[458].
Cake-urchin, [124].
Calcarea, [91].
Calliphora vomitoria, [202];
section through compound eye of, *[185].
Callorhinus alascanus, *[399].
Callorhinus ursinus, parasitized, *[422].
Cambarus sp., dissection of, [18];
life of, [146].
Camphephilus principalis, [355].
Cancer productus, *[153].
Canis familiaris, [398].
Canis latrans, [398].
Canis nubilus, [398].
Canvas-back, [347].
Carcharodon, [280].
Caribou, [396].
Cassowary, [343].
Castor canadensis, [391].
Caterpillar, apple tent, [208];
forest tent, [209].
Catfish, [282].
Cathartes aura, [352].
Cavia, [390].
Cell, defined, [37].
Cell differentiation, degrees of, [54].
Cell products, [38].
Cell wall, [38].
Centiped, *[228], [229];
skein, *[228].
Centipeds, [226].
Centrocercus urophasianus, [350].
Centrurus sp., *[236].
Cephalpoda, [246].
Cercopithicus, *[400].
Cervus canadensis, *[394], [395].
Ceryle alcyon, [354].
Cete, [393].
Cetorhinus, [270], [280].
Chætura pelagica, [356].
Chain-snake, [320].
Chalk, [81].
Chameleon, green, [318].
Chelonia, [313], [314].
Chelonia mydas, [315].
Chelydra serpentina, [314].
Chen hyperborea, [247].
Chicken-hawk, [353].
Chimney-swift, [356].
Chinch bug, [198].
Chipmunk, [391].
Chiroptera, [391].
Chitin, [145], [158].
Chlorostomum funebrale, *[248].
Chordata, [259];
classification of, [260].
Chordeiles virginianus, [356].
Chromatophore, [256].
Chub, [282].
Chrysemys, [314].
Cicada, [199];
seventeen-year, *[200];
septendecim, *[200], [197].
Circulation of blood in mammal, *[376].
Circus hudsonius, [352].
Cistudo carolina, [314].
Clams, [246];
hard shell, [247];
soft-shell, [247].
Class, defined, [73].
Classification, basis and signification of, [65];
defined, [3];
example of, [68].
Clisiocampa americana, larvæ, *[208].
Clisiocampa disstria, caterpillars, *[209];
life-history of, [207].
Clupea harengus, [284].
Cobra-da-capello, [324].
Coccidæ, [198].
Coccyges, [354].
Coccyzus, [354].
Cock, chapparal, [354].
Cockroach, [192].
Codfish, [284].
Cœcilians, [302].
Cœlenterata, [92];
classification of, [96];
development and life-history of, [95];
form of, [93];
skeleton of, [95];
structure of, [94].
Colaptes auratus, *[355].
Colaptes cafer, [355].
Coleoptera, [206].
Colinus virginianus, [350].
Collections, making, [461].
Color, use of, [424].
Colors, warning, [430].
Colubridæ, [319].
Columba fasciata, [351].
Columba livia, [351].
Columbæ, [351].
Colymbus auritus, [343].
Comb-building of honey-bee, *[221].
Comb of East Indian honey-bee, *[222].
Commensalism, [155], [413].
Communal life, [411].
Condor, California, [352].
Condylura cristata, [391].
Conjugation, [35], [60].
Conotrachelus cratægi, *[212], [213].
Conotrachelus nenuphar, *[214].
Constrictor, boa, [324].
Conurus carolinensis, [353].
Coot, American, [349].
Copperhead, [322].
Coral, [95];
branching, *[104];
red, [106].
Coral islands, [104], [106].
Coral polyps, [104].
Coral reefs, [106].
Corals, [92], [102], [104].
Coregonus, [283].
Corisa, [197].
Corisa sp., *[199].
Cormorant, [346].
Cornea of eye of horse-fly, *[186].
Cottontail, [390].
Coyote, [398].
Crab, [151], [152];
soft-shelled, [154].
Crabs, *[153].
Crane, sand-hill, [348];
whooping, [348].
Crayfish, dissection of, [18], *[18], [22];
life of, [146].
Cricket, house, *[193].
Cricket, [192].
Crinoid, *[126].
Crinoidea, [121], [125].
Crocodile, [326].
Crocodilea, [313], [325].
Crocodilus americanus, [326].
Crotalus, [322].
Crustacea, [144], [146];
form and structure of, [147].
Cryptobranchus, [298].
Ctenophora, [97], [107].
Cuckoos, [354].
Cucumaria, [124].
Cucumber-beetles, [209].
Culex sp., [204], *[205].
Curculio plum, *[214].
Curculio quince, *[212], [213].
Curlew, long-billed, [350].
Cuttlefishes, [255].
Cyclas, [247].
Cyclophis æstivus, [320].
Cyclops, [148], *[149].
Cyclostomata, [278].
Cytoplasm, [38].
Dabchick, [343].
Dactylus sp., *[249].
Damp bug, *[151].
Darters, [282].
Dasyatis, [281].
Decapoda, [151].
Decapods, [256].
Deer, [396].
Degeneration, [417].
Dendrostomium cronjhelmi, *[134].
Development, defined, [3];
embryonic, defined, [62];
post-embryonic, defined, [62];
simplest, [59].
Diapheromera femorata, *[427].
Diaspis rosæ, *[198].
Dictynidæ, [235].
Didelphis virginiana, [390].
Diemystylus torosus, *[299].
Diemystylus viridescens, [297].
Dimorphism, [96].
Diptera, [201].

Distribution, barriers to, [437];
geographical,435;
laws of, [436];
local, of birds, [367];
modes of, [437].
Diver, great northern, [343].
Dolphins, [393].
Doris tuberculata, *[254].
Draco, [319].
Dragon-flies, [294].
Dragon-fly, *[196].
Dragon, flying, [318].
Drawings, [447].
Dryobates pubescens, [355].
Dryobates villosus, [355].
Duck, ruddy, [347].
Dyticus sp., [210].
Dytiscidæ, [207].
Eagle, bald, [352];
golden, [352].
Ear of locust, *[187].
Earthworm, anatomy of, *[126];
alimentary canal of, *[126];
cross-section of, *[131];
reproductive organs of, *[130];
structure and life of, [127].
Earthworms, [136].
Echinoderm, development of, [119];
structure of, [117];
shape of, [116].
Echinodermata, [108];
classification of, [120].
Echinodoris sp., *[254].
Echinoidea, [121], [122], [123].
Eciton, [225].
Ecology, animal, [403].
Ectopistes migratorius, [351].
Eel, [284].
Eft, green, [297];
western brown, *[299].
Eggs of birds, collecting, [469].
Eider, [347].
Elasmobranchii, [279].
Elassoma, [271].
Elk, *[394], [396].
Epeiridæ, [236].
Ephemerida, [194].
Epialtus productus, *[153].
Equipment of laboratory, [450].
Equipment of pupil, [447].
Erethizon dorsatus, [391].
Erethizon epixanthus, [391].
Eretmochelys imbricata, [215].
Erismatura rubida, [347].
Eumeces skeltonianus, *[316].
Eupomotic gibbosuc, dissection of, (facing) *[263];
life of, [270];
structure of, [263].
Exocætus, [285].
Eye, cornea of compound, of horse-fly, *[186];
section through compound, of blow-fly, *[185].
Eye of vertebrate, *[378].
Falco sparverius, [353].
Family, defined, [72].
Fauna, [440].
Feather-stars, [121], [125], *[126].
Feet of birds, [362].
Felis concolor, [398].
Feræ, [397].
Fever, yellow, and mosquitoes, [205].
Fiber zibethicus, [391].
Fire-flies, [209].
Fishes, [263];
body form and structure of, [271];
classification of, [277];
development and life-history of, [276];
habits and adaptations of, [285].
Fish-hatcheries, [288].
Flat-worms, [137].
Flea, house, *[204].
Flickers, [355].
Flies, [201];
chalcid, [214];
ichneumon, [212].
Flight of birds, [366].
Flying fishes, [285].
Food-fishes, [288].
Food of birds, [370].
Foraminifera, [80].
Fox, [398].
Fregata aquila, [346].
Frogs, [299].
Fulica americana, [349].
Fulmars, [345].
Function, defined, [14].
Functions, essential, [15].
Fur-seals, [398], *[399].
Fur-seals, parasitized, *[422].
Gadus callarias, [284].
Galley-worm, *[227].
Gall-flies, [214].
Gallinæ, [350].
Gastropoda, [246].
Gavia imber, [347].
Gavial, [326].
Generation, spontaneous, [58].
Genmules, [85].
Genus, defined, [70].
Geococcyx californianus, [354].
Gephyrean, *[134].
Girdler, currant stem, *[215].
Glass-snake, [317].
Glires, [391].
Goat, Rocky Mt., [397].
Gonionema vertens, *[101].
Goose, Canada, [347].
Gophers, pocket, [391].
Gordius, [140].
Grantia, *[47].
Grantia sp., [85].
Grayling, [284].
Grebe,
horned, [343];
pied-billed, [343].
Green, methyl, [351].
Greensnake, [320].
Gregariousness, [410].
Grouse, ruffed, [350].
Grus americana, [348].
Grus mexicana, [348].
Guillemot, [345].
Guinea-pig, [391].
Guinea-worm, [140].
Gull, great black-backed, [345].
Gulls, [345].
Gymnophiona, [302].
Gyrinidæ, [206].
Habitat, [441].
Hag-fishes, [279].
Hair-worms, [140].
Haliætus leucocephalus, [352].
Halictus, [216].
Harporhynchus redivivus, *[371].
Hatteria, [312].
Hawk, marsh, [352].
Helmet shells, [255].
Heloderma horridum, *[317].
Hemiptera, [197].
Hermit-crab, [154], *[153].
Herodiones, [347].
Heron,
great blue, [348];
green, [347].
Herring, [284].
Heteredon platirhinos, [321].
Hippocampus hippocampus, *[285].
Holothuroidea, [121], [124].
Homo sapiens, [398].
Honey-bee, *[218];
brood-cells of, *[219];
building comb, *[221];
comb of East Indian, *[222];
cross-section of body of pupa of, *[191].
Honey-bees, [212].
Honey-dew, food of ants, [223].
Hornets, [217].
Horse-fly, cornea of eye of, *[186].
House-fly, [202].
Humming-birds, [356].
Hydra, *[47];
structure and life of, [46].
Hydrozoa, [96], [97].
Hydrophilidæ, [207].
Hydrophilus sp.,
external structure of, *[164];
internal structure of, *[167].
Hygrotrechus, [198], *[199].
Hyla pickeringii, [300].
Hyla versicolor, [300].
Hymenoptera, [212].
Hyptiotes sp., and web, *[238].
Iguana, [318].
Imago, [190].
Injecting-masses, [451].
Insect, pinned, *[465];
twig, *[427];
wingless, *[181].
Insecta, [157].
Insectivora, [391].
Insects, classification of, [191];
collecting, [463];
communal, [215];
development and life-history of, [188];
form and structure of, [181];
killing-bottle for, *[463];
social, [215].
Invertebrate, defined, [30].
Islands, coral, [104], [106].
Isopod, *[151].
Isopoda, [150].
Jack rabbit, [390].
Janus integer, *[215].
Jellyfish, *[101].
Jellyfishes, [92];
colonial, [97].
Joint-snake, [318].
Julus, *[327].
June-beetle, [212].
June beetles, [206].
Kallima, *[429].
Kangaroo, [389].
Katydids, [192].
Kelp-crab, *[152].
Kill-deer, [349].
Killing-bottle for insects, *[463].
Kingfisher, belted, [354].
Laboratory, equipment of, [450].
Lachnosterna, [212].
Lady-birds, [209].
Lagopus, [350].
Lake-lamprey, [279].
Lampetra wilderi, [279].
Lamprey, *[278];
brook, [279].
Lampropeltis boylii, *[321].
Lampropeltis getulus, [320].
Lancelet, [278].
Larks, horned, *[358].
Larus marinus, [345].
Larva, [189];
of Monarch butterfly, anatomy of, [177];
parasitized, *[420].
Lasiurus borealis, [392].
Lasiurus cinereus, *[392].
Lasius flavus, [223].
Leeches, [136].
Lemurs, [401].
Leucania unipuncta, *[211].
Lepidocyrtus americanus, *[181].
Lepidoptera, [205].
Leptocardii, [277].
Leptoplana californica, *[138].
Lepus campestris, [390].
Lepus nuttali, [390].
Life-history, defined, [62].
Life-processes, essential, [15].
Limicolæ, [349].
Limpets, [255], *[248].
Littorina scutulata, *[248].
Live cages, [457].
Liver of toad, structure of, [41].
Lizard, *[309].
Lizards, [316].
Lobster, [151], [152].
Locust, differential, [156];
ear of, *[187];
red-legged, [156], *[157];
Rocky Mt., [156];
structure and life of, [156];
two-striped, [156].
Locusts, [192].
Loligo, [257].
Longipennes, [345].
Loon, [343].
Lumbricus sp., alimentary canal of, *[131];
cross-section of, *[132];
structure and life of, [127].
Lung-fish, [285].
Lycena, scales of wings of, *[206].
Lycosidæ, [235].
Lynx rufus, [398].
Macrocheira, [154].
Madrepora cervicornis, *[105].
Malaclemmys palustris, [314].
Malaria and mosquitoes, [205].
Mallard, [347].
Mammal, circulation of blood in, *[376].
Mammalia, [373].
Mammals, [373];
body form and structure of, [381];
classification of, [389];
development and life-history of, [388];
habits, instinct and reason of, [388];
making skins of, [470].
Man, [398].
Man-of-war, Portuguese, [98], *[97].
Marsupialia, [389].
Martesia xylophaga, *[251].
Massasauga, [32].
May-flies, [194].
May-fly, nymph of, *[197].
Medusa, *[101].
Megalobatrachus, [298].
Megascops asio, *[352], [353].
Melanerpes erythrocephalus, [355].
Melanerpes formicivorus, [356].
Melanoplus sp., ear of, *[187];
structure and life-history of, [157].
Melanoplus vibittatus, [157].
Melanoplus differentialis, [157].
Melanoplus femur-rubrum, [157], *[158].
Melanoplus spretus, [157].
Meleagrina margaritifera, [250].
Merula migratoria propinqua, *[368].
Metamorphosis, complete, [171], [188], [189];
incomplete, [171], [189].
Metazoa, defined, [43].
Mice, [391].
Micropterus dolomien, [282].
Micropterus salmoides, [282].
Migration of birds, [367].
Mimicry, [430].
Millipeds, [226].
Mite, cheese, *[230].
Mites, [229].
Modifications of structure and function, [29].
Moles, [391].
Mollusca, [239].
Molluscs, [239];
classification of, [246];
development of, [246];
form and structure of, [245].
Molting, [361];
of birds, [361].
Monitor, [318].
Monkey, *[400].
Momomerium minutum, *[224].
Monster, Gila, *[317].
Moose, *[385], [396].
Morphology, defined, [3].
Mosquito, [202], *[203].
Mosquitoes, [201];
and malaria, [205];
and yellow fever, [205].
Moth, forest tent-caterpillar, life-history of, *[207].
Moths, [205].
Mourning dove, [351].
Mouse, life-history and habits of, [379];
structure of, [373].
Mud-eel, [297].
Mud-hen, [349].
Mud-puppies, [297].
Mud-turtle, [313].
Multiplication of one-celled animals, [59];
of many-celled animals, [61].
Murres, *[344].
Muscles of toad, structure of, [41].
Mus decumanus, [391].
Mus musculus, structure of, [373].
Mus rattus, [391].
Musk-rat, [391].
Mussel, fresh-water, life-history and habits of, [243];
structure of, [239].
Mya arenaria, [247].
Myotis subulatus, [392].
Myriapoda, [144], [226].
Mytilus californianus, *[248].
Myxine, [279].
Names, scientific, [68].
Narcobatis, [281].
Natrix sipedon, [320].
Nautilus, [255];
pearly, [258].
Nautilus pompilius, [258].
Necturus, [297], [298].
Nemathelminthes, [140].
Neotoma pennsylvanica, [391].
Nereid, *[134].
Nereis sp., *[134].
Nesting of birds, [366].
Nest of oriole, *

[365].
Nettion carolinense, [347].
Night-hawk, [356].
Night-heron, [348].
Nirmus præstans, *[194].
Non-calcarea, [91].
Notes, [447], [448].
Notochord, [259].
Notonecta, [197], [199].
Nucleus, [38].
Nudibranchs, [252], *[254].
Numenius longirostris, [350].
Nyctea nyctea, [353].
Nycticorax, [348].
Octopi, [255].
Octopods, [256].
Odocoileus americanus, [396].
Odonata, [194].
Oligochætæ, [136].
Olor, [347].
Ommatostrephes californica, *[257].
Oncorhynchus tschawtscha, [283].
One-celled animals, multiplication of, [57].
Ooze, foraminifera, [81];
radiolaria, [81].
Opheosaurus ventralis, [317].
Ophiuroidea, [121], [122].
Opossum, [389].
Order, defined, [72].
Oreamnos montanus, [397].
Organ, defined, [14].
Orthoptera, [192];
sound-making of, [193].
Orb-web of Epeiridæ, [236].
Ostrea virginiana, [248].
Ostriches, [341], *[342].
Otocoris alpestris, *[358].
Ovis canadensis, *[383], [396].
Owl, burrowing, [353];
great gray, [353];
great horned, [353];
snowy, [353].
Oyster, [248].
Oyster-crab, [154].
Oyster-drills, [255].
Oysters, [246];
"seed" of, [249];
"spat" of, [249].
Pagurus samuelis, *[153].
Paludicolæ, [348].
Panther, [398].
Paramœcium, *[35];
multiplication of, [60];
structure and life of, [34].
Parasitism, [415].
Paroquet, Carolina, [353].
Parrots, [353].
Passer domesticus, dissection of, (facing) *[327];
life-history and habits of, [335];
structure of, [327].
Passeres, [357].
Pearl-oyster, *[249].
Pelecanus californicus, [346].
Pelecanus erythrorhynchus, [346].
Pelecanus fuscus, [346].
Pelecypoda, [246].
Pelican, brown, [346];
white, [346].
Pentacrinus sp., *[126].
Pentacta frondosa, *[125].
Peripatus eiseni, *[226].
Perla sp., *[182].
Petrels, [345].
Petromyzon marinus, *[278].
Phalacrocorax, [346].
Pheasants, [350].
Phoca vitulina, [397].
Phœbe, black, nest and eggs of, *[340].
Pholas sp., *[250].
Phrynosoma, [318].
Phylloxera, grape, [198], [201].
Phylloxera vastatrix, [198], [201].
Phylum, defined, [73].
Physalia sp., *[97].
Physeter macrocephalus, [393].
Physiology, defined, [3].
Pici, [354].
Pickerel-frog, [300].
Pigeon, band-tailed, [351];
passenger, [351].
Pinnotheres, [154].
Pipe-fish, [285].
Pisces, [263].
Pituophis bellona, *[323].
Planaria sp., *[138].
Planarian, fresh-water, *[138];
marine, *[138].
Planarians, [137].
Plant-lice, [197], [200].
Planula, [96]
Platyhelminthes, [137].
Plectrophenax nivalis, *[358].
Plethodon, [297].
Plover, field, [349].
Pluteus, [119].
Podilymbus podiceps, [343].
Poison-fangs of rattlesnake, *[324].
Pollicipes polymenus, *[153].
Polymorphism, [96].
Polynœ brevisetosa, *[134].
Polyps, [92], [97].
Pomoxis annularis, [282].
Pomoxis separoides, [282].
Pond-snails, [252].
Porcupine, [390].
Porcupine-fish, [285].
Porifera, [84].
Porpoises, [393].
Porzana carolina, [349].
Prairie-chicken, [350].
Prawns, [152].
Preparations, preserving anatomical, [452].
Primates, [398].
Pristis pectinatis, [281].
Protophyta, [82].
Protoplasm, described, [39].
Protopterus, [288].
Protozoa, defined, [43], [75];
form of, [78];
marine, [80].
Pseudemys, [313].
Pseudogryphus californianus, [352].
Psittaci, [353].
Ptarmigan, [356].
Puff-adder, [325].
Puffins, [345].
Pulex irritans, *[204].
Pulmonata, [253].
Puma, [398].
Pumpkin seed, life of, [270];
structure of, [263].
Pupa, [189];
cross-section of body of, honey-bee, *[191].
Pupation, [189].
Purpura saxicola, *[248].
Pygopodes, [343].
Python, [324].
Quail, [350].
Querquedula discors, [347].
Rabbits, [390].
Radiolaria, [80].
Rail, Carolina, [349].
Raja erinacea, [280], *[281].
Raja lævis, [281].
Rana catesbiana, [299].
Rana palustris, [300].
Rana sylvatica, [300].
Rangifer caribou, [396].
Raptores, [351].
Ratitæ, [341].
Rats, [391].
Rattlesnake poison-fangs, *[324].
Rattlesnakes, [321].
Rattles of rattlesnake, *[223].
Reefs, coral, [106].
Reindeer, [396].
Remora, *[287].
Remoropsis brachyptera, *[287].
Root-cage, [460].
Reptiles, body form and organization of, [309];
classification of, [312];
life-history of, [312];
structure of, [310].
Reptilia, [303].
Resemblance, protective, [326].
Rheas, [343].
Road-runner, [354].
Robber-ant, [225].
Robin, Western, *[368].
Rock-bass, [282].
Rock-crab, *[153].
Rock-dove, [351].
Rodents, [390].
Rosalina varians, *[81].
Rotifer sp., *[143].
Round worms, [140].
Ruminants, [395].
Sacculina, [67], *[418].
Sage-hen, [350].
Salamander, red-backed, [297];
tiger, *[292].
Salamanders, [297].
Salmo irideus, *[283].
Salmon, king, [284].
Sand-dollar, [124].
Sand-pipers, [345].
Sanninoidea existiosa, *[212].
Sap-sucker, downy, [355];
hairy, [355].
Saw-fish, [281].
Sayornis nigricans, nest and eggs of, *[340].
Scale insect, red-orange, *[198].
Scale insects, [198].
Scale rose, *[198].
Scales of wings of Lycæna, *[206];
wing of Monarch butterfly, *[174].
Scallops, [246].
Scalops aquaticus, [391].
Scaphiopus, [300].
Sceloporus, [317].
Sciuropterus volans, [391].
Sciurus carolinensis, [391].
Sciurus hudsonicus, [391].
Sciurus ludovicianus, [391].
Scolopendra sp., [228], [229].
Scorpion, *[230].
Scorpions, [229].
Scotiaptex cinera, [353].
Screech-owl, *[352], [353].
Scutigera forceps, *[228].
Scyphozoa, [97], [101].
Sea anemones, [92], [102], *[103].
Sea cucumber, *[125].
Sea-cucumbers, [108], [121], [124].
Sea-fan, [107].
Sea-feather, [106].
Sea-horse, *[285].
Sea-lamprey, [279].
Sea-lily, [118].
Sea-pen, [106].
Sea-shells, [252].
Sea-slugs, [255].
Sea-snakes, [325].
Sea-squirt, *[261].
Sea-turtles, [315].
Sea-urchin, *[114];
structure of, [113].
Sea-urchins, [108], [121], [123].
Seals, [397].
Selection, artificial, [409];
natural, [406].
Sembling of insects, [176].
Sepias, [256].
Setting-board for butterflies, *[466], [467].
Shark, basking, [270], [280];
hammer-headed, [280];
man-eating, [280].
Sharks, [280].
Shearwaters, [345].
Sheep-fluke, [138].
Sheep, Rocky Mt., *[383], [397].
Shipworm, [251].
Shoveller, [347].
Shrews, [391].
Shrimp, [151], [152].
Silk-worm, anatomy of, *[178].
Siphonophore, [98].
Siren, [297], [298].
Sistrurus, [322].
Skate, barn-door, [281];
common, [280], *[281].
Skates, [280].
Skeleton of coral, [105].
Skeletons, preparing, [452].
Skink, blue tailed, *[317].
Skin of toad, structure of, [40].
Slipper-animalcule, *[35];
structure and life of, [34].
Slug, giant yellow, *[252].
Slugs, [252], [253].
Snake coral, [321].
Snake, garter, *[320];
life of, [307];
structure of, [303];
gopher, *[322].
Snake king, *[321].
Snakes, [316].
Snails, [252], [253].
Snapping-turtle, [314].
Snipes, [349].
Snowflakes, *[358].
Snow-goose, [347].
Social life, [410].
Somateria, [347].
Songs of birds, [364].
Sora, [349].
Sound making of orthoptera, [193].
Spadefoot, [300].
Sparrow, English, dissection of, (facing), *[327];
life-history and habits of, [335];
structure of, [327];
western chipping, *[360].
Sparrow-hawk, [353].
Spatula clypeata, [347].
Species, defined, [69].
Species-extinguishing, [442].
Species-forming, [408], [442].
Speotyto cunicularia, [353].
Sphinx chersis larva, *[431].
Sphinx-moth, pen-marked, larva, *[431]
Sphyma, [280].
Spicules, sponge, [85].
Spider and web, *[237].
Spider, crab, *[235];
jumping, *[235];
long-legged, *[233];
running, *[234];
running with egg-sac, *[234];
triangle, and web, *[238].
Spider-crab, [154].
Spiders, [229];
hunting, [233];
sedentary, [233];
trap-door, [233];
wandering 233;
web weaving, [233].
Spinnerets of spider, *[233].
Spizella socialis arizonæ, *[360].
Sponge, commercial, [86];
fresh-water, [84];
glass, *[87];
skeleton of, [88];
structure of, [88].
Sponges, [84];
calcareous ocean, [85];
classification of, [91];
development and life-history of, [89];
feeding habits of, [88];
form and size of, [87];
of commerce, [90].
Spongin, [86].
Spongilla sp., [84].
Springtail, American, *[181].
Squamata, [312], [316].
Squid, great, *[257].
Squids, [255], [257].
Squirrels, [391].
Starfish, *[109];
cross-section of, *[112].
Starfishes, [108], [121].
Stentor sp., *[79].
Sterna, [345].
Sterna maxima, [194].
Sting-ray, [281].
Stone-fly, *[182].
Strix pratincola, [353].
Strongylocentrotus sp., structure of, [113].
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, *[115], [122];
structure of, [115].
Struggle for existence, [406].
Struthio camelus, [342].
Sub-species, [69].
Suckers, [283].
Sucking-bugs, [197].
Sun animalcule, *[78].
Sunfish, dwarf, [271];
golden, dissection of, (facing) *[263];
life of, [270];
structure of, [263].
Supplies, obtaining laboratory, [453].
Swans, [347].
Swarming of honey-bee, [219].
Swell-fish, [285].
Swift, common, [316].
Sword-fish, [285].

Symbiosis, [155], [413].
Symmetry, bilateral, [5];
radial, [108].
Sympetrum illotum, *[196].
Syngnathus fuscum, [285].
Tadpole, [55].
Tadpoles, *[296].
Tænia solium, [139].
Tapeworm, [139].
Teal, blue-winged, [347];
green-winged, [347].
Teleostomi, [282].
Tell-tale, [349].
Teredo, [251].
Tern, [194].
Terns, [345].
Terrapin, diamond-back, [314];
red-bellied, [314];
yellow-bellied, [314].
Testudo sp., *[315].
Tetragnatha sp., *[233].
Thalarctos maritimus, [398].
Thamnophis sp., life of, [307];
structure of, [303].
Thamnophis parietalis, *[320].
Theridiæ, [235].
Therioplectes sp., cornea of compound eye of, *[186].
Thomisidæ, [235].
Thrasher, sickle-billed, *[371].
Thrush, russet-backed, *[363].
Thymallus signifer, [284].
Ticks, [229].
Tiger-beetles, [209].
Toad, cellular structure of, [40];
development of, [55];
garden, dissection of, [5];
horned, [317];
skeleton of, *[11].
Toads, [299], [300].
Torpedo, [281].
Tortoise, Galapagos giant, *[315].
Tortoises, [313].
Tortoise-shell, [315].
Totanus melanoleucus, [349].
Trachea, *[184].
Tree-frogs, [300].
Tree-toads, [300].
Trepang, [124].
Trichina, [140].
Trichina spiralis, [141], *[141].
Trichinosis, [141].
Triopha modesta, *[254].
Tripoli rock, [82].
Triton, green, [297].
Trochilus colubris, [356];
nest and eggs of, *[357].
Trout, rainbow, *[283].
Tumble bugs, [209].
Turdus ustulaius, *[363].
Turkeys, wild, [350].
Turtle, green, [315];
hawk-bill, [315];
logger-head, [315].
Turtle-dove, [351].
Turtles, [313].
Tympanuchus americanus, [350].
Tyroglyphus siro, *[230].
Ungulata, [393].
Unio sp., life-history and habits of, [243];
structure of, [239].
Uria troile californica, *[344].
Ursus americanus, [398].
Ursus horribilis, [398].
Varanus niloticus, [318].
Variation, [406].
Variety, [69].
Venation of wings of insects, [174];
of wings of Monarch butterfly, *[175].
Venus mercenaria, [247].
Vermes, [127];
life-history and habits of, [132];
classification of, [135].
Vertebrate, defined, [30];
brains of, [376];
eye of, *[379].
Vertebrates, [259];
structure of, [259].
Vespidæ, [217].
Vinegar-eel, [140], *[140].
Viper, [324];
blowing, [321].
Vipera cerasta, [324].
Vorticella sp., *[76].
Vorticella, structure and life of, [75].
Vulpes pennsylvanicus, [398].
Walking-stick, [193], [194].
Wapiti, *[394].
Wasps, [212];
digger, [217];
solitary, [217].
Water-beetle, predaceous, [210].
Water-beetles, [206].
Water-boatman, *[199].
Water-boatmen, [197].
Water-flea, [148], *[149].
Water-dog, [298].
Water-snake, [320].
Water-strider, [197], [199], *[199].
Water tiger, [212], *[214].
Weevils, [209].
Whalebone, [393].
Whales, [393].
Wheel-animalcule, *[143].
Whip-poor-will, [356].
Whitefish, [284].
Wild-cat, [398].
Wings of Monarch butterfly showing venation, *[175].
Wolf, [398].
Woodchuck, [391].
Wood-duck, [347].
Wood-frog, [300].
Wood-lice, [150].
Woodpecker, California, [356];
ivory-billed, [355];
red-headed, [355].
Woodpeckers, [354].
Wood-rat, [391].
Worm, army, *[211].
Worms, [127];
life-history and habits of, [133];
classification of, [135];
marine, *[134].
Xiphias gladius, [285].
Yellow-hammer, *[355].
Yellow-jackets, [217].
Yellow-shank, [349].
Zenaidura macroura, [351].
Zoogeography, [436].
Zooids, [98].
Zoology, a first course in, [3];
defined, [3];
divisions of, [2];
systematic, defined, [3].
Zoophytes, [92].

[FOOTNOTES:]

[1] This is true if a strictly logical treatment of the subject is held to. As a matter of fact, it is often of advantage to begin with, or at least to take up from the beginning in connection with the indoor work, some field-work, such as the collecting and classifying of insects and the observation of their metamorphosis. As most schools begin work in the fall, advantage must be taken of the favorable opportunities for field-work at the beginning of the year. These opportunities are of course much less favorable in the winter.

[2] The classification of animals used in this book is that adopted in Parker and Haswell's "Text-book of Zoology" (2 vols., 1897, Macmillan Co.). Exception is made in the case of the worms, which are considered as a single branch, Vermes, instead of as several distinct branches.

[3] Zoology is formed from two Greek words: zoon, meaning animal, and logos, meaning discourse.

[4] The lesser group called variety, or subspecies, we may leave out of consideration for the present.

[5] Some species of animals are not represented by male individuals: and in some all the individuals are hermaphrodites, as explained in chapter [XIV].

[6] Each of these higher groups has a proper name composed of a single word. In the case of no group except the species is a name-word ever duplicated. Each genus, family, order, or higher group has a name-word peculiar to it, and belonging to it alone.

[7] In some Protozoa a number of similar cells temporarily unite to form a colony, but each cell may still be regarded as an individual animal.

[8] The author recognizes the untenability of the group Vermes as a group co-ordinate with the other branches of the animal kingdom, and that "Vermes" has been discarded in modern text-books. But because of the very scant consideration which can be given the various kinds of worm-like animals the course of the older text-books will be followed, and all of the worm-like animals, as far as referred to in this book, be considered under the group name Vermes.

[9] There are in many forms a few internal projections from the exterior cuticle which act as internal skeletal pieces.

[10] The labrum differs from the other mouth-parts in not being composed of a pair of body appendages; it is simply a fold or flap of the skin of the head.

[11] A Text-book of Zoology, Parker & Haswell, 1897.

[12] The Cambridge Natural History, vol. V, 1895, vol. VI, 1899.

[13] A Manual for the Study of Insects, J. H. and A. B. Comstock, 1897.

[14] It has been shown by experiment that the winged individuals, which are able to leave the old food-plant and scatter over new plants, do not appear until the food-supply begins to run short. At the insectary of Cornell University ninety-four successive generations of wingless individuals were bred, by taking care to provide a constantly abundant supply of food. This experiment was continued for more than four years.

[15] The animals included by some zoologists in the single class Pisces, are held by other zoologists to constitute three distinct classes, thus making a subdivision of the branch into ten classes.

[16] The author wishes to call the attention of teacher and student to the plan (referred to in the Preface, page v) adopted in writing the directions for the dissections. The sequence of the references to the various organs depends on the actual course of the dissection, and not upon the association of organs in systems. And the directions are so much condensed that they are hardly more than a means of orienting the student, leaving him to work out independently, or by the aid of more detailed accounts (sometimes specifically referred to), the details of the dissection.

[17] By many zoologists the lizards and snakes are held to form two distinct orders, Lacertilia and Ophidia.

[18] One of the most unfortunate and conspicuous examples of this slaughter is the partial extermination of the song-birds of Japan in the interests of European milliners. To meet their demands the country people used birdlime throughout the woods with disastrous effectiveness, as shown in the present exceeding scarcity of birds and the abundance of insect pests.

[19] Oysters are hermaphroditic, each individual producing both sperm- and egg-cells.

[20] Jordan and Kellogg's "Animal Life," 1900, p. 274.

[21] The following directions for making skins of mammals were written for this book by Mr. W. K. Fisher of Stanford University, an experienced collector.

[Transcriber's Notes:]