FOOTNOTES:
[1] See Introduction to the German translation of the Ebers papyrus, by Heinrich Joachim, Berlin, 1890.
[2] The Egyptians had three different kinds of writing: the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, and the demotic. The hieroglyphic style, which is the most ancient and is chiefly to be found on monuments and in religious texts, consists of figures representing every kind of object; the hieratic or sacerdotal style is an abbreviation of the hieroglyphic writing; the demotic or popular style, the least ancient, resulted from further abbreviations of the hieratic.
[3] See page 185 of the German translation of Dr. Joachim.
[4] See the German translation by Joachim, page 162.
[5] A fruit resembling cherries.
[6] On the Relations of the Human Teeth to those of the Lower Animals, by John R. Mummery. Trans. Odontological Society of Great Britain, May, 1860.
[7] See German translation by Joachim, p. 120.
[8] Herodoti Halicarnassei historia, 1570 fol. Euterpe, page 53.
[9] Herodoti Halicarnassei historia, lib. vi.
[10] Die Zahnheilkunde, Erlangen, 1851, p. 348.
[11] G. B. Belzoni (1778 to 1823), a celebrated Italian traveller and archæologist, visited Egypt and Nubia, and wrote, in English, a report on his discoveries, which was published in 1821. We have not been able to procure this book; we have, however, read the Italian version, published in Naples in 1831, without coming across any mention of artificial teeth found in Egyptian sarcophagi. Therefore, unless the work has undergone some mutilation in the Italian translation, we do not know whence Joseph Linderer can have taken the above notice.
[12] New England Journal of Dentistry, 1883, vol. ii, p. 162.
[13] According to Herodotus and Diodorus, there were three different modes of embalming in use among the Egyptians; the most expensive of these cost one talent (about 5600 francs), the second in order 20 minae (about 1900 francs), while for the less wealthy there was a third class, at a much more economical rate.
[14] See Giornale di Corrispondenza pei Dentisti, October, 1885, p. 227.
[15] [The oft-quoted statements of Mr. Purland with reference to Egyptian dental art are recorded in the transactions of the first monthly meeting of the College of Dentists, an extinct English dental association, and published in the Quarterly Journal of Dental Science, 1857, vol. i, p. 49, where the following note by the secretary appears: “Mr. Purland repudiated the idea of the Chinese having been the first to manufacture teeth, and referred to numerous specimens in the British Museum, manufactured between four thousand and five thousand years ago by the Egyptians, who he considered were the original makers. On the subject of flint, Mr. Purland said he had discovered pieces of wood in the centre, and remarked upon the artificial teeth he had found in mummies.”
Again, at page 63 of the same journal, in an article entitled “Dental Memoranda,” by T. Purland, Dentist, Ph.D., the author says:
“Belzoni and others discovered rudely manufactured teeth in the sarcophagi of the Egyptians. As regards the use of gold leaf, Sir Gardner Wilkinson observes, as a singular fact, that the Egyptians stopped teeth with gold.
“It is true that rudely manufactured teeth have been found in the heads of Egyptian mummies, but it is equally true that teeth of a very superior make and adaptation have also been found, some carved in ivory, others in sycamore wood, and some have been found fixed upon gold plates. Of these varieties, some are deposited in the valuable and extensive museum belonging to Joseph Mayer, Esq., F.S.A., of Liverpool; others are in the museums of Berlin and Paris, and I am in possession of a tooth found pivoted to a stump in the head of a mummy in the collection of a lamented friend.
“Of stopping with gold, several instances have come to my notice, particularly in a mummy in the Salt collection, sold by Sotheby, in 1836, in which three teeth had been stopped. I have endeavored to trace the mummy, but in vain.”—E. C. K.]
[16] Giornale di Corrispondenza pei Dentisti, October, 1885, p. 229.
[17] Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 9.
[18] Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 9.
[19] Ibid.
[20] Ibid.
[21] The incisors represented in the cut of Renan’s work do not at all give the anatomical form of upper incisors, but of lower ones. Therefore, either the figure itself has been badly drawn, or the piece found by Dr. Gaillardot was part of the inferior and not of the superior jaw. In the latter case, the figure in Renan’s book ought to be reversed, in the manner here shown:
The same figure reversed, as it ought to be if the piece found at Sidon belonged to a lower jaw.
Neither do we understand on what ground Dr. Gaillardot has based his affirmation of the piece discovered having belonged to a female skeleton, as it is well known that there is no characteristic difference between a male and a female jaw.
[Interesting examples of the survival of this primitive type of dental prosthesis are found among the Hindus at the present time. The two illustrations (Figs. [5] and [6]) are from photographs of specimens of work done by native Hindu dentists. Fig. [5] is a roughly carved artificial tooth of ivory attached by a gold wire ligature to the adjacent natural teeth, all of which, with the artificial tooth attached, were subsequently lost by alveolar disease. Fig. [6] is a similar carved artificial tooth of ivory attached to the adjoining teeth by a thread ligature, the supporting teeth with the attached ivory tooth also having been lost by alveolar disease. These specimens were removed and sent to the writer by Dr. H. B. Osborn, of Burma, during the present year (1909).—E. C. K.]
[22] Renan, Mission de Phénicie, p. 472.
[23] The number varies according to the different translations. So, instead of the Latin dentes elephantis, we find in English and in other languages the word ivory.
[24] J. Bouillet, Précis d’histoire de la Médecine, Paris, 1883, p. 24.
[25] La médecine chez les Chinois, par le Capitaine P. P. Dabry, Consul de France en Chine, Membre de la Société Asiatique de Paris, 1863.
[26] One of these books, Nuei-King, is said to have been written twenty-seven centuries before the Christian era, by the Emperor Houang-ty, the founder of Chinese medicine.
[27] See Bouillet, work quoted at p. 31.
[28] Dabry, op. cit., p. x (introduction), pp. 1, 2, 4, 10, 11.
[29] This author wrote toward the end of the seventeenth century; one of his works is entitled De Acupunctura.
[30] Dabry, op. cit., p. 424.
[31] See Histoire de la Chirurgie depuis son origine, par MM. Dujardin et Peyrihle, Paris, 1774 to 1780.
[32] London, 1811.
[33] Die Zahnheilkunde, etc., 1851, p. 347.
[34] J. Bontii, De medicina Indorum, 1642, lib. iv.
[35] Carabelli, Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, 1844, i, 8.
[36] Linderer, op. cit.
[37] [The newer civilization of Japan has caused this custom to largely fall into disuse.—E. C. K.]
[38] Carabelli, loc. cit.
[39] Linderer, loc. cit.
[40] Carabelli, op. cit., p. 17.
[41] The Greek name Asklepios became in the Latin, Æsculapius; the two names are therefore equivalents.
[42] See Cicero, De Natura deorum, lib. iii, chap. xxii.
[43] [Homer speaks of them as “two excellent physicians,” and refers to Machaon as “a blameless physician,” and admits that “a medical man is equivalent to many others.” Their renown was continued in a poem of Arctinus, wherein one was represented as without a rival in surgery, the other as sagacious in detecting morbid symptoms.—C. M.]
[44] Praktische Darstellung aller Operationen der Zahnarznei-kunst, von Johann Jakob Joseph Serre, Berlin, pp. 7 to 13.
[45] Guardia, Histoire de la Médecine, p. 250.
[46] Hippocratis opera, Genevæ, 1657 to 1662, De natura hominis, p. 225.
[47] Page 251.
[48] Page 252.
[49] Page 253.
[50] De morbis mulierum, lib. ii, p. 666.
[51] The use of carbonate of lime or chalk as a dentifrice evidently goes back to antiquity.
[52] Unwashed wool—that is, wool not cleansed of the fat secreted by the skins of the animals from whom it is taken—was much in use by the doctors of antiquity. One now obtains lanolin from it.
[53] The obole was about three-quarters of a gram.
[54] The cotyle was a little more than a quarter of a liter.
[55] Page 507.
[56] Page 21.
[57] See Daremberg, Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines, article “Chirurgie.”
[58] The various editions here offer numerous variations, but the sense is everywhere obscure.
[59] See Bouillet, Précis d’Histoire de la Médecine, p. 94.
[60] On Epidemics, lib. ii, section i, p. 1002.
[61] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. iv, p. 1131.
[62] That is a very short root.
[63] Page 1138.
[64] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. v, p. 1157.
[65] Page 1157.
[66] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. vi, section i, p. 1164.
[67] Ibid., vii, p. 1223.
[68] Page 1229.
[69] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. vii, p. 1238.
[70] The title of these seven books of Hippocrates might cause a false idea to be conceived. They do not precisely treat of epidemics in the sense given to the word in the present day; instead, they describe the maladies which predominated during four years, in successive periods of time, according with the variations of the atmospheric conditions. (See Litré, Introduction to the books on Epidemics.)
[71] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. iii, p. 1009; lib. vi, section iii, p. 1176.
[72] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. iv, p. 1138; Aphorisms, lib. iv, No. 53, p. 1251.
[73] Coacæ prænotiones, No. 235, p. 157; Prædictorum, lib. i, No. 48, p. 71.
[74] Coacæ prænotiones, No. 236, p. 157.
[75] Loc. cit., No. 237.
[76] Loc. cit., No. 239.
[77] Loc. cit., No. 241, p. 157; No. 648, p. 222.
[78] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. iii, p. 1083.
[79] Ibid., lib. iv, p. 1121.
[80] Prædictorum, lib. ii, p. 111.
[81] De affectionibus, p. 521.
[82] De internis affectionibus, p. 549.
[83] Paul Dubois, Aide-mémoire du chirurgien-dentiste, Paris, 1894, 2me partie, pp. 415, 416.
[84] Prædictorum, lib. ii, p. 108.
[85] De internis affectionibus, p. 534.
[86] De humoribus, p. 49.
[87] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. ii, section vi, p. 1050.
[88] Prædictorum, lib. ii, p. 96.
[89] De articulis, p. 799.
[90] Loc. cit.
[91] De articulis, p. 800.
[92] Aphorism, lib. v, No. 18, p. 1253.
[93] De liquidorum usu, p. 426.
[94] De locis in homine, p. 419.
[95] De morbis vulgaribus, lib. i, p. 948.
[96] De partibus animalium, lib. iii, cap. i.
[97] Ctesias, of Cnydus, wrote various works, somewhat earlier than Aristotle; one of which, the History of India, is very interesting, but also contains not a few fables.
[98] This, as well as other errors of Aristotle, we shall find repeated throughout the lapse of centuries by many authors, Galen not excluded, who, in fact, by the authority of his name, gave them valid confirmation.
[99] The distinction between arteries and veins was, at that time, not yet well known, though we already find, in this passage of Aristotle, allusion made to the relations between the teeth and the bloodvessels.
[100] According to the testimony of Celsus, a very serious author and in every way worthy of belief, Herophilus and Erasistratus dissected not only corpses, but also living men, namely, malefactors consigned to them by the kings of Egypt, in order that they might make researches into the normal conditions of the organs during life, and their mode of functioning. See Cornel. Cels., De re medica, lib. i, Preface.
[101] Cœlii Aureliani de morbis acutis et chronicis, lib. viii, Amstelædami, 1755, Pars ii, lib. ii, cap. iv, De dolore dentium.
[102] Herophilus et Heraclides Tarentinus mori quosdam detractione dentis memoraverunt.
[103] Arretium, Cære, Clusium, Cortona, Fæsulæ, Falerii, Pisæ, Russellæ, Tarquinii, Vetulonia, Volaterræ, Volsinii.
[104] Deneffe, La prothèse dentaire dans l’antiquité, p. 51.
[105] Dr. Cigrand in his book The Rise, Fall, and Revival of Dental Prosthesis, after having spoken of the Phœnician dental appliance described in Renan’s work, adds: “There are scores of specimens of Phœnician dental art in home collections and also at the Columbian World’s Fair.” However, until these specimens of Phœnician dental art are described and their origin is exactly known, their authenticity will always remain a matter of doubt. [Cigrand is in error. The specimens he speaks of were mainly imagined.—W. H. Trueman.]
[106] Deneffe, op. cit., pp. 60, 61.
[107] Deneffe, op. cit., p. 63.
[108] Plinius, lib. xxix, cap. v.
[109] This article forms part of the tenth table. The Law of the Twelve Tables was lost, but citations and passages are to be found in Cicero and in the works of other Roman jurisconsults, and by the aid of these it has been possible to reconstruct, at least in part, this very ancient code of laws. See Dionysii Gothofredi, Corpus juris civilis. Amstelodami, 1663; and also Thesaurus juris romani cum prefat. Ottonis, Tome iii, Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1733.
[110] Josef Serre, Zahnarznei kunst, Berlin, 1804, p. 6.
[111] Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 26.
[112] See note, p. 15, Hist. Relations of Medicine and Surgery, Allbutt. (C. M.)
[113] A. Corn. Celsi de Medicina libri octo, Patavii, MDCCXXII.
[114] Celsus, lib. i, Preface.
[115] Wine with honey.
[116] [Minium is an ancient name for red oxide of lead; it was also applied to mercuric sulphide or vermilion, and the term vermilion was also used as a designation for granum tinctorum or kermes, the coccus ilicis, a variety of cochineal extolled by Galen for its medicinal properties. The exact nature of the meaning of minium in this connection is not altogether clear.—E. C. K.]
[117] A species of herb (all-heal).
[118] Peucedanum officinale, hog’s fennel.
[119] A species of wild grape thus called because it is red like minium (vermilion).
[120] Species of mineral. [An impure copper sulphide.—E. C. K.]
[121] Condensed juice of the seeds of the momordica elaterium, a bitter, irritating, and drastic substance.
[122] According to De Giorgi (Sinonimia chimico-farmacotecnica, Milan, 1889), scissile alum is one of the many names for blue vitriol or sulphate of copper.
[123] [The cyperus rotundus, recommended by Dioscorides in the treatment of ulcers in the mouth. Esteemed also by the Arab medical writers Serapion, Avicenna, and Rhazes. Not the cypress, cupressus sempervirens.—E. C. K.]
[124] Here is meant the paper made of papyrus and called in Latin charta.
[125] Trisulphide of arsenic.
[126] Celsus did not know of the upper maxillary bones as distinct bones. The same may be said of the other bones of the head. Celsus speaks of the osseous sutures and openings, but not of the different bones of the skull and face.
[127] C. Plinii Secundi, Historiæ Mundi, lib. vii, cap. ii.
[128] Lib. xxiv, cap. cxi.
[129] Lib. xi, cap. lxiii.
[130] Lib. xi, cap. lxiv.
[131] Cap. cvi.
[132] Dipsacus fullonum.
[133] Cap. cviii.
[134] Lib. xxviii, cap. ii.
[135] Lib. xxviii, cap. xi.
[136] Lib. xxviii, cap. xiv.
[137] Ibid., cap. xxvii.
[138] Ibid., cap. xxix.
[139] Ibid., cap. xlix.
[140] Ibid., cap. lxxviii.
[141] Lib. xxix, cap. ix.
[142] Lib. xxix, cap. x.
[143] Lib. xxix, cap. xi.
[144] Lib. xxx, cap. viii.
[145] Lib. xxx, cap. ix.
[146] Lib. xxx, cap. xlvii.
[147] Lib. xxxi, cap. xlv, xlvi.
[148] Lib. xxxii, cap. xiv.
[149] Trygon pastinaca, a large fish whose tail is armed with sharp and strong bones.
[150] A measure equal to 0.274 liter.
[151] [The sextarius was accorded different values, thus a sextary of oil was ℥xviij, of wine ℥xx, and of honey, ℥xvij.—E. C. K.]
[152] [Lat., the purple fish, a carnivorous marine mollusk.—E. C. K.]
[153] Lib. xxxii, cap. xlviii.
[154] A kind of lignite, now called jet.
[155] Ignatius, because he has white teeth, is always laughing; if he be present at the felon’s trial, whilst the counsel is moving all to tears, he laughs; he laughs even when everyone is mourning at the funeral pyre of a dutiful son, whilst the mother is weeping for her only child. He laughs at everything, everywhere, and whatever he be doing; this is his weakness, which methinks is neither polite nor elegant. Wherefore, I must tell thee, O good Ignatius, even if thou wert a citizen of Rome, or a Sabine, or of Tibur, or one of the thrifty Umbrians, or of the fat Etruscans, or wert thou a black and large-toothed Lanuvin, or a Transpadane, if I may speak of my own people, or belonging to any people that cleanly wash their teeth; even then I would not have thee be always laughing; for nothing is more silly than a silly laugh. Now, O Celtiberian, in thy Celtiberian land, each is accustomed, with the water he has himself emitted, to rub his teeth and gums. Wherefore the cleaner are thy teeth, the more surely stale dost thou accuse thyself of having drunk.
[156] Rerum geographicarum libri. Lutetiæ Parisiorum, 1620. Lib. iii, p. 164; quippe qui urina in cisternis inveterata laventur, eaque cum ipsi, tum eorum uxores dentes tergant; quod Cantabros facere et eorum confines ajunt (Carabelli, Systematisches Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Wien, 1844, i, 12).
[157] Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Berlin, 1848, ii, 412.
Medio recumbit imus ille qui lecto,
Calvam trifilem segmentatus unguento,
Foditque tonsis ora laxa lentiscis;
Mentitur, Esculane; non habet dentes.
Lentiscum melius; sed si tibi frondea cuspis
Defuerit, dentes penna levare potest.
[160] Antiq. du Bosphore au Musée de l’Ermitage, pl. xxx, 8 et 9 (Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, par Daremberg, Saglio, etc.).
[161] Mittheilung. d. antiq. Gesellschaft in Zürich, xv, pl. xi, 32 (Daremberg and Saglio, ibid.)
[162] Caylus, vol. vi, pl. cxxx, 5.
Dentifricium ad edentulam:
Quid mecum est tibi? me puella sumat,
Emptos non soleo polire dentes.
[164] Lib. xii, epig. xxiii.
Dentibus atque comis, nec te pudet, uteris emptis.
Quid facies oculo, Lælia? non emitur.
Nostris versibus esse te poetam,
Fidentine, putas, cupisque eredi?
Sic dentata sic videtur Ægle,
Emptis ossibus, indicoque cornu. (Lib. i, epig. lxxii.)
[167] Lib. ix, epig. xxxviii.
[168] Nec dentes aliter quam serica nocte reponas.
[169] Horat. Sat. viii, lib. i.
[170] Eximit aut reficit dentem Cascellius ægrum.
[171] Suffire autem oportet ore aperto alterci semine carbonibus asperso, subinde os colluere aqua calida; interdum enim quasi vermiculi quidam eiciuntur.
[172] Gum of the cedar tree.
[173] Dentifricium, quod splendidos facit dentes et confirmat, chap. xi, lix.
[174] A Roman measure of capacity, equal to a little more than half a liter.
[175] The origin of the theriac, according to what Galen writes in his book De antidotis, is to be traced back to Mithridates, King of Pontus, who lived from the year 132 to the year 63 B.C. This king, patron of Art and Science, was, for his times, an eminent toxicologist. By making experiments on condemned criminals he sought to discover by what drugs the action of the various poisons, both mineral and vegetable, and those inoculated by the bites of poisonous animals might be counteracted. He afterward mixed the various antidotes together for the purpose of obtaining a remedy that might prove a preservative against the action of any poison whatever. This universal remedy, the receipt of which was carried to Rome by Pompey, the conqueror of that great king, was named mithridatium, after the name of him who had composed it. Andromachus modified the mithridate; he took away certain ingredients and added others, reducing the number of them from about eighty to sixty-five. The principal modification was that of introducing into the composition of this drug the flesh of the viper; wherefore, Galen is of the opinion that the theriac (so called from the Greek word therion, a noxious animal) was more efficacious than the mithridate against the bite of the viper. The theriac still exists in the French pharmacopeia, although considerably simplified. In every 4 grams it contains 5 centigrams of opium.
[176] A species of solanaceæ of the Physalis genus, probably the Physalis alkekengi.
[177] Galeni de compositione medicamentorum secundum locos, liber v.
[178] J. R. Duval, Recherches historiques sur l’art du dentiste chez les anciens, Paris, 1808, p. 19. (See Carabelli, p. 13.)
[179] Galen admits three kinds of nerves: soft or sensitive nerves, originating from the brain; hard or motor nerves, originating from the spinal marrow; medial nerves, motor-sensitive, originating from the medulla oblongata.
[180] Galen distinguishes seven pairs of cerebral nerves; his third pair corresponds to the trigeminus.
[181] Galeni de usu partium corporis humani, lib. xvi.
[182] Galeni de compositione medicamentorum secundum locos, lib. v.
[183] Medicus, chap. xix.
[184] Trigonella fœnum græcum, a papilionaceous plant.
[185] [About twenty-eight fluid ounces.—E. C. K.]
[186] Under the name of root, the ancients meant also the neck of the tooth.
[187] Swallow, I tell thee, as this water will not be again in my mouth, even so my teeth will not ache for the whole year.
[188] The cure of teeth affected by warm painful disease; according to Adamantius the sophist.
[189] Ætii tetrabibl., ii, sermo iv, cap. xxvii.
[190] Ibid., cap. xxxi.
[191] Ætii tetrabibl., ii, sermo iv, cap. xix.
[192] Ibid., i, sermo iv, cap. ix.
[193] Ibid., ii, sermo iv, cap. xxiv.
[194] Tetrabibl., ii, sermo iv, cap. xxv.
[195] Ibid., cap. xxvi.
[196] [The author quoted directs hydromel to be made from one part of honey and eight parts of water boiled until it has ceased frothing.—E. C. K.]
[197] Pauli Æginetæ de re medica, lib. vi, cap. xxvii.
[198] Lib. vi, cap. xxviii.
[199] Ibid., cap. ix.
[200] Ibid., cap. xxix.
[201] Rasis opera, Venetiis, 1508.
[202] Haly Abbas Pract., lib. v, cap. lxxviii.
[203] Ibid., cap. xxxiii.
[204] Serapionis practica, Venetiis, 1503.
[205] Avicennæ opera in re medica, Venetiis, 1564.
[206] Abulcasis de Chirurgia, lib. i, cap. xix, p. 47; Latin translation by Channing with the Arabic text in front, Oxford, 1778.
[207] Cap. xx, p. 47.
[208] Cap. xxi, p. 49.
[209] Zegi was the name given by the Arabs to blue vitriol.
[210] Lib. ii, cap. xxviii, p. 181.
[211] Lib. ii, cap. xxix, pp. 181 to 183.
[212] This great Mahommedan surgeon was, it seems, very religious. His book begins with the words: “In the name of the merciful God, Lord perfect in goodness,” and almost every chapter ends with “If God so wills,” and the like.
[213] These two manuscript codices are found in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
[214] Lib. ii, cap. xxx, p. 185.
[215] The Arabic word used by the author means more precisely “those who apply cupping glasses.” Channing has translated it by tonsores, barbers.
[216] An advice already given by Celsus.
[217] Lib. ii, cap. xxxi, p. 191.
[218] Silly barbers.
[219] Lib. ii, cap. xxxi, p. 187.
[220] Lib. ii, cap. xxxii, p. 193.
[221] Lib. ii, cap. xxxv, p. 197.
[222] Lib. iii, cap. iv, p. 545.
[223] [In connection with the practice of applying medicines to the teeth or upon the gums, with the object of rendering the operation of tooth extraction less difficult, the use of arsenical compounds as an ingredient of these topical applications is of peculiar interest. In an Italian translation of the writings of Johannes Mesue, published at Venice in 1521, the following interesting reference to the use of arsenic appears:
“The son of Zachariah Arazi compounds a medicine to assist the extraction of the teeth. ℞—Pyrethrum, colquintida root and the bark of the mulberry root, the seed and leaves of almezeron, huruc, and yellow arsenic, milk of alscebram or pieces of it, ground very thoroughly with vinegar; then pour some of it over bdellium and halasce, of each, equal parts, dry and dissolve in strong vinegar and make trochisi of it, and with them anoint the roots of the tooth from hour to hour; this facilitates the extraction of it.
“There is also another medicine with which one fills the decayed tooth and breaks it: ℞—Seeds of almezeron and milk of alscebram compounded with liquid pitch, and fill with it the decayed tooth. Another one: ℞—Bauras, bark of the willow, of each, one part; yellow arsenic, two parts; compound with honey and place it upon and around the tooth and immediately extract it.
“The fat of the green frog which lives upon the trees breaks teeth which are anointed with it the same as when you anoint them with milk of alscebram or titimallo, and similarly also the milk of celso with yellow arsenic.”
In this connection it is also interesting to note that the ancient Arabian medical writers referred to the red sulphide of arsenic or realgar as sandarach. The term Sandarach was clearly used by these writers to designate two different medicaments—one the gum-vernix, exudate of the Juniper tree, and which we now know as Sandarach gum. They also apply the term to red arsenic, as above stated. Avicenna clearly distinguishes between the two kinds of Sandarach, and says with regard to the gum-vernix or Juniper Sandarach that it is the best of all known remedies for toothache. While, as shown by Dr. Guerini, many of the medicaments used as topical applications to facilitate the extraction of teeth were wholly without any possible effect of that character, it cannot be doubted that the application of arsenical preparations, such as those referred to by Mesue, could not fail to set up an arsenical necrosis about the roots of the tooth, rendering it loose and easy of removal, but necessarily with the disadvantage of producing a dangerously extensive necrosis of the tissues.
Mesue Vulgar.—Impresso in Venitia per Cesaro Arrivabeno Venitiano a di vinti octubrio, mille cinquecento e vintiuno.
Delle Medicini Particulare, Libro Quarto, Capitolo XLI.—E. C. K.]
[224] Joannis Mesue opera, Venetiis, 1562.
[225] Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, Part II, p. 279.
[226] Linderer, Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Berlin, 1848, ii, 403.
[227] Bruni Chirurgia magna.
[228] Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, Part II, p. 280.
[229] Sprengel, loc. cit.
[230] Sprengel, loc. cit.
[231] La Grande Chirurgie de Guy de Chauliac, chirurgien maistre en médecine de l’Université de Montpellier, composée en l’an 1363, revue et collationnée sur les manuscrits et imprimés latins et français par E. Nicaise, 1890.
[232] Of these copies, twenty-two are written in Latin, four in French, two in Provençal, three in English, one in Netherlandish (Dutch), one in Italian, and one in Hebrew.
[233] Nicaise, La Grande Chirurgie de Guy de Chauliac, Second Chapitre: De l’Anatomie de la face et de ses parties, p. 47.
[234] Here, as elsewhere, is preserved the old orthography of the text.
[235] Nicaise, p. 711.
[236] Teeth may be produced not only in infancy, but also at a later age.
[237] Nicaise, p. 205.
[238] Pietro of Albano (1250 to 1316), the writer of many books, among which one bearing the title of Conciliator differentiorum philosophorum et præcipue medicorum, is often quoted by Guy de Chauliac and by many others under the name of Conciliator.
[239] Nicaise, p. 505.
[240] Appropriatæ barbitonsoribus et dentatoribus.
[241] In one Latin manuscript of 1461 instead of dentator we already find the word dentista.
[242] Nicaise, p. 506. To make clear the meaning of these names, the following must be noted: The rasoirs (rasoria) were instruments with one cutting edge alone, which were used in performing any kind of incision. Raspatoria (râpes, i. e., rasps) signified almost certainly scrapers, not rasps. The spatumes were instruments with one or two cutting edges, of various shapes, but usually small. Esprouvettes (Latin, probæ) were the sounds or probes. Scalpra means scalpels, but in this case has especially the meaning of déchaussoirs, gum lancets. Terebelli (French, Tarières) are the trepans or perforators.
[243] Nicaise, p. 507.
[244] By the word apostema, Guy de Chauliac, and many other writers, indicate every pathological condition in which the normal elements of the tissues are separated from one another, by a humorous or gaseous gathering, or by any phlogistic or neoplastic formation. The word signifies, in Greek, removal, just like the Latin word abscessus. In fact, these two terms were often used as synonyms; but at other times the word apostema had a wider meaning, and included, besides the abscess, the phlegmon, the furunculus, the anthrax, erysipelas, herpes, and other dermal affections, especially the pustulous ones, edema and other serous gatherings, subcutaneous emphysema and other gaseous gatherings, glandular tumefactions, cysts, benignant and malignant tumors.
[245] De la dent esbranlée et affoiblie, Nicaise, p. 509.
[246] “De l’humidité qui amollist le nerf et le ligament.”
[247] Evidently the author speaks of a “little gold chain,” because, as he is not versed in the practice of dentistry, he does not know that it was a simple gold wire which was used for keeping loose teeth firm. A small chain as thin as a thread could not be possibly made, and would even then be excessively weak.
[248] This name was first given to medicaments containing gall-nuts, then, by extension, also to compound remedies not containing such substance, and to which was given the name of aliptæ, v. Nicaise, p. 677.
[249] According to Nicaise, the Cyperus esculentus (in French, “souchet”) is here referred to.
[250] In the Latin text: Buccelletur cum scalpro et lima.
[251] Here lavement means mouth wash, not injection.
[252] Cum raspatoriis et spatuminibus radantur.
[253] Treatise vi, doctrine i, chap. viii: “Des membres qu’il faut amputer,” etc., Nicaise, p. 435.
[254] According to Joubert several solanaceæ had this name, among others Solanum nigrum and Solanum somniferum (Physalis somnifera L.), which probably corresponds to the Strychnos hypnoticus of Dioscorides.
[255] Valesci Philonium, etc.; Francofurti MDXCIX, cap. lxiv, De dolore dentium, p. 195 et seq.
[256] Plant belonging to the order of the Polygonaceæ.
[257] “Materia lapidea paullatim abradatur ferro et dentifriciis partim mundificativis, et partim stypticis. Deinde colluantur denies sæpe vino albo, et fricentur sale torrefacto.” Cap. lxvii, De colore dentium præter naturam, p. 202.
[258] “Quoniam, licet ex parte corrosi sint, attamen dolore sedato masticationem iuvant, et alios firmiores reddunt.” Appendices, p. 205.
[259] “Ossa fiunt ex spermate et sanguine menstruo; dentes autem ex sanguine, in quo remansit virtus spermatis.” Appendices, p. 205.
[260] Petri de Largelata chirurgiæ libri sex, Venetiis, 1480.
[261] Bartolomæi Montagnanæ Consilia, Venetiis, 1497.
[262] Johannis Platearii Salernitani practica brevis, Lugduni, 1525.
[263] Joannis Arculani commentaria in nonum librum Rasis ad regem Almansorem, etc., Venetiis, 1542.
[264] This Arabian word was used to indicate the last molars.
[265] “Regimen autem implendo dentem corrosum est, ut impleatur in causa calida cum frigidis, et in frigida cum calidis. Secundo, ut non impleatur cum labore et vehementia addente in dolore, et ex propriis est gallia cum ciperis aut cum mastiche, et eligantur ex suprascriptis, calida aut frigida secundum opportunitatem, in contrarium dyscrasiæ dentis, sed ubi non fuerit multus recessus a mediocritate impleatur cum foliis auri.” Cap. xlviii, p. 195.
[266] In the Venetian edition (1542), however, all the figures which Arculanus inserted in his work are found in the beginning of the book, in a single table, together with the indication of the use to which each single instrument was destined.
[267] Alexandri Benedicti Veronensis de re medica opus, lib. vi, de affectibus dentium.
[268] Opera domini Joannis de Vigo in chyrurgia. Lugduni, 1521, lib. ii, tract. iii, cap. xiv, fol. 40.
[269] [The editions and translations of Vigo seem to have been endless. A French translation of his treatise on the wounds caused by firearms is said to have fallen into the hands of Paré, and had an inspiring influence upon the barber’s boy.—C. M.]
[270] Lib. v, cap. v, De doloribus dentium, fol. cxvii to cxix.
[271] Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Berlin, 1848, ii, 406.
[272] Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 80.
[273] A religious order of knights, established toward the close of the twelfth century, viz., during the third crusade. The original object of the association was to defend the Christian religion against the infidels, and to take care of the sick in the Holy Land.
[274] Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 82.
[275] Geist-Jacobi, p. 88.
[276] Albert von Haller, Bibliotheca chirurgica, i, 190.
[277] Nuetzlicher Bericht, wie man die Augen und das Gesicht schaerfen und gesund erhalten, die Zaehne frisch und fest erhalten soll. Würzburg, 1548.
[278] See Giornale di Corrispondenza pei dentisti, 1895, xxiv, 289.
[279] Joannis Arculani. Commentaria, Venetiis, 1542, cap. xlviii, De dolore dentium, p. 192.
[280] “The first dental book in the German language” (see Giornale di Corrispondenza pei dentisti, loc. cit.).
[281] A Latin translation of the French name Du bois.
[282] De humani corporis fabrica, libri septem.
[283] De humani corporis fabrica libri septem, cap. xi, De dentibus, pp. 40 to 42 (complete edition of the works of Vesalius, published at Leyden in 1725).
[284] Lib. i, cap. xlii, p. 141.
[285] From gena, a cheek.
[286] Blandin, Anatomie du système dentaire, Paris, 1836, p. 19.
[287] Portal, Histoire de l’anatomie et de la chirurgie, tome i, p. 545.
[288] Observationes anatomicæ, p. 39, et seq.
[289] In utero duodecim dentes formantur in malis, et totidem in maxilla (in the uterus are formed twelve teeth in the upper jaw and as many in the lower). Fallopii Gabrielis observationes anatomicæ, Venetiis, 1562, p. 39.
[290] This sharp reproof and accusation of ignorance are made for the benefit of the immortal anatomist Andreas Vesalius, to the number of whose adversaries Eustachius likewise belonged. What unjust fury of party passion!
[291] Chap. xviii, p. 54.
[292] Chap. xxii, p. 65.
[293] Chap. xxiii, p. 70.
[294] Chap. xxv, xxvi.
[295] Chap. xxvii, xxviii.
[296] The inferior orifice of the foramen incisivum.
[297] It is superfluous to say that these cases are unreal and simply dependent upon erroneous observations; for instance, in the case of the second molar being extracted before the erupting of the third, the second molar figured as, and supposed to be, the latter, when, finally, the wisdom tooth appeared, it was believed to be the last molar renewed. It is no rare thing, also, in these days, not only for unprofessional persons, but also for medical practitioners, to fall into errors of this kind, especially because, in similar cases, the wisdom tooth, having but a limited space in which to erupt, is in the habit of filling the void left by the second molar, where it meets with less resistance.
[298] Page 93.
[299] Œuvres complètes d’Ambroise Paré, accompagnées de notes historiques et critiques, par J. F. Malgaigne, Paris, 1840, vol. i, p. 231.
[300] The lower molars, being seated on the roots and not suspended like those of the upper jaw, are not in want of so many roots to assure their stability.
[301] Vol. ii, p. 307.
[302] ... if they are divided, shaken, or separated from their alveoli or little cavities, they must be reduced into their places and should be bound and fastened against those that are firm with a thread of gold, silver, or flax. And they must be held thus until they are quite firm and the callus is formed and have become solid.
[303] Lib. xv, ch. xvi, vol. ii, p. 443.
[304] Lib. xv, cap. xxvii, vol. ii, p. 448.
[305] A man, worthy of being believed, has assured me that a certain princess having had a tooth taken out, immediately had it replaced by another supplied by one of her ladies, which took root, and after a time she masticated with it as well as she had done with the former one.
[306] Lib. xv, cap. xxviii.
[307] I will here tell a story of a master barber living at Orleans, named maistre François Louys, who had the honor of pulling a tooth better than any one else, so that on Saturdays many country folks having toothache came to him to have them pulled out, which he did very dexterously with a pelican, and when he had done, threw it on a bench in his shop. Now he had a new servant, Picard, tall and strong, who wanted to pull teeth like his master. It happened that whilst the said François Louys was dining, a villager wanting a tooth pulled, Picard took his master’s instrument and tried to do like him, but instead of taking out the bad tooth, he knocked and tore out three good ones for him, who, feeling great pain and seeing three teeth out of his mouth, began to cry out against Picard, but he, to make him hold his peace, told him not to say a word about it and not to shout so, because if his master came he would make him pay for three teeth instead of one. Now the master, hearing such a noise, came out from table to know the cause of it and the reason of the quarrel, but the poor peasant fearing the threats of Picard and still more after enduring such pain being made to pay a threefold fee by the said Picard, was silent, not daring to reveal to the master this fine piece of work of the said Picard; and thus the poor bumpkin went away, and for one tooth that he had thought to have pulled, he carried away three in his pouch and the one that hurt him in his mouth.”
[308] For which reason I advise those who would have their teeth pulled to go to the older tooth-pullers, and not to the younger ones who will not yet have recognized their shortcomings.”
[309] An old French word meaning perhaps hippopotamus.
[310] Jacobi Hollerii medici parisiensis omnia opera practica, Genevæ, 1635, lib. ii, p. 117, et seq.
[311] Blandin, Anatomie du système dentaire, Paris, 1836, p. 25.
[312] Hoann Jac. Weckerus, medicinæ utriusque syntaxes, ex Græcorum, Latinorum, Arabumque thesauris collectæ, Basilea, 1576.
[313] Donati Antonii ab Altomari medici ac philosophi neapolitani Ars Medica, Venetiis, 1558, cap. xli, p. 190.
[314] Collezione d’osservazioni e riflessioni, vol. iii, oss. 84, p. 374.
[315] Hieronymi Capivacci Patavini opera omnia, Venetiis, 1617, edit. sexta, lib. i, cap. liii; de affectibus dentium, p. 515.
[316] Lib. ii, cap. v, de lue venerea, p. 712.
[317] Petri Foresti, Alcmariani, opera omnia quatuor tomis digesta, Rothomagi, 1653.
[318] Histoire de l’anatomie et de la chirurgie, Paris, 1770.
[319] Hémard has omitted translating this passage, probably because he did not well understand it.
[320] [For a fuller review of this author see A Dental Book of the Sixteenth Century, by Julio Endelman, Dental Cosmos, 1903, vol. xlv, p. 39.—E. C. K.]
[321] Hieronymi Fabricii ab Aquapendente opera chirurgica, Lugduni Batavorum, 1723, cap. xxxii, p. 451.
[322] Cap. xxxiii, p. 455.
[323] Cap. xxxiv, p. 456; de instrumentis extrahendis dentibus idoneis.
[324] Cap. xxxv, p. 457.
[325] Cap. xxx, de gingivarum chirurgia, p. 450.
[326] Joannis Heurnii Ultrajectini de morbis oculorum, aurum, nasi, dentium et oris, liber Raphelengii, 1602, cap. xi, de dentium et oris passionibus, p. 79.
[327] De aureo dente maxillari pueri Silesii, Lipsiæ, 1595.
[328] Martini Rulandi, Nova et in omni memoria inaudita historia de aureo dente, Francofurti, 1595.
[329] Liddelius, Tractatus de dente aureo pueri Silesiani, Hamburg, 1626.
[330] [In the introductory portion of Liddell’s work on the “Golden Tooth” is published a number of letters bearing on the case, among others one which gives rather a circumstantial account of the imposture, and of which the following is a translation:
“Herr Balthazer Caminæus sends Greeting:
“For your letter, most kind Herr Doctor Caselius, in which you explicitly desired me to thank (my) colleagues for their good wishes, ‘wedding wishes,’ and to inform you as to the ‘Golden Tooth,’ I have long been in debt to you—not that I intended to leave your letter unanswered, but because no messengers presented themselves. Now that I have found one, I announce that I have obeyed your commands. As for the ‘Golden Tooth,’ I ought not to hide from you that we have more than once marvelled at your shrewdness, in that you are so anxious to ascribe the devices of wickedness and the tricks (fakes) of cunning to Nature. For it was no portent, only a deception and pure cheat, so that unless some Lemnian (Prometheus or Vulcan) should come to their aid, these acute authors will, nay, already are, a by-word to those who are more cautious and not so prone to believe. For the ‘Golden Toothed’ boy, according to the account brought thither by many persons, both by letter and oral report, some of whom had themselves seen this wonder, hailed from a village near Schwidnitz in Silesia, and had been so trained by his swindling father or master, that, at his will, whenever in any assembly of men, some very simple and illiterate persons desired to see the tooth and had paid the fee, for the rascals made great gains, he would open his mouth wide and allow himself to be touched. But if educated men and those who seemed likely to make more careful scrutiny and experiment on any point, presented themselves, he contorted his countenance, remained silent, and simulated a kind of madness, the idea being that he permitted himself to be examined at stated times only when the conditions allowed. Now, the tooth was covered with a plate, lamina (or layer), skilfully wrought of the best gold, and the gold was let down so deep into the gum that the cheat was not observed. However, as the plate was sometimes rubbed with a touch-stone as a test and was daily worn down by chewing, the real tooth at last began to appear. Of this fact a certain nobleman got an inkling, came to the place pretty drunk, and demanded that the tooth should be shown him, when the young fellow, at his master’s word, kept silent, the nobleman struck his dagger into the boy’s mouth, wounding him so badly that the aid of a surgeon had to be called, and so the deception was fully exposed.
“Thus the Herr Baron Fabianus, in Crema, at present Rector Magnificus of our University, told me the story in full, and those inhabitants of the place who have scholarly tastes maintain it to a man. The author of the fraud, if I remember aright, was said to have taken refuge in flight, the boy to be in chains.
“Our Pelargus, who is a native of Schwidnitz, can inform you more fully. I have often heard from him the same facts which I am writing. Farewell, and laugh in safety as much as you please at those sagacious authors.
“Frankfort, December 31, 1595.”
Elsewhere it is stated that the boy who was the possessor of the “Golden Tooth” was born December 22, 1586. As Horst’s Treatise appeared in 1595, the Silesian boy was probably not over seven or eight years of age. We also find that the “Golden Tooth” was a lower molar, and upon the left side, and further, that there was no molar posterior to it.—E. C. K.]
[331] Illustrious Father, do not believe too much in the color.—{Virgil, Ec. ii, 16.]
[332] Joh. Stephani Strobelbergeri, thermiatri cæsarei emeriti, etc., de dentium podagre, seu potius de odontagra, doloreve dentium, tractatus absolutissimus, in quo, tam doloris istius mitigandi rationes, quam dentium sine et cum ferro artificiose extrahendorum varii modi, theoretice ac practice proponuntur, in medicorum ac chirurgorum quorumvis gratiam. Lepsiæ, 1630.
[333] In Latin, gutta, that is, drop.
[334] Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Berlin, 1848, ii, 422.
[335] Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 101.
[336] Arnauld Gilles, La fleur des remèdes contre le mal des dents, Paris, 1622.
[337] Remèdes contre le mal des dents, Paris, 1633.
[338] Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, Part II, p. 293.
[339] Guilhelmi Fabricii Hilandi opera omnia, Francofurti ad Moenum, 1646, Centuria I observatio xxxviii, p. 33.
[340] Cent. iv, obs. xxi, p. 302.
[341] The most important of Fabricius Hildanus’ works consists of six centuriæ (hundreds) of remarkable cases, published by the author in successive epochs, and which were afterward reunited under the title of Observationum et curationum chirurgicarum centuriæ sex.
[342] Cent. v, obs. xxvii, p. 406.
[343] G. F. Hildani, opera omnia, Epist. ad J. Rheterium, p. 1010.
[344] Joannis Sculteti, Ulmensis, armamentarium chirurgicum, Francofurti, 1666, Plates X, XI, XII, XXXII.
[345] Giovanni Battista Montano (1488 to 1551), of Verona, Professor of Medicine at Padua.
[346] It is marvellous that an intelligent physician should have lent faith to such a story, related, too, by such a woman, never reflecting that the daily use of sulphuric acid for the space of thirty years, that is, about 11,000 applications, instead of curing and beautifying bad teeth, would certainly rather have had the effect of totally destroying the denture of even a mastodon.
[347] Lazari Riverii, opera medica omnia, Genevæ, 1737; Praxeos medicæ liber sextus, cap. i; De dolore dentium, cap. ii; De dentium nigredine et erosione.
[348] Nicolai Tulpii, Amstelodamensis, Osservationes medicæ, Amstelodami, 1685, lib. i, cap. xxxvi, p. 68; cap. xlix, p. 90.
[349] Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, vol. ii, pp. 294, 299.
[350] Sprengel, op. cit., p. 297.
[351] Blandin, Anatomie du système dentaire, Paris, 1836, p. 26.
[352] Blandin, op. cit., p. 27; Portal, Histoire de l’anatomie et de la chirurgie, Paris, 1770, vol. iii, p. 495.
[353] Blandin, op. cit., p. 26; Portal, op. cit.
[354] Totus dens primum inclusus est folliculo seu membrana tenui ac pellucida non secus ac granum in arista.
[355] Bouillet, Précis d’histoire de la médecine, p. 221.
[356] Bouillet, op. cit., p. 222.
[357] Friderici Ruyschii observationum anatomico-chirurgicorum, centuria, Amstelodami, 1691; Portal, op. cit., vol. iii.
[358] Portal, op. cit., vol. iii.
[359] A. C. Abbott, The Principles of Bacteriology, Philadelphia, 1905, p. 19.
[360] Anatome ossium, Romæ, 1689.
[361] Portal, vol. iv, p. 111; Blandin, p. 28.
[362] Jean Guichard Duverney, Mémoire sur les dents, Paris, 1689.
[363] Blandin, op cit.; Portal, vol. iii, p. 495.
[364] Blandin, p. 31.
[365] On Some New Observations of the Bones and the Parts Belonging to Them, London, 1691. The accurate description given by Havers of the canals containing the nourishing vessels of the bone has caused these canals to be known, even up to the present day, by the name of “Haversian canals.”
[366] Portal, vol. iv, p. 134; Blandin, p. 31.
[367] De morbis acutis infantum, London, 1689.
[368] Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, vol. ii, p. 298.
[369] Meekren, Observationes medico-chirurgicæ, cap. xv, p. 84.
[370] Op. cit., cap. xxviii, p. 120.
[371] Sprengel, vol. ii, p. 298.
[372] Sprengel, loc. cit.
[373] Soolingen’s Manuale operatien der chirurgie, Amsterdam, 1684.
[374] Sprengel, op. cit., p. 300.
[375] Dissertation sur les dents, à Paris Chez Denys Thierry, MDCLXXIX.
[376] Portal, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 361.
[377] Purmann’s Wundarzenei, Halberstadt, 1684, Part I, chap. xxxii.
[378] New and very useful practice of all that which belongs to the diligent barber; composed by Cintio d’Amato.
[379] The art of beautifying the human body was comprised by the ancients among the many and various parts of the medical art, under the name of decorative medicine. The barbers considered themselves members of the medical class, as practitioners of decorative medicine and in a certain degree also of surgery.
[380] In a chapter entitled “Of the Excellence and Nobility of the Barber’s Office,” Cintio d’Amato speaks of several barbers of that period, who were in great repute by their writings, or by the high offices with which they were invested, or by honors received from princes and sovereigns. Among the writers, Tiberio Malfi, barber of Montesarchio, deserves mention; he published, in 1626, a book entitled The Barber, written in excellent style, and giving proof of solid literary culture, and of much erudition. This work treats of all that concerns the barber’s art (decorative medicine, bleeding, etc.). In it, however, there is absolutely nothing about the treatment of the teeth or their extraction; and this constitutes a valid confirmation of our own opinion, that is, that the dental art was not at that time in any way in the hands of the barbers.
[381] Portal, vol. iii, p. 618.
[382] Antonii Nuck operationes et experimenta chirurgica, Lugduni Batavorum, 1692.
[383] Caroli Musitani opera omnia, pp. 121 to 128, Venetiis, 1738.
[384] J. Drake, Anthropologia nova, London, 1707.
[385] J. M. Hoffmann, Disquisitiones anatomico-pathologicæ, Altorf, 1713, p. 321.
[386] Probably through the nose.
[387] H. Meibomii de abscessum internorma natura et constitutione discursus. Dresdæ et Lipsiæ, 1718, p. 114. (This edition was published after the author’s death, which took place in 1700.)
[388] St. Yves, Nouveau traité des maladies des yeux, 1722, p. 80.
[389] Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, vol. ii, p. 301. Carabelli, Systematisches, Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, vol. i, p. 60.
[390] This work was published in 1690.
[391] Here one also verifies the absurdities pronounced by those who, not being dentists, but merely general practitioners or surgeons, still risk speaking on dental subjects.
[392] Dionis, Cours d’opérations de chirurgie, Paris, 1716, p. 507 and following.
[393] [The Dresden edition of 1710 of Guillemeau’s work contains no reference to the artificial tooth composition as mentioned by Dionis.—E. C. K.]
[394] Carmeline was a most able surgeon-dentist. We learn this from a passage in Pierre Fauchard’s book (Le Chirurgien Dentiste, Préf., p. 13). As we shall see, the author praises him very highly and laments his not having written any book making known the results of his long experience.
[395] Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, vol. ii, p. 305.
[396] Traité complet des opérations de chirurgie, par Mons. de Lavauguyon, Paris, 1696, p. 644.
[397] Der beym aderlassen und Zahn-ausziehen Geschickten Barbiergesell, Leipsic, 1717.
[398] De dentium dolore, Altdorf, 1711.
[399] Schelhammer wrote a dissertation “on the cure of toothache by touch,” De odontalgia tactu sananda, Kiel, 1701. In the same year and in the same city, another pamphlet, by B. Krysingius, was written on the same subject. (See Crowley, Dental Bibliography, p. 13.)
[400] Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 311.
[401] Joseph Linderer, Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, vol. ii, p. 129.
[402] Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 367; Carabelli, op. cit. p. 65.
[403] Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 310.
[404] Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 309.
[405] Sprengel, loc. cit.
[406] Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 310.
[407] Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou Traité des Dents, où l’on enseigne les moyens de les entretenir propres & saines, de les embellir, d’en réparer la perte & de remédier à leurs maladies, à celles des Gencives & aux accidens qui peuvent survenir aux autres parties voisines des Dents. Avec des Observations & des Réflexions sur plusieurs cas singuliers. Ouvrage enrichi de quarante-deux Planches en taille douce. Par Pierre Fauchard, Chirurgien Dentiste à Paris.
[408] Deuxième édition, revue, corrigée et considérablement augmentée, à Paris, 1746.
[409] Experts pour les Dents. This was probably the title which was bestowed in the relative diploma on those who passed the examination in question.
[410] We have not been able to find any work in which particular records of Fauchard’s life are given, and hence do not know to which of the other arts he had dedicated himself.
[411] Vol. ii, p. 366.
[412] Page 21.
[413] Pages 73, 74.
[414] Vol. i, p. 131.
[415] Page 142.
[416] De la génération des vers dans le corps de l’homme, Paris, 1700.
[417] Vol. i, p. 143.
[418] Page 149.
[419] Chap. ix, p. 154.
[420] Dames illustres, vie d’Elizabeth, p. 179.
[421] Page 161.
[422] Page 165.
[423] Page 167.
[424] Liquid ammonia.
[425] Subcarbonate of ammonia.
[426] Chap. x, p. 169.
[427] Page 407.
[428] Chap. xii, p. 183.
[429] Chap. xiii, p. 185.
[430] Chap. xiv, p. 194.
[431] Chap. xv, p. 205.
[432] Chap. xvi.
[433] Chap. xvii to xxi.
[434] Chap. xxiii, p. 282.
[435] Page 330.
[436] Page 331.
[437] Page 368.
[438] Page 370.
[439] Page 383.
[440] Page 376.
[441] Chap. xxxi, p. 391.
[442] Page 397.
[443] Page 411.
[444] Page 418.
[445] Chap. xxxviii, p. 481.
[446] Vol. ii, chap. ii.
[447] Chap. iii.
[448] Chap. iv.
[449] Chap. v.
[450] Vol. ii, p. 71.
[451] Vol. ii, p. 77.
[452] Vol. ii, p. 78.
[453] Ibid.
[454] Chap. vii.
[455] Vol. ii, p. 80.
[456] Vol. ii, chap. viii, p. 87.
[457] Chap. ix, p. 117.
[458] Speaking of transplantation, he says: “On voit par des expériences journalières que des dents transplantées d’un alvéole dans l’alvéole d’une bouche différente se sont conservées plusieurs années fermes et solides sans recevoir aucune altération, et servant à toutes les fonctions auxquelles les dents sont propres.” (Vol. ii, p. 187.)
[459] Page 188.
[460] Vol. ii, p. 192.
[461] Vol. ii, chap. xiii, p. 215.
[462] Vol. ii, pp. 217 to 224.
[463] Vol. ii, p. 225.
[464] Vol. ii, p. 229.
[465] Chap. xvi, pp. 252, 255.
[466] Vol. ii, chap. xvii, p. 260.
[467] Vol. ii, chap. xxiv, p. 339.
[468] Vol. ii, p. 340.
[469] Vol. ii, p. 353.
[470] Jean de Diest, An hæmorrhage ex dentium evulsione chirurgi incuria lethalis? Paris, 1735. David Vasse, Hæmorrhagia ex dentium evulsione, chirurgi incuria lethalis, Paris, 1735.
[471] M. Bunon, Sur un prejugé très-pernicieux, concernant les maux de dents qui surviennent aux femmes grosses, Paris, 1741.
[472] M. Bunon, Essai sur les maladies des dents, Paris, 1743. Expériences et démonstrations pour servir de suite et de preuves à l’essai sur les maladies des dents, Paris, 1746.
[473] Abhandlung von Zahnkrankheiten, etc., Strassburg, 1754.
[474] A Practical Treatise upon Dentition or the Breeding of the Teeth in Children.
[475] Essai d’Odontotechnique, ou Dissertation sur les Dents Artificielles.
[476] Sprengel, Part ii, p. 319.
[477] Journal de Médecine, 1756.
[478] L. H. Runge. De Morbis sinuum ossis frontis, maxillæ superioris, etc., Rintel, 1750.
[479] Sprengel, Part ii (?), p. 322.
[480] Nouveaux éléments d’Odontologie, contenant l’anatomie de la bouche, ou la description de toutes les parties qui la composent, et de leur usage; et la pratique abregée du dentiste, avec plusieurs observations, par M. Lécluse, Chirurgien dentiste de Sa Majesté le Roi de Pologne, etc., Paris, 1754 (vol. in 12mo of pages viii-222 with six plates).
[481] Abhandlung von den Zähnen des menschlichen Körpers und deren Krankheiten, 1756.
[482] Geist-Jacobi, p. 164.
[483] Die eingebildeten würmer in Zähnen, Regenburg, 1757.
[Schaffer’s publication is of considerable interest in that his illustration here reproduced exhibits one of the devices somewhat generally employed for the eradication of dental worms as a cure for toothache. In the title of his work Schaffer describes himself as Protestant preacher at Regensburg, member of the Royal Society of Fine Arts at Göttingen, of the Royal Society of Science at Duisberg, honorary member of the Fine Arts at Leipsic.
The several details of the plate are designated as follows:
Fig. I. The supposed worms, with single and double tails, or actually seed buds of the henbane driven out by heat, natural size.
Fig. II. Kidney-shaped seed of the henbane, natural size, without seed buds.
Fig. III. Another such seed, natural size, with the pith being driven out in bow-shape.
Figs. IV and V. Slightly magnified supposed entrails of the tooth worms, actually the inner basis substance for the development of the seed lobes.
Fig. VI. Portion of the skin and driven out supposed entrails of the tooth worms, strongly magnified: (aa) skin still attached; (b) supposed entrails.
Fig. VII. Seed same as Fig. II, magnified: (a) external pellicle; (b) seed bud.
Fig. VIII. Seed of Fig. III, magnified: (aa) external pellicle; (b) node; (c) seed bud driven out in bow-shape.
Figs. IX, X, and XI. Three kinds of supposed tooth worms, magnified; the lettering corresponds in all three: (a) head; (b) brown spot or mouth; (c) body; (d) apparent opening or anus; (ee) single or double tail; (ff) brown spot of the tail; also an apparent opening.
Fig. XII. Representation of the utensils and the mode in which they are arranged during the application of the supposed remedy against tooth worms: (a) earthen pot; (b) opening visible on one side; (c) opening in the bottom; (dd) iron passing through the two side openings, on which the wax balls (containing henbane seeds) are laid inside the pot; (e) smoke arising through the opening in the top, which is directed into the mouth; (ff) bowl of water in which the pot is set, into which the supposed worms fall and in which they are found after the cure.
It would seem not at all improbable that the inhalation of vapors arising from heated henbane seeds might in some cases, e.g., of odontalgia from pulpitis, produce a sedative effect by the action of the hyoscyamine given off. Assuming that the method possessed even a slight therapeutic value, that factor in connection with the apparently tangible evidence of the existence of tooth worms which it afforded to the ignorant, makes the method a most interesting example of the way in which superstition and ignorance about medical matters are kept alive and sustained by a very slight increment of truth.
Another interesting reference to the use of henbane seeds for the cure of toothache by fumigation as found in an old Saxon manuscript of the ninth or tenth century, a translation of which is published in Leechdoms, Worthcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, vol. ii, p. 51, a collection of documents illustrating the history of science in England before the Norman conquest, published under direction of the Master of the Rolls. The reference is as follows:
“For tooth wark, if a worm eat the tooth, take an old holly leaf and one of the lower umbels of hartwort and the upward part of sage, boil two doles (that is, two of worts to one of water) in water, pour into a bowl and yawn over it, then the worms shall fall into the bowl. If a worm eat the teeth, take holly rind over a year old, and root of Carline thistle, boil in so hot water! Hold in the mouth as hot as thou hottest may. For tooth worms, take acorn meal and henbane seed and wax, of all equally much, mingle these together, work into a wax candle and burn it, let it reek into the mouth, put a black cloth under, then will the worms fall on it.”—E. C. K.]
[484] Recueil périodique d’observations de Médecine, Chirurgie, etc., par Vandermonde, Paris, 1757, Tome vii, p. 256.
[485] Recherches et observations sur toutes les parties de l’art du dentiste, 2 vols., Paris, 1757.
[486] Sur les dépôts du sinus maxillaire.
[487] Soins faciles pour la propreté de la bouche et pour la conservation des dents, Paris, 1759.
[488] Vol. x, pp. 47 to 148.
[489] Traité des dépôts dans le sinus maxillaire, des fractures et des caries de l’une et de l’autre mâchoire, Paris, 1761.
[490] Essais sur la formation des dents, comparée avec celle des os, suivis de plusieurs expériences tant sur les os que sur les parties qui entrent dans leur constitution, Paris, 1766.
[491] Traité des maladies et des opérations réellement chirurgicales de la bouche et des parties qui y correspondent, suivi de notes, d’observations, et de consultations interessantes, tant anciennes que modernes, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1778.
[492] Réflexions et éclaircissements sur la construction et les usages des rateliers complets et artificiels.
[493] Die Zahnheilkunde, Erlangen, 1851, p. 398.
[494] Von der Wirkung der elektrischen Erschütterung im Zahnweh.
[495] Geist-Jacobi, p. 165.
[496] Neue Versuche zu Curirung der Zahnschmerzen vermittelst eines magnetischen Stahles, Königsberg, 1765.
[497] F. E. Glaubrecht, De odontalgia, Argentorati, 1766.
[498] Journal de Médecine, 1767, p. 265.
[499] Jos. G. Pasch, Abhundlung aus der Wandarznei von den Zähnen, etc., Wien, 1767.
[500] Th. Berdmore, A treatise on the disorders and deformities of the teeth and gums, London, 1768.
[501] Einleitung zur nöthigen Wissenschaft eines Zahnarztes, Wien, 1766.
[502] Abhandlung von der Hervorbrechlung der Milchzähne, Wien, 1771.
[503] J. Linderer, vol. ii, p. 431.
[504] Geist-Jacobi, p. 166.
[505] Gedanken über das Hervorkommen und Wechseln der Zähne, 1768.
[506] Carabelli, p. 91.
[507] A treatise on the disorders and deformities of the teeth and gums, London, 1768.
[508] See The Rise, Fall, and Revival of Dental Prosthesis, by B. J. Cigrand, p. 148.
[509] Carabelli, p. 91.
[510] Carabelli, p. 93; Lemerle, Notice sur l’histoire de l’art dentaire, p. 117.
[511] J. Aitkin, Essays on several important subjects in surgery, London, 1771.
[512] Sprengel, vol. ii, p. 348.
[513] Sprengel, p. 350.
[514] Bromfield, Chirurgical observations and cases, London, 1773.
[515] Le dentiste observateur, Paris, 1775.
[516] Vollständige Anweisung zum Zahn-ausziehen, Stendal, 1782.
[517] Theden, Neue Bemerkungen und Erfahrungen, Berlin, 1782, part second, p. 254.
[518] J. van Wy, Heelkundige Mengel stoffen, Amsterdam, 1784.
[519] Journal de Médecine, 1791, tomes 86, 87.
[520] Sprengel, p. 356 to 357.
[521] Odontologia, ossia Trattato sopra i Denti.
[522] Benjamin Bell, System of Surgery, 1783 to 1787, vol. iii.
[523] Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians of London, 1783, vol. iii, p. 325.
[524] Memoirs of the London Medical Society, 1787, vol. i.
[525] August Gottlieb Richter, Anfangsgründe der Wundarzneikunst, vol. ii (1787) and vol. iv (1797).
[526] Praktische Darstellung aller Operationen der Zahnarzneikunst, Berlin, 1803 and 1804.
[527] Chapter xlii.
[528] Uebersicht der Chirurgischen Instrumente.
[529] Ploucquet, Primæ lineæ odontitidis, sive inflammationis ipsorum dentium, Tubingæ, 1791; Kappis, Primæ lineæ odontitidis, etc., Tubingæ, 1794.
[530] Storia naturale di un nuovo insetto, Firenze, 1794.
[531] Der anfrichtige Lahnarzt.
[532] Without comment!
[533] Principia systematis chirurgiæ hodiernæ.
[534] The anatomical fact alluded to by the author, far from presenting itself very often, as he says, is of rare occurrence, and cannot be held in account for establishing a general operative rule.
[535] Sprengel, pp. 372, 373.
[536] Hirsch, Praktische Bemerkungen über die Zähne und einige Krankheiten derselben, Jena, 1796.
[537] Sprengel, pp. 376, 377.
[538] For all that regards Bunon’s life and writings we have availed ourselves of the excellent historical work of A. Barden, “Un précurseur: Bunon,” a communication presented to the Geneva Session of the International Dental Federation (August, 1906).
[539] Expériences et démonstrations, p. 13.
[540] Ibid., p. 60.
[541] Lettre sur la prétendue dent œillère.
[542] Sur un préjugé très pernicieux, concernant les maux de dents qui surviennent aux femmes grosses.
[543] Essai sur les maladies des dents, où l’on propose les moyens de leur procurer une bonne conformation dès la plus tendre enfance, et d’en assurer la conservation pendant tout le cours de la vie.
[544] Expériences et démonstrations, avertissement, p. xix.
[545] Expériences et démonstrations faites à l’Hôpital de la Salptêrière et à St. Côme, en presence de l’Académie Royale de Chirurgie, pour servir de suite et de preuves à l’Essai sur les maladies des dents.
[546] Essay, p. 127.
[547] F. Maury. Traité complet de l’art du dentiste, d’après l’état actuel des connaissances, 2 vols., Paris, 1828.
[548] Exposé de nouveaux procédés pour la confection des dents dites de composition, par M. Dubois Faucou, Paris, 1808.
[549] Rapport sur les dents artificielles terro-metalliques, Paris, 1808.