PREFACE

During the last years of his life, Professor Morgan had devoted much time and energy to the preparation of a translation of Vitruvius, which he proposed to supplement with a revised text, illustrations, and notes. He had completed the translation, with the exception of the last four chapters of the tenth book, and had discussed, with Professor Warren, the illustrations intended for the first six books of the work; the notes had not been arranged or completed, though many of them were outlined in the manuscript, or the intention to insert them indicated. The several books of the translation, so far as it was completed, had been read to a little group of friends, consisting of Professors Sheldon and Kittredge, and myself, and had received our criticism, which had, at times, been utilized in the revision of the work.

After the death of Professor Morgan, in spite of my obvious incompetency from a technical point of view, I undertook, at the request of his family, to complete the translation, and to see the book through the press. I must, therefore, assume entire responsibility for the translation of the tenth book, beginning with chapter thirteen, and further responsibility for necessary changes made by me in the earlier part of the translation, changes which, in no case, affect any theory held by Professor Morgan, but which involve mainly the adoption of simpler forms of statement, or the correction of obvious oversights.

The text followed is that of Valentine Rose in his second edition (Leipzig, 1899), and the variations from this text are, with a few exceptions which are indicated in the footnotes, in the nature of a return to the consensus of the manuscript readings.

The illustrations in the first six books are believed to be substantially in accord with the wishes of Professor Morgan. The suggestions for illustrations in the later books were incomplete, and did not indicate, in all cases, with sufficient definiteness to allow them to be executed, the changes from conventional plans and designs intended by the translator. It has, therefore, been decided to include in this part of the work only those illustrations which are known to have had the full approval of Professor Morgan. The one exception to this principle is the reproduction of a rough model of the Ram of Hegetor, constructed by me on the basis of the measurements given by Vitruvius and Athenaeus.

It does not seem to me necessary or even advisable to enter into a long discussion as to the date of Vitruvius, which has been assigned to various periods from the time of Augustus to the early centuries of our era. Professor Morgan, in several articles in the Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, and in the Proceedings of the American Academy, all of which have been reprinted in a volume of Addresses and Essays (New York, 1909), upheld the now generally accepted view that Vitruvius wrote in the time of Augustus, and furnished conclusive evidence that nothing in his language is inconsistent with this view. In revising the translation, I met with one bit of evidence for a date before the end of the reign of Nero which I have never seen adduced. In viii, 3, 21, the kingdom of Cottius is mentioned, the name depending, it is true, on an emendation, but one which has been universally accepted since it was first proposed in 1513. The kingdom of Cottius was made into a Roman province by Nero (cf. Suetonius, Nero, 18), and it is inconceivable that any Roman writer subsequently referred to it as a kingdom.

It does seem necessary to add a few words about the literary merits of Vitruvius in this treatise, and about Professor Morgan's views as to the general principles to be followed in the translation.

Vitruvius was not a great literary personage, ambitious as he was to appear in that character. As Professor Morgan has aptly said, "he has all the marks of one unused to composition, to whom writing is a painful task." In his hand the measuring-rod was a far mightier implement than the pen. His turgid and pompous rhetoric displays itself in the introductions to the different books, where his exaggerated effort to introduce some semblance of style into his commonplace lectures on the noble principles which should govern the conduct of the architect, or into the prosaic lists of architects and writers on architecture, is everywhere apparent. Even in the more technical portions of his work, a like conscious effort may be detected, and, at the same time, a lack of confidence in his ability to express himself in unmistakable language. He avoids periodic sentences, uses only the simpler subjunctive constructions, repeats the antecedent in relative clauses, and, not infrequently, adopts a formal language closely akin to that of specifications and contracts, the style with which he was, naturally, most familiar. He ends each book with a brief summary, almost a formula, somewhat like a sigh of relief, in which the reader unconsciously shares. At times his meaning is ambiguous, not because of grammatical faults, which are comparatively few and unimportant, but because, when he does attempt a periodic sentence, he becomes involved, and finds it difficult to extricate himself.

Some of these peculiarities and crudities of expression Professor Morgan purposely imitated, because of his conviction that a translation should not merely reproduce the substance of a book, but should also give as clear a picture as possible of the original, of its author, and of the working of his mind. The translation is intended, then, to be faithful and exact, but it deliberately avoids any attempt to treat the language of Vitruvius as though it were Ciceronian, or to give a false impression of conspicuous literary merit in a work which is destitute of that quality. The translator had, however, the utmost confidence in the sincerity of Vitruvius and in the serious purpose of his treatise on architecture.

To those who have liberally given their advice and suggestions in response to requests from Professor Morgan, it is impossible for me to make adequate acknowledgment. Their number is so great, and my knowledge of the indebtedness in individual cases is so small, that each must be content with the thought of the full and generous acknowledgment which he would have received had Professor Morgan himself written this preface.

Personally I am under the greatest obligations to Professor H. L. Warren, who has freely given both assistance and criticism; to Professor G. L. Kittredge, who has read with me most of the proof; to the Syndics of the Harvard University Press, who have made possible the publication of the work; and to the members of the Visiting Committee of the Department of the Classics and the classmates of Professor Morgan, who have generously supplied the necessary funds for the illustrations.

ALBERT A. HOWARD.

CONTENTS

BOOK I
Preface[3]
The Education of the Architect [5]
The Fundamental Principles of Architecture [13]
The Departments of Architecture [16]
The Site of a City [17]
The City Walls [21]
The Directions of the Streets; with Remarks on the Winds [24]
The Sites for Public Buildings [31]
BOOK II
Introduction [35]
The Origin of the Dwelling House [38]
On the Primordial Substance according to the Physicists [42]
Brick [42]
Sand [44]
Lime [45]
Pozzolana [46]
Stone [49]
Methods of building Walls [51]
Timber [58]
Highland and Lowland Fir [64]
BOOK III
Introduction [69]
On Symmetry: in Temples and in the Human Body [72]
Classification of Temples [75]
The Proportions of Intercolumniations and of Columns [78]
The Foundations and Substructures of Temples [86]
Proportions of the Base, Capitals, and Entablature in the Ionic Order [90]
BOOK IV
Introduction [101]
The Origins of the Three Orders, and the Proportions of the Corinthian Capital [102]
The Ornaments of the Orders [107]
Proportions of Doric Temples [109]
The Cella and Pronaos [114]
How the Temple should face [116]
The Doorways of Temples [117]
Tuscan Temples [120]
Circular Temples and Other Varieties [122]
Altars [125]
BOOK V
Introduction [129]
The Forum and Basilica [131]
The Treasury, Prison, and Senate House [137]
The Theatre: its Site, Foundations, and Acoustics [137]
Harmonics [139]
Sounding Vessels in the Theatre [143]
Plan of the Theatre [146]
Greek Theatres [151]
Acoustics of the Site of a Theatre [153]
Colonnades and Walks [154]
Baths [157]
The Palaestra [159]
Harbours, Breakwaters, and Shipyards [162]
BOOK VI
Introduction [167]
On Climate as determining the Style of the House [170]
Symmetry, and Modifications in it to suit the Site [174]
Proportions of the Principal Rooms [176]
The Proper Exposures of the Different Rooms [180]
How the Rooms should be suited to the Station of the Owner [181]
The Farmhouse [183]
The Greek House [185]
On Foundations and Substructures [189]
BOOK VII
Introduction [195]
Floors [202]
The Slaking of Lime for Stucco [204]
Vaultings and Stucco Work [205]
On Stucco Work in Damp Places, and on the Decoration of Dining Rooms [208]
The Decadence of Fresco Painting [210]
Marble for use in Stucco [213]
Natural Colours [214]
Cinnabar and Quicksilver [215]
Cinnabar (continued) [216]
Artificial Colours. Black [217]
Blue. Burnt Ochre [218]
White Lead, Verdigris, and Artificial Sandarach [219]
Purple [219]
Substitutes for Purple, Yellow Ochre, Malachite Green, and Indigo [220]
BOOK VIII
Introduction [225]
How to find Water [227]
Rainwater [229]
Various Properties of Different Waters [232]
Tests of Good Water [242]
Levelling and Levelling Instruments [242]
Aqueducts, Wells, and Cisterns [244]
BOOK IX
Introduction [251]
The Zodiac and the Planets [257]
The Phases of the Moon [262]
The Course of the Sun through the Twelve Signs [264]
The Northern Constellations [265]
The Southern Constellations [267]
Astrology and Weather Prognostics [269]
The Analemma and its Applications [270]
Sundials and Water Clocks [273]
BOOK X
Introduction [281]
Machines and Implements [283]
Hoisting Machines [285]
The Elements of Motion [290]
Engines for raising Water [293]
Water Wheels and Water Mills [294]
The Water Screw [295]
The Pump of Ctesibius [297]
The Water Organ [299]
The Hodometer [301]
Catapults or Scorpiones [303]
Ballistae [305]
The Stringing and Tuning of Catapults [308]
Siege Machines [309]
The Tortoise [311]
Hegetor's Tortoise [312]
Measures of Defence [315]
Note on Scamilli Impares [320]
Index [321]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

[Certain of the images may be viewed enlarged by clicking directly on the image. (Note of transcriber.)]

Caryatides from Treasury of Cnidians, Delphi [7]
Caryatides of Erechtheum, Athens [7]
Caryatid in Villa Albani, Rome [7]
Caryatides [7]
Persians [9]
Construction of City Walls [23]
Tower of the Winds, Athens [26]
Diagram of the Winds [29]
Diagram of Directions of Streets [30]
Vitruvius' Brick-Bond [44]
Travertine Quarries, Roman Campagna [49]
Example of Opus Incertum, Circular Temple, Tivoli [51]
Opus Reticulatum, Thermae of Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli [52]
Example of Opus Reticulatum, Doorway of Stoa Poecile, Hadrian's Villa[53]
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, restored [55]
Classification of Temples according to Arrangements of Colonnades [77]
Hypaethral Temple of Vitruvius compared with Parthenon and Temple of Apollo near Miletus [77]
Classification of Temples according to Intercolumniation [79]
Eustyle Temple of Vitruvius compared with Temple of Teos [81]
Vitruvius' Rules for Diameter and Height of Columns compared with Actual Examples [85]
Diminution of Columns in Relation to Dimensions of Height [85]
Entasis of Columns [88]
Fra Giocondo's Idea of "Scamilli Impares" [89]
Ionic Order according to Vitruvius compared with Order of Mausoleum at Halicarnassus [91]
Comparison of Ionic Order according to Vitruvius with Actual Examples and with Vignola's Order [95]
Basilica at Pompeii [105]
Corinthian Capital of Vitruvius compared with Monuments [105]
Vitruvius' Doric Order compared with Temple at Cori and Theatre of Marcellus [111]
Vitruvius' Temple Plan compared with Actual Examples [115]
Vitruvius' Rule for Doorways compared with Two Examples [119]
Tuscan Temple according to Vitruvius [121]
Circular Temple, Tivoli [123]
Maison Carrée, Nîmes [123]
Plan of Temple, Tivoli [123]
Plan of Temple of Vesta, Rome [123]
Plan of Circular Temple according to Vitruvius [124]
Forum, Timgad [131]
Forum, Pompeii [133]
Plan of Basilica, Pompeii [134]
Vitruvius' Basilica, Fano [135]
Roman Theatre according to Vitruvius [147]
Theatre at Aspendus [149]
Theatre Portico according to Vitruvius [152]
Tepidarium of Stabian Baths, Pompeii [157]
Apodyterium for Women, Stabian Baths, Pompeii [157]
Stabian Baths, Pompeii [158]
Palaestra, Olympia, and Greek Palaestra according to Vitruvius [161]
Plans of Houses, Pompeii [176]
Plan of House of Silver Wedding, Pompeii [177]
Plan of typical Roman House [178]
Peristyle of House of the Vettii, Pompeii [179]
Plan of House of the Vettii, Pompeii [179]
Plan of Villa Rustica, near Pompeii [183]
Plan of Vitruvius' Greek House [186]
Plan of Greek House, Delos [187]
Plan of Greek House discovered at Pergamum [188]
Retaining Walls [191]
Construction of the Analemma [271]
Construction of Water Screw [295]
Water Screw [296]
Hegetor's Ram and Tortoise [312]
1. From sixteenth century MS.
2. From model by A. A. Howard.