Oriental Rugs, Antique and Modern

by W. A. Hawley

CHAPTER X

ASIA MINOR RUGS

LL rugs that are woven in the Turkish provinces of Asia are frequently grouped together and called “Turkish” rugs; but a more natural classification is to distinguish between those made to the east and those made to the west of a line drawn from the Gulf of Iskenderoon to Trebizond, deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the ridges that divide the watershed of the western forks of the Euphrates river from the plateau of Anatolia. With the exception of the very few pieces that come from Syria or other southerly districts, those woven in the Turkish provinces east of this line show such a relationship to those of Persia that they are more properly classed with them; while on the other hand, with the exception of the rugs of the wandering Yuruks, those woven to the west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the Mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall naturally into a separate group. It is better, therefore, to treat them separately and to call them the Asia Minor Rugs.

Though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from Persia, the Indes, or Far Cathay, in no part of the Orient are rugs woven on more classic ground than are the Asia Minor pieces. They are still made in the shadow of the walls where Cro[es]us lived and among villages where Homer trod. Their yarn is spun with crude distaff by the shepherd who still drives his flock along the same road where Artaxerxes marched, across the bridges that Roman legions built, and over the green slopes of Mt. Ida. In fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of the Crusades, the journey of Paul, the march of Alexander’s conquering army, and of cities founded before the beginning of history.

When analysing the rugs of Asia Minor, it is necessary to make a distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of Persian rugs, though with them it is less important. From the time when there arose a large demand in the markets of Europe and America for the rugs of the East the natural supply decreased, and, as a consequence, the price of those that remained increased. To meet this deficiency, and because of the higher prices, there was established a system by which large numbers of women and children were constantly employed; although many worked in their own homes, using such material as was furnished by their employers and receiving fixed daily wages. In the western and southern parts of Asia Minor, which are connected by railroads with seaports, are a number of communities where this system is in vogue. One of these is at Demirdji in the province of Smyrna, where there are a small number of looms; others are in the districts of Ghiordes and Kulah, which together have about one thousand looms; and Oushak, the principal rug-weaving centre of Asia Minor, has as many more.[28] Almost all rugs produced at such places are now shipped to Smyrna, which itself has but very few looms, or to Constantinople, whence they are reshipped to Western markets. These products lack much of the oldtime artistic spirit and individuality of character, on account of the dependence of the weavers on their employers, who demand the largest output consistent with fair quality. Furthermore, the weavers are frequently required to reproduce Western patterns. The result is that most of these rugs possess little of the firmness of texture, the harmonious relations of designs, and the excellent colour of old fabrics. Since, then, they represent in a measure European influences, and are subject to further changes to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste, it would be of little use to describe them, especially as all their original characteristics exist in the old pieces.

The striking features of Asia Minor rugs woven over fifty years ago are the colour schemes, main patterns, and the separate designs, which may be either independent of the pattern or constitute part of it. The colour effect of Asia Minor rugs is as a rule brighter than that of the Central Asian, Indian, or Persian groups; for the reds, blues, and yellows are less subdued. Some of their tones never appear in Chinese rugs, and on the whole they most closely resemble those of the Caucasian pieces; yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve, lavender, and canary yellow, that rarely appear even among these. Moreover, in a few of them masses of strongly contrasting colours are placed beside one another without the customary shading of Persian rugs or the artificial device of Caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh combinations.

MAP OF ASIA MINOR

The difference, nevertheless, between the Asia Minor rugs and those of other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than in the main patterns, for in the Asia Minor rugs is evidence of an independent inspiration and development. There are lacking the rigid octagonal figures of the Central Asian groups; the frets and floral sprays distinctive of Chinese; the naturalistic floral treatment of the Indian; the delicate tracings, rhythm of movement, and wealth of foliage motives that characterise the Persian; as well as the severely geometric forms and conventionalised motives of the Caucasian. Instead of gracefully flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones; instead of flowers realistically balanced on interlacing, foliate stalks, they are arranged separately in formal rows. But if their patterns lack the fertility of invention or the refinement of Persian and Indian pieces, they excel them in the strength of their clear definition, accentuated by massing of colour. It is, however, in the prayer patterns, which appear in the majority of Asia Minor rugs, that the weavers attain their best results; for in such work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well as artistic spirit. In these patterns, which differ from those of any other group of rugs, is often manifest singular beauty and grace, as well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in Moslem chapels; for in many is represented the burning lamp that, projected against a background of sacred green, hangs from the column-supported arch, above which is spread a spandrel of blue typifying the vaulted heavens.

Likewise many of the small designs that are found in other groups of rugs are rarely, if ever, seen in this one; as, for instance, animals, birds, fishes, and human beings are never employed, on account of the religious prejudice of the Sunnite Mohammedans, who prevail in the country. Nor, with very few exceptions, is the Herati design, so characteristic of Persian rugs, nor the pear design, so characteristic of both Persian and Indian rugs, ever seen. Furthermore, the reciprocal trefoil, that is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all Caucasian and many Persian rugs, is very rarely found in Asia. Minor pieces woven during the last two centuries, though it appears in some of an earlier era. But in its place are the water motive and ribbon, which are less frequently employed by the weavers of any other country. There are also many small floral motives that appear only in Asia Minor rugs, and that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes.

These characteristics of colour, pattern, and design are not the result of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign influences; for a natural art never existed in Asia Minor, which has never enjoyed a national existence; but they are the results of artistic movements that at different times have swept over that country. Thus, as an heirloom of dynasties that once flourished farther east, are the Cufic characters that appear in some of the early border patterns; and as a relic of the Mongol and Timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in the oldest pieces. In Oushaks, as well as others, are seen the evidences of Persian treatment; while the drawing and colour schemes of the prayer rugs forcibly suggest Saracenic, Grecian, and Christian ideas. In fact, the rugs of Asia Minor, while possessing co-ordination of colour and design, are in a measure composite. They never reach the high artistic development of Persian rugs, because the latter were produced under the fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could secure from years of patient labour suitable furnishings for palaces and mosques; yet they are none the less interesting subjects for speculation and study.

Bergamos.—In the valley of the Caïcus and twenty miles from the Ægean Sea is the city of Pergamus, that gives its name to the Bergamo rugs. It is of unknown antiquity, and may have stood when Agamemnon was warring with the house of Priam before the walls of that other city of the same name. In turn, Persians, Macedonians, Thracians, Syrians, and Romans had taken possession of it before the Apostle Paul founded there one of the seven churches of Asia. Greek sculptors chiselled its monuments, philosophers taught beneath the shade of its trees, and scholars gathered there the library that rivalled that of Alexandria. Partly encircled by mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city, that was wellnigh destroyed during the Turkish wars, is the modern city of some fifteen thousand inhabitants. It is to-day one of the flourishing cities of the Levant, yet only in the surrounding ruins is there any reminder of its former greatness and splendour. But in these crumbling relics of the past and in the excellence of its woven fabrics of more recent times are traces of the artistic spirit that once prevailed there.

Plate 37. Anatolian Prayer Rug

It is still possible to obtain many good specimens of Bergamos representing the craftsmanship of fifty or more years ago, when aniline dyes and European patterns were unknown east of the Hellespont. Almost without exception they are sterling fabrics that glory in a wealth of colour accentuated by depth of pile and sheen of soft lustrous wool. An observer is at once impressed by the tones of deep blue and madder red that a few lines or patches of ivory white bring out more clearly, and forms a favourable estimate of the value of these pieces independently of the drawing, which seems subservient to the part of giving spirit and quality to the colour scheme. In fact, it is to the genius of the dyer who applies his knowledge to the tinting of carefully selected wool, and to the pains of the weaver in constructing the foundation of warp and weft rather than to his skill in arranging artistic designs, that these pieces command as high a price as old Kirmans of similar age.

In two particulars Bergamos differ from most Asia Minor rugs: in shape they are nearly square, and prayer rugs are the exception rather than the rule. Nor do all the prayer rugs follow the same general pattern, as is usually the case with other classes. They may have low tent-shaped arches like those of Daghestans, high triangular arches with stepped sides and a panel above the spandrels as in the Kir-Shehrs, or they may have shapes unlike those of any other class. Moreover, the pieces not used as prayer rugs also have great diversity of pattern; but as a rule some large figure, as a medallion, occupies the centre of the field. Very frequently it is of hexagonal shape, with the sides at upper and lower ends of the rug serrated or fringed with latch-hooks. As is not the case with many of the Persian rugs, the field surrounding the medallion is almost always covered with small designs, arranged with careful precision so as to show a perfect balance with reference to the centre. Eight-pointed stars and other geometric figures are frequently used, but there is a leaning to floral designs, which, however, are often so conventionalised as almost to lose their identity. Most prominent of these is the Rhodian lily and the pomegranate; but the lily never shows such graceful drawing or such dainty colouring as in the Kulahs, and in some pieces even loses all resemblance to a floral form. The pomegranate, which suggests the Ladik, is more frequently seen in the main border stripe. Undulating vines do not find favour among the Bergamo weavers, and small isolated geometric designs are largely employed in the narrow border stripes, while larger, more complex figures often replace the floral in the main stripe.

In no other class of rugs are so many and such painstaking devices to avert the spell of the evil eye. Should an unexpected visitor surprise the weaver while at work, he may be required to part with a bit of his frock, which is then attached to the wide web of the end; should a similar occurrence of ill omen follow, another bit of different material and colour may be sewn upon this; and as a crowning talisman, a button may be affixed to both. Small cowrie shells from the Ægean shores are often used for such purposes; and now and then may be seen a woollen tassel dangling from the centre or from one of the ends of the rug.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, white, and green. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five and one half to nine; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back. Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. Weft, wool of fine diameter, dyed red. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times between every two rows of knots. Pile, wool; generally of medium length but frequently long. Border, from one to four stripes; most frequently of three. Sides, a weft selvage of two, three, or four cords, coloured red or blue, with occasionally some green or yellow. Both ends, a web, that is sometimes six or seven inches wide, coloured red and crossed by broad longitudinal stripes, which are generally blue, but may be black, white, brown, or yellow. Some device to avert the evil eye is frequently attached to the webs. Beyond the web is a tasselled warp fringe. Texture, moderately firm. Weave at back is of fine grain. Usual length, three to seven feet. Usual width, three quarters to nine tenths length.

Ghiordes.—Whether, as has been maintained, the town of Ghiordes, that lies a day’s journey to the east of Pergamus, is on the site of the ancient Gordium where tradition says the father of Midas dedicated his chariot to Jupiter, and Alexander severed the bark which bound the pole to the yoke, it claims attention from the fact that the rugs woven there one and two centuries ago not only excelled similar products in all other parts of Asia Minor, but equalled the best fabrics woven in Persia during the same period. Indeed, a few connoisseurs would rank them still higher; yet with reference to technique of weave and delicacy of colour and drawing, very few should be classed with those woven in the previous century by the protégés of Tamasp and Shah Abbas.

Plate 38. Mudjar Prayer Rug

So essentially do the modern rugs of the Ghiordes district differ from the old pieces in weave, colour, and pattern, and so great is their inferiority, that they have little interest; but fortunately it is still possible to purchase pieces from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty years of age, and others still older are in the hands of collectors or in museums. In determining their age the colours and drawing, as well as weave and pattern, are important indices. For instance, the reddish tones of the fields of pieces less than a century old have a pinkish or even magenta tinge, while in the oldest the red is of rich, deep colour. Similarly, in the case of blues, greens, yellows, and even the ivories that rarely occupy the field, a riper and richer colour marks the greater age. Likewise with the drawing, greater painstaking and higher artistic skill are apparent in the older rugs; though in some of the oldest the designs are less ornate than in those of a subsequent period. This is also true of the patterns as a whole; since the best types are found in rugs that are probably from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty years old, whereas in the extremely old pieces there is an approach to archaic forms.

The difference between the odjaliks and namazliks, which are the kinds most frequently seen, is most noticeable. The colours, to be sure, are much the same, though as a rule lighter and duller tones predominate in the odjaliks. Their borders show a greater tendency to use geometric figures, some of which are profusely fringed with latch-hooks suggestive of Caucasian influences. They also contain archaic designs believed to be associated with sun worship, as well as many floral forms common to the prayer rugs. It is, however, in the fields that the distinction is most noticeable; since the large masses of uniform colour that make the namazliks so effective are wanting, and instead are frequently seen hexagonal-shaped medallions that are fringed with large rounded latch-hooks and contain a lozenge or other geometric design in the centre. At both ends of the fields are sometimes narrow panels containing quasi-floral forms, and stiff conventions occupy the intervening corner spaces.

In striking contrast to these odjaliks are the old Ghiordes prayer rugs, with the rich tones of solid colour in the fields and the delicate drawing of the borders. No doubt they were made with unusual care, since they were intended for religious purposes. The pattern represents an entrance into a mosque; and it is not improbable that some of the earliest rugs were copied directly from archways, many of which still exist in Mohammedan countries.[29] Near the base of all Ghiordes arches, at each side, is a shoulder, which in old pieces was supported by a single pilaster or a pair. Sometimes these were ornamented with scroll work or floral forms, but finally many of them degenerated into floral devices that bore slight resemblance to columns, and in other rugs they have entirely disappeared. In some very old pieces the shoulders and the mihrab were rounded, but as a rule the shoulders are flattened at a very obtuse angle; and the mihrab is either plain or has stepped sides that culminate in a blunted apex. To further suggest the sacred purposes of the rug a lamp is often suspended from the niche, though floral forms may take its place, and not infrequently these too are wanting. Almost without exception some reminder of the tree of life, such as the small floral sprig or the Rhodian lily, is projected from the inner side of the arch and from all sides of the border against the field. In the spandrel, also, is almost invariably some floral or leaf form; though these may be very much conventionalised or even supplanted by geometric figures. Above the spandrel is a panel, which may contain some floral form, scroll device, or verse from the Koran; and another panel, though generally with different design, is almost invariably placed beneath the field. A scroll resembling a large S (Plate [O], Fig. 9, Page 291) frequently appears in these panels. Its resemblance to forms found in Armenian dragon carpets of earlier centuries is very noticeable.

The border surrounding the field is as characteristic of this class as is the prayer arch. There are invariably a number of stripes, which generally consist of a wide central one, two secondary, and two or more small guard stripes. The drawing is distinctly floral, yet is widely different from the Persian. A design (Plate [G], Fig. 1, opp. Page 192) frequently seen in the central stripe represents a large palmette or rosette partly surrounded by leaves, suggestive of the Herati design, and connected by tendrils with more delicate flowers or leaves. But the more usual design (Plate [G], Fig. 3) consists of flowers and fruits that are arranged in quadrangular shape, so that the alternate units face in different directions as they extend around the border. Though it is far from naturalistic, its delicate lace-like drawing with clear definition and its tones in harmony with the central field, contribute largely to the beauty of the rug. The secondary stripes have generally repetitive leaf forms; and running through the guard stripes is a simple vine, ribbon, or wave design. Occasionally, however, the typical Ghiordes border is replaced by one borrowed from the near district of Kulah, and instead of the broad central stripe are several narrow parallel stripes studded by perpendicular rows of small floral figures (Plate [G], Fig. 12). An unusual feature of these rugs is the linen nap which is sometimes used in the field instead of wool, for the reason that it retains its colour while wool darkens with age; and another is the silken fringe which is often seen at the corners of fine specimens. The nap is always short, and the rugs are closely woven.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red, blue, yellow, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. Warp, wool or cotton and in a few pieces raw silk. One of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually slightly depressed below the other at the back. Weft, wool or cotton. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. Pile, wool, and occasionally some cotton, clipped very short so as to be harsh to the touch. Border, six to nine stripes. Sides, a weft selvage of two or three cords, or only infrequently an added selvage of silk. Both ends, a narrow web and warp fringe. A few pieces have an added silk fringe at the corners. Texture, firm. Weave at back is of very fine grain, but slightly rough. Usual length, five to seven feet. Usual width, two thirds to three quarters length.

Kulahs.—About fifty miles from Ghiordes, in a southeasterly direction, is the Turkish village of Kulah. Both places are surrounded by the same general character of hills and plains, and for the last several centuries the people of each have been subject to the same influences of race and religion. They have undoubtedly visited, intermarried, and become familiar with the arts and crafts of one another. It is not, therefore, surprising that some of their rugs should have similar technique of weave, and that a few resemble one another in general pattern and small designs. Moreover, such a close correspondence exists between many of the old rugs of both districts, that even the most experienced are sometimes at a loss to distinguish between them. In fact it is surprising that there is so marked a distinction between most of them. In the Kulahs the border designs are not so elaborately drawn, nor are the prayer arches so high. They have rarely the fringe that adorns the corners of some Ghiordes rugs, or more than one panel. The field usually contains floral figures, arranged in formal order; the spandrel is almost always extended in two narrow stripes, one at each side of the field; and the colours are always subdued. These and other characteristics of each class make it possible to distinguish between most of them.

As is the case with Ghiordes rugs, sedjadehs are almost unknown; but it is not unusual to see odjaliks. These resemble prayer rugs in the following respects: the borders are almost identical; the central fields contain the same floral figures resting on a similarly coloured ground; both ends of the hexagonal-shaped field resemble a mihrab; and the space between the field and border is covered with designs peculiar to the spandrels of the prayer rugs.

On account of their artistic drawing and soft colours the prayer rugs are favourite pieces with all collectors. It is true that the arch is flatter than that of any other rug of this group, and is defined either by plain sloping lines, or more frequently by stepped edges, so that it lacks the classic beauty of the Ghiordes type; but on the other hand the Rhodian lily and other floral forms characteristic of these pieces are delineated with a realism and graceful delicacy that are unequalled in any other Asia Minor rugs. Arranged on slender sprays along each side of the field, hanging as long clusters from the niche in place of a lamp, or placed on the panel in formal rows, they accentuate with their bright tones the subdued richness of the ground colours. Sometimes, however, these simple field designs are replaced by more formal drawings that represent a plat of land with a tomb shaded by a tall cypress and other trees with many leafy branches. Rugs with these designs are not uncommon in Germany, whither large quantities of Asia Minor prayer rugs were shipped many years ago, and where they are known as “Friedhofteppiche,” or “Grave Rugs,”

Plate 39. Daghestan Prayer Rug

The most pleasing features are in the fields, but the most distinguishing features are in the borders, which are invariably of several stripes. Instead of the large central stripe with floral and repetitive designs common to most rugs is a series of parallel bands, from five to ten in number and about an inch in width, that contain rows of minute floral forms. These narrow bands are a distinguishing feature of the Kulahs, though they have occasionally been copied by the Ghiordes weavers. Nevertheless, they are sometimes replaced by the broad stripe containing rows of geometric-shaped designs, as in Plate [G], Fig. 13 (opp. Page 192), which also are peculiar to these rugs. Strange as it may seem, these designs have doubtless been derived from leaf forms by successive degradation, as will be seen by comparing Figs. 13a, 13b, 13c, and 13d of Plate [O] (Page 291). There is still another border design that is so constantly found in the secondary stripe of these pieces and so rarely in any others that it might well be designated the “Kulah stripe” (Plate [H], Fig. 10, opp. Page 194). The design consists of a repetitive figure suggestive of some Chinese device, but is in reality a degraded form of a vine, as will be seen by observing some of the very old border stripes. Between the inner secondary stripe and the field is usually a narrow stripe containing a continuous ribbon design, or a simple vine-like form, as in Plate [F], Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158). Often a part of each succeeding undulation of the vine has been omitted and the remaining parts have been compressed, so as to leave small detached figures like a row of “f’s,” as in Plate [H], Fig. 2. It is not unusual to see both vine and detached figures in the same rug.

Diversity prevails in the colours of field, spandrel, panel, and borders. In the field is generally a mellowed red, or a yellow tint that is described both as golden brown and apricot; blue also is occasionally seen, and white is very rare. But whatever the colour of the field, that of the spandrel is generally a light blue, indicative of the sky, and the overlying panel is frequently a dark blue. Green and brown often appear in the border, as well as a canary yellow peculiar to Asia Minor rugs. Moreover, a few of these pieces have a single small area of red or blue, that was doubtless inserted to avert the evil eye, since it shows no more relation to the surrounding colours than spilt ink might have; yet in spite of these contrasts and the fact that the nap lacks the lustre peculiar to many other classes, some of them are as beautiful as Ghiordes.

Between these old fabrics and the modern, which factory-like are produced in large quantities to meet the demands of a Western market and taste, is the most noticeable difference, for the latter are inferior to the former in patterns, weave, and dyes. Furthermore, with the wool of many is mixed mohair, so that rapid deterioration follows slight usage.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red, brownish yellow, and blue, with minor quantities of green, dark brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes, Knots to inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. Warp, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is noticeably depressed at the back. Weft, in most rugs, of wool of medium diameter, sometimes dyed yellow. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. In other rugs, even very old, the weft consists of a coarse thread of jute crossing once between two rows of knots and alternating with a small thread of jute and another of wool crossing side by side once between the next two rows of knots. Pile, wool, of short or medium length. Border, six to nine stripes. Sides, a coloured mixed selvage of two, three, or four cords. Both ends, a coloured web and warp fringe. Texture, loose. Weave at back is of moderately coarse grain. Usual length, five to seven feet. Usual width, three fifths to three quarters length.

Oushaks.—Fifty miles eastward from Kulah is the city of Oushak, famous during the XV and XVI Centuries for the carpets exported thence to Europe to adorn the halls of cathedrals and thrones of monarchs. But with the subsequent decadence in Asiatic art its glory ebbed, so that half a century ago it was but a small mud-housed city known for the excellence of its dyes and the wool which was taken there from the interior to be washed, spun, and then sold to the weavers of the surrounding country. Since then, however, its population has steadily grown, and the weaving industry has thrived, until now it is one of the most populous cities of Asia Minor, with looms more numerous than those of any other city. The weaving is done entirely by women and girls, most of whom are Mohammedans. Though they live principally in private houses, they are under the direction of large firms, who furnish the wool as well as the patterns, which are in accordance with European and American demands.

Important distinctions exist between the different grades of these rugs. Some are known as “Turkish Kirmans,” in which Persian designs are frequently introduced, others are of still finer workmanship, but the oldest and coarsest pieces were formerly known as “Yapraks.” These are distinguishable by their strong colours of red, green, and blue, of which only two as a rule are seen in a single rug, and are massed to produce striking effects. Their foundation of warp and weft, which are dyed in the same colours, is loosely woven and often of an inferior grade of wool. Many of them are too large and heavy for domestic use, but are well adapted for salons and public halls.

With such slight variations in pattern and none in colour, Oushaks would be of little interest were it not that their prototypes were striking pieces woven by artisans whom Sultan Solyman the Magnificent brought from the northwestern part of Persia, when he conquered it in the XVI Century. Some of them appear in the paintings of old masters, and when contrasted with the modern fabrics indicate how great is the decline in the craftsmanship of the weavers. Of the beautiful well-balanced designs once represented in the fields, only large stars and diamonds, defined by less pleasing lines and placed with less regularity, remain. All of the graceful arabesques and dainty floral motives that appeared as sub-patterns are omitted. As works of art, the modern products are little esteemed; but their durability, depth of pile, and wealth of colour make them excellent objects of utility.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red, blue, and green. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally four to eight; perpendicularly, four to nine. A half knot, as it appears at back, is longer than wide. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down. Warp, wool. Each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. Weft, wool of medium diameter and generally dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. Pile, wool, clipped long. Border, usually of three stripes. Sides, generally a double overcasting, occasionally a selvage. Both ends, generally a web coloured red and a warp fringe. Texture, very loose. Weave at back is of moderately coarse grain. Length, carpet sizes. Usual width, two thirds to four fifths length.

Ak-hissar.—Almost seventy-five miles by rail from Smyrna and a short distance to the west of Ghiordes is the Turkish town of Ak-Hissar, the White Citadel. Even before the building of the railroad rugs were woven in this district; and in recent years the work-house system has been established, and large quantities, that bear some resemblance to the modern products of Kulah and Oushak, have been exported.

Demirdji.—Half a century ago the town of Demirdji was almost uninhabited; but as a result of the Occidental demand for Oriental rugs and the disappearance of old pieces, it has grown to be an important manufacturing centre. Many of its weavers learned their trade at the historic Ghiordes, which is about twenty-five miles distant; but the fabrics are more closely woven and the wool is more carefully selected than is the case with the modern Ghiordes.

Kutayah.—On the main railroad that will eventually connect the Bosphorus with the Euphrates is the town of Kutayah. As it is on the edge of the Anatolian plateau, wool and goat’s hair have been for a long period important articles in its trade. Both of them are now used in the local manufacture of rugs, which in a measure resemble the products of Oushak.

Smyrna.—The location of Smyrna on a magnificent harbour and its connection by rail with all the important rug districts of the interior, have made it the principal centre for the export trade in Asia Minor rugs. Many of the people are also largely engaged in the industry of weaving, but almost all weavers are now in the employ of large companies who furnish the materials and patterns. As a result, the Smyrna rugs are mere copies of well-known types of other Turkish pieces, or, as is generally the case, of stereotyped patterns that have been evolved to meet the requirements of European and American tastes. Many of the rugs, to be sure, are well woven and serviceable, but they lack individuality of character.

Melez.—About seventy-five miles to the south of Smyrna and twenty from the Mediterranean Sea is the town of Melassa, or Melez. It is now little known, but was once the market place of an important rug-producing district, which included a large part of the classic province of Caria. Accordingly, the pieces that came from there were sometimes called Carian, but are more generally known as Melez.

Plate 40. Kabistan Rug

On their face they show a close relationship to the Anatolians, and also, though in a less degree, to many other Asia Minor rugs; yet as is to be expected of the products from one corner of the country, they have a distinct individuality in both pattern and colour. Occasionally an old piece is seen, in which the border is very narrow and the whole field is covered with parallel stripes on which are systematically arranged geometric and semi-floral forms; but as a rule the fields are not much wider, and often less wide, than each of the adjacent borders. Within this central space are frequently arranged prominent designs, which are widely different from the designs of any other rugs, and are suggestive of Chinese ornament, but were doubtless derived from floral or tree forms (Plate [O], Fig. 12, Page 291). Moreover, projecting in regular order from the alternate sides of the narrow border stripe, next to the field, are sometimes seen thumb-like figures, that fit against one another like the cogs of a wheel (Plate [H], Fig. 15, opp. Page 194). Each of these features, though not always present, is peculiar to this class.

Of the several border stripes, the central is generally as wide as the remainder and not altogether dissimilar to that of the Ladiks. Very frequently it consists of a row of palmettes between which are conventionalised leaves and flowers on slender stems; but now and then the palmettes are replaced by eight-pointed stars or other geometric figures, and the intervening spaces filled with corresponding designs. The secondary stripes are of a pronounced Caucasian type; and almost invariably in a smaller tertiary stripe is represented a waving line or the reciprocal sawtooth.

The prayer rugs are equally characteristic. In typical examples the lines defining the mihrab descend from the niche to meet the sides of the narrow field at an angle of forty-five degrees, and are then deflected towards its centre, to return again to its sides. The resulting drawing shows two equilateral triangles on each side of the field at the base of the mihrab, which in conjunction with the upper sides of the triangles has the appearance of an incomplete diamond. This effect, moreover, is frequently accentuated by a perpendicular row of diamonds extending from just below the niche to the base of the field. The sides of mihrab, field, and central designs are, as a rule, fringed with small geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and in the spacious spandrel are more realistic floral designs arranged on a trellis-like sub-pattern.

This individuality of pattern is accompanied by a less marked yet noticeable individuality of colour scheme. As is the case with many Bergamos, the principal tone is a dark red, which generally appears in the central field, and is also used almost without exception in the broad end webs, the side selvages, and the threads of weft. Ivory white for the spandrel, some yellow and green for the borders, are common colours; but the one that rarely appears in any appreciable quantity in other rugs is a characteristic tone of lavender or mauve, which is present in almost every old Melez. Not always are these tones pleasing, as many of the rugs have been poorly dyed; but there are other pieces, now rapidly growing scarce, of which the colours are exceedingly rich and harmonious.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red, with minor quantities of blue, yellow, white, and some mauve. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to eleven. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or slightly longer. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the warp does not show at back. Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. Weft, wool of small diameter, dyed blue or red. A thread of weft generally crosses four times between every two rows of knots. Pile, wool, of medium length and sometimes short. Border, wide, from three to seven stripes. Sides, a selvage of two to four cords, usually coloured red. Lower end, a red web and loose warp fringe. Upper end, a red web, a braided selvage, and loose warp fringe. Texture, moderately loose. Weave at back is of slightly coarse grain. Usual length, four and one half to six feet. Usual width, three fifths to three quarters length.

Isbarta.—In the town of Isbarta in the southern part of the province of Konieh are woven rugs which are sometimes known to the trade as “Spartas.” Like many other pieces made to meet the Western demand, they lack spontaneous individuality, but are often of excellent quality and coloured in delicate tones, arranged harmoniously.

Rhodian.—Even at a very early period the people of the islands bordering the southwestern coast of Asia Minor produced textile fabrics that rivalled many of the best products of the mainland. None of them were more beautiful or more interesting than those which came from the Island of Rhodes, where were blended the vigorous Grecian and the more subtle Oriental arts. Here was the inspiration of the sea, cloudless skies, luxuriant vegetation. Here was felt the deep influence of the Mohammedan and Christian religions, as well as an early pagan mythology; and there is little doubt that the cathedral walls and picturesque church of the valiant knights of St. John made an impression on the weavers. It is not surprising, therefore, that the fabrics should be of deep, rich colour full of suggestion, and that the drawing of the long central panels should remind one of cathedral windows.

Of the many beautiful rugs formerly woven in Rhodes only a few now remain, and these are generally in the hands of collectors. Some are odjaliks, some namazliks, some sedjadehs; but all, with the exception of a few crude and coarsely woven pieces, have colours and weave that bespeak a ripe age, amounting in many instances to one hundred years or more. On the field of odjaliks are represented as a rule the usual hexagonal figure with two sides at each end forming a triangle; and on the fields of the namazliks are prayer arches which, though characteristic, never equal the graceful drawing seen in Ghiordes rugs. It is the sedjadehs that awaken the greatest interest, as they have some striking peculiarities rarely seen in rugs of the mainland.

Their field is divided into two or three panels that extend almost the full length of the field, and terminate at one end in flat and often serrated arches. The spandrels are small; and placed transversely above them is a low panel, that contains designs of mechanically drawn leaves, vandykes resembling those of Ladiks, and other figures common to Asia Minor rugs. In fact, these pieces at once suggest prayer rugs containing two or more prayer arches, but the pattern is generally regarded as a representation of cathedral windows. Both colouring and designs give force to this idea. In each of the principal panels is a different ground colour, as red, blue, or green, which is never gaudy, yet exceedingly rich on account of the depth of pile; and in the overlying figures there is often a strangely contrasting splendour of brighter colouring. Furthermore, one of the most usual of these designs, arranged like pole medallions, consists of large eight-pointed stars with effulgent rays of brilliant hues. As we look at some of the rare old pieces with this pattern, cathedral windows almost appear before us with bright sunshine streaming in golden rays through the stained glass and brightening the interior with its more sombre tones of “dim religious light.” Sometimes the pole design is modified so as to suggest a tree of life extending from one end of the panel to the other. An equally common design represents six very mechanically drawn leaves assembled in the form of a medallion (Plate [O], Fig. 15, Page 291). Each of these leaves has two straight edges meeting at right angles and containing at the corner a small rectangular spot; but the remaining sides that form the circumference of the medallion are deeply serrated, so as to produce much the same effect as the rays of effulgent stars. In the fields are also frequently seen latch-hooks, and occasionally checkerboards with different colours for separate squares.

Between field and border is a close correspondence in both colours and small designs. The latter consist principally of geometric and semi-floral forms, as eight-pointed stars, the octagonal disc, and the geometric leaf that is typical of Kulah rugs. No other design is more prevalent than the last, which may be found in all parts of these rugs. Sometimes it is drawn most realistically so as to resemble the flower forms so common in spandrels of Kulahs; but again the outlines are most conventional with square-like projections at the edges and a bar of underlying field of contrasting colour crossing the face diagonally, as in the border stripe of Plate [G], Fig. 13, (opp. Page 192), which shows the foliate origin of the latter.

The name “Makri” is frequently applied to these rugs, since they were often bought in the city of that name, which is one of the harbours of Southwestern Asia Minor nearest to Rhodes.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red and blue, also considerable yellow, green, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to nine. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows in places at back. Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, occasionally one to each knot is slightly depressed below the other. Weft, wool, of medium diameter, coloured red. A thread of warp usually crosses twice between every two rows of knots, rarely only once, and sometimes as many as four times. Pile, wool, clipped long. Border, two to three stripes. Sides, a double selvage of two, three, or four cords, usually coloured red or blue. Lower end, a web, either red or of several colours, and long warp fringe hanging loose or braided. Upper end, a web, either red or of several colours, beyond which is often a heavy braided selvage; also a long warp fringe hanging loose or braided. Texture, moderately loose. Weave at back is of slightly coarse grain. Length, four to seven feet. Width, three fifths to four fifths length.

Plate 41. Kuba Rug

Broussa.—At the base of Mt. Olympus and distant only twenty-five miles from the Sea of Marmora, with which it is connected by rail, is the city of Broussa. By reason of this location and its proximity to Constantinople, it is an important commercial centre; and on account of the excellence of the wool and silk obtained in the surrounding country, rugs are woven here for foreign markets. The fabrics are stoutly made and compare favourably with those of Smyrna.

Hereke.—In the town of Hereke, on the Sea of Marmora, is a Turkish factory, where large numbers of silk rugs are manufactured. Most of the silk is obtained in the immediate neighbourhood and from the country about Mt. Olympus. As the early weavers were brought from Kirman to instruct the artisans of the Sultan, and the patterns have been largely copied from old Persian and Asia Minor pieces, it is not surprising that many of the fabrics compare favourably with the silk rugs of Persia.

Koniehs.—At the base of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the salt desert of Central Asia Minor is the city of Konieh. Within its present walls is all that is left of the ancient Iconium that opened its gates to Xenophon, Cyrus, and Alexander, but drove forth the Apostle Paul. Finally it surrendered to Seljukian conquerors, who, realising the importance of its situation on one of the great highways between east and west and in an oasis of well-watered fields, orchards, and gardens which face a great barren plain, established there a Mussulman capital, that became noted for its opulence and culture. In later years it successfully resisted the assault of Frederic Barbarossa; but subsequently it declined, until now the only remaining vestiges of its former importance are several colleges, one hundred mosques, and the famous green tower surmounting the tomb of the whirling dervishes.

In few other cities of Asia Minor were greater inducements offered to the rug weavers. Surrounding them lay hills and plains that produced sheep with soft, fine fleeces. On the oaks that grew not far to the north lived the kermes, from which were obtained the vermilion dyes famous even through Persia. The political and commercial importance of the city, as well as the religious fanaticism of the people, aided them. Accordingly a great many choice pieces were formerly woven there, but on account of the remoteness of the city from the markets that supplied Europe, few found their way into channels of trade.

Large numbers were used solely for religious purposes, but other kinds are as frequently seen. All of them contain both geometric and floral forms. The geometric forms resemble designs prevalent in Eastern Anatolia and in Caucasia, such as latch-hooks, eight-pointed stars, and barber-pole stripes; and the floral forms consist of mechanically drawn palm leaves and the tree-of-life design.

Probably in no other Asia Minor rug is such latitude in the drawing of the prayer arch. Sometimes it begins below the middle of the field and rises at a sharp angle to a point near the upper end; again it may be exceedingly flat; but generally it has the same pitch as the arches of Kulahs, and, like them, the sides, as a rule, are stepped or serrated. Furthermore, it is not unusual to see latch-hooks projecting from each step or serration into the spandrel, which is filled with small floral and geometric forms. From the niche is occasionally suspended a lamp; and arranged against the border, on each side of the field, is a row of conventionalised flowers, or small sprigs which resemble three triangular-shaped petals at the end of a straight stem. These floral or foliate designs are one of the most constant features of this class. The borders are more geometric than those of almost any other Asia Minor rugs, and even when vines are represented they are drawn with stiff formality.

Whatever may be lacking in artistic drawing is frequently atoned for by the excellence of the colour scheme, which occasionally rivals that of the Ghiordes and Kulahs. Rich reds or blues are almost invariably found in the fields, where there is sufficient depth of nap to enhance their richness; and the borders are brightened by attractive tones of yellow, green, and white. Contrasted with these old pieces, the modern rugs of Konieh have little artistic merit, but are large pieces desirable solely for their durability.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to ten. The rows of knots are not very firmly pressed down. Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. Weft, wool, of medium diameter, dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. Pile, wool, of medium length. Border, from two to five stripes, with frequently an outer edging. Sides, generally a selvage of two or three cords, but occasionally an overcasting. Both ends, a web and warp fringe. Texture, only moderately firm. Weave at back is of slightly coarse grain. Usual length, four and one half to six feet. Usual width, three fifths to three quarters length.

Ladiks.—On the ruins of ancient Laodicea is the mud-walled town of the village of Ladik, once the centre of an important rug industry. Among the surrounding hills are still woven pieces which resemble in pattern, though they poorly imitate in weave and colour, the early prototypes that have been classed among the masterpieces of Asia Minor. Few of these old rugs remain, and they are often badly worn in spots; yet they display tones mellowed by the touch of more than a century, and rival the Ghiordes in beauty of design.

As is the case with other classes of rugs woven in Turkish countries, the sedjadehs and odjaliks lack the interesting details of the namazliks, from which they widely differ. On the central fields of many of them are oblong hexagonal-shaped medallions, often three in number, that contain designs of stars or other geometric figures. Between the fields and the borders of the ends are generally spacious panels, on which are represented rows of vandykes. These figures are one of the most permanent characteristics of this class of rugs; and though their origin is uncertain, it is not improbable that they are derived from arrowheads, which were one of the emblems of the Chaldean deity Hoa, the reputed inventor of Cufic writing. The borders are also geometric, consisting, as a rule, of three stripes, of which the central contains an angular vine that in different pieces may be very simple or very ornate. One of the central stripes often adopted is represented in Plate [G], Fig. 10 (opp. Page 192) and shows a vine with conventionalised leaf. Latch-hooks are common in the sedjadehs, and when floral forms are present the fact is generally disguised by the harsh, mechanical drawing.

In contrast with these pieces, the namazliks with their interesting arches and dainty drawing are most pleasing. In a large number of them the central fields occupy about one half the space within the border, the spandrels extend for a considerable distance above the arch, and the panels are larger than in any other prayer rug. Occasionally arches resembling those of the Ghiordes or Kir-Shehrs are seen; but they are to be regarded merely as copies, since the typical arch differs widely from any other and gives to this class one of its greatest charms. Instead of rising to the apex in lines of many serrations, each side of the arch rises from the border and falls in one large serration, then rises again to form the niche. The arch is often fringed with latch-hooks, and extending above the apex of each serration and the niche are perpendicular devices that may, also, be a development of the latch-hook, since they have not been traced to any other satisfactory origin. But whatever their origin may be, their shape as well as that of the arch at once suggests Saracenic mosques. In the spandrel are constantly seen serrated leaves, rosettes, and designs peculiar to the Ladik. The large panel is equally typical, and consists of reciprocally drawn vandykes, from which rise perpendicular stems supporting leaves and pomegranates. These are generally five in number, and are so gracefully and naturalistically drawn that it seems surprising that the vandykes, from which they spring, are ornamented with a profusion of latch-hooks. The central fields are sometimes without ornament, but as a rule they contain some suggestions of the tree of life either in the central design or in the three-leaf sprigs arranged about the borders. The latter are as characteristic as any other part of the rug, and consist of four stripes separated by dotted lines. The main stripe most frequently contains a row of delicately drawn lilies alternating with rosettes, though occasionally a very formal vine with conventionalised leaf is substituted for it. In the stripes at each side are very angular vines with three-cleft leaves, and in the narrow innermost stripe is generally a ribbon pattern.

All of the drawing has clear definition accentuated by rich and strongly contrasting colours. The fields of the namazliks, like those of the Ghiordes, are entirely occupied by masses of unshaded blue, red, or brown, that are relieved only by the colours of superimposed designs. But as is not the case with Ghiordes, there is often a strong contrast between the colours of centre and ends; yet the tones are always in perfect harmony. Other rugs may have more delicate drawing or more exquisite finish; but in the barbaric arrangement of strong colour and in the uniqueness of graceful designs, none exceed the old prayer Ladiks.

Plate 42. Chichi Rug

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red and blue, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally nine to twelve; perpendicularly, ten to thirteen. A half knot as it appears at back is longer than wide. The rows of knots are pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. Warp, wool. One of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed below the other at the back. Weft, wool of fine diameter, generally dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. Pile, wool, of medium length. Border, three to five stripes. Sides, a red added selvage of two or three cords. Both ends, a narrow web and warp fringe. Texture, moderately firm. Weave at back is of medium grain. Usual length, four and one half to seven feet. Usual width, three fifths to two thirds length.

Kir-Shehrs.—To the north of the great salt desert and in the southern part of the province of Angora is the town of Kir-Shehr. It stands between two mountain ranges, on which are raised sheep with fine fleeces, and is on the branch of the Kizil Irmak, whose waters are well suited for preparing wool for the dyes obtained in the surrounding country. On account of the excellence of wool, water, and natural dyes, as well as the remoteness of the town from main highways of travel, many of the old rugs were excellent pieces, free from the taint of Western influences, and possessing the charm of individuality. It was due, moreover, to the fact that its three or four thousand inhabitants, and the Turkomans who roamed the surrounding country, rarely felt the influence of larger cities that they were so untrammelled by conventionalities. Unhesitatingly they grouped together large spaces of red, yellow, and blue, as well as grass-coloured green, for which they had a particular fondness and employed to a greater extent than almost any other weavers; yet in the case of these old pieces the artistic sense is rarely shocked, since the individual colours are good and the tones are harmonious. Furthermore, the patterns show an unusual blending of floral and geometric forms.

Most of the pieces come in moderate sizes; some are mats, others small sedjadehs, but the choicest are the prayer rugs. The serrated sides of the arch, which rise at a steep angle from the centres of each side of the rather narrow fields, are formed of several parallel lines of different colour. In a not unusual rug, for instance, eight narrow lines separating the spandrel of grass-green from the inner field of brick-red appeared in the following order: red, black, white, yellow, lavender, yellow, red, and blue. The inmost line is frequently fringed with tri-cleft floral forms, which, as in Koniehs, extend in a row along the sides of the field. From the niche is usually suspended the design of an inverted tree of life, and above it are projected latch-hooks or similar devices. It is not unusual to see two arches, and there are sometimes as many as four, placed one within the other. The spacious spandrel that is continued in narrow stripes along the borders to the bottom of the field is covered with geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and the horizontal panel, which may be placed at either end of the field, contains designs in harmony with the remaining parts.

On the whole, the wide borders have some of the most characteristic features; for, as a rule, not only are one or two of the stripes of a peculiar cherry red and one a rich yellow, but three or four of the narrow stripes next to the field are similar in width and ornamentation to those of the Kulah. When contrasted with them the broad central stripe and the outer one seem lacking in harmony, for they are distinctly floral and suggestive of Persian influences.

On account of the quality of their wool and weave, these rugs are soft and flexible. They resemble in some minor details others of the Anatolian plateau, yet they can be distinguished by the presence of grass-green colour and the shape of the prayer arch. The nap of these old pieces, like that of Kulahs and Ladiks, is of medium length; though in modern pieces it is often longer, and the weft and webs are coloured as are those of Bergamos.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red and green, also some blue, brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, five to ten. A half knot as it appears at back is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that in places the warp shows. Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or occasionally one is slightly depressed. Weft, wool, of medium or coarse diameter and generally of different colours in the same rug. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times between two rows of knots, varying in the same rug. Pile, wool, of medium length. Border, from five to eight stripes. Sides, a weft selvage of two, three, or four cords of different colours. Lower end, web and warp loops. Upper end, a web and warp fringe. Texture, loose. Weave at back is of coarse grain. Usual length, four to six feet. Usual width, two thirds to four fifths length.

Anatolians.—To all of Asia Minor was once applied the term “Anatolia,” which signifies the Land of the Rising Sun; so that any product of this country might well be called Anatolian, just as any product of Persia might be called Iranian. In fact, many of the less known classes, as the Nigde, Tuzla, Mudjar, and even the Kir-Shehr, Melez, and Konieh, are often called Anatolian. But as there is a special type of rugs known as Iranians, so is there a special type known as Anatolians. They are, however, a mixed lot, that come from parts of a wide stretch of territory, extending over the interior table-land to the home of the Kurds, and incorporating ideas received from many districts. It is, accordingly, difficult to define them as a type; but, as a rule, they are small pieces that are often used for mats and pillows, with moderately long nap of soft, floccy wool, with narrow borders, and a colour scheme that inclines to bright and sometimes garish colours.

Doubtless the best of them come from the provinces of Angora and Konieh, lying within a radius of one hundred miles of Lake Tuz Gul. Here can be obtained the best of wool and dyes; and in some of the old pieces appears the artistic drawing of the more important rug centres farther to the west, but with a strange blending of geometric and floral forms. Eight-pointed stars as well as latch-hooks are seen everywhere, and a very old design with the shape of ram’s horns is frequently used. In many of the prayer rugs the arches are of the Kir-Shehr order, though the panels may contain vandykes suggestive of Ladiks. There is the greatest latitude in the width of the borders, which occasionally are their most noticeable feature and again are most insignificant; but in either case they rarely contain more than three stripes, and not infrequently only one. Red, blue, green, and brown are the usual colours, but pink and canary yellow are sometimes used.

Farther to the east, among the foot-hills of the Anti-Taurus mountains, is woven a coarser type by the Kurdish tribes. With the exception of wool and dyes they have little to their credit; for their usual unsymmetric shapes, crude geometric designs, long uneven nap, and braided fringe of warp at the ends are lacking in all elegance.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red, blue, green, brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is generally as long as wide, or longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, yet the warp is frequently concealed at back. Warp, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. Weft, wool, of medium or coarse diameter and usually dyed, A thread of weft crosses two, three, and four times between two rows of knots frequently varying in the same piece. Pile, wool, of medium length. Border, one to three stripes, and occasionally an edging. Sides, a weft selvage of two or three cords. Both ends, a web and warp fringe. Texture, loose. Weave at back is of coarse grain. Usual length, two and one half to six feet. Usual width, one half to two thirds length.

Karamans.—At the foot of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the plain that stretches northward into the heart of Asia Minor is the city of Karaman. Before its subjection in the XV Century by Bajazet II and the removal of the capital to Konieh, that lies sixty miles to the northwest, it was the seat of a Turkish government extending to the Mediterranean Sea; but to-day the only reminder of its early importance are several Saracenic mosques covered with rich arabesques. Of the rugs woven there during the early period almost nothing is known, but, on account of the former importance of the city, it is not improbable that they compared favourably with the rugs of other parts of the Turkish Empire. On the other hand, some of the modern products are among the poorest rugs of the East, and contain little artistic merit. A feature peculiar to many of them is the use of natural wool of reddish brown colour, obtained from sheep which live on the mountain ranges to the south of Karaman. The pile is long, the weave is never very firm, and at each end is a coloured web.

Sivas.—In the city of Sivas, at the eastern end of Anatolia, and in the villages of the surrounding plain, girls and women have woven rugs from time immemorial; but on account of the difficulties of transportation few of them reach this country. The carefully finished sides and ends, the formal character of the pattern, and the almost harsh effect of the strongly contrasting colours of many of them are unlike what are found in the nomadic rugs made farther to the east and west. In the weave is a hint of Persian influence; for not only are both warp and weft of cotton, but the warp is of small diameter and well spun, and one of the two threads to which a knot is tied is depressed below the other. The pattern, on the other hand, is distinctly Turkish. One of the best known types consists of a large hexagon that reaches to the sides and ends, and contains within it a medallion on which are designs similar to those seen in Bergamos. On the white field surrounding the medallion are often small rosettes and floral figures. The corners of the field may be fringed with running latch-hooks or a row of formal T’s, and contain a rosette at their centre. The borders are rarely wide, and often consist of a single stripe that contains some conventionalised floral form. Although these rugs are well woven, their crude blending of floral and geometric figures, as well as their formality of drawing, which is accentuated by the shortness of the nap, are most suggestive of Occidental conventions.

Plate 43. Tcherkess Rug

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red and white; also dull blue, green, and light yellow. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, nine to fifteen. A half knot, as it appears at back, is not as long as wide. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. Warp, cotton, well spun and of small diameter. One of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back and sometimes doubled under the other. Weft, cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. Pile, wool of short to medium length. Border, narrow, one to three stripes. Sides, an added selvage of four or five cords attached in places, and with weft encircling inner cord of selvage. Both ends, narrow web and loose warp fringe. Texture, firm. Weave at back is only slightly coarse. Usual length, three and one half to six and one half feet. Usual width, two thirds to four fifths length.

Mudjars.—Near the river Kizil Irmak in Central Asia Minor is the city of Mudjar, which produces rugs that occasionally reach this country. They are often classed as Anatolians, but their colour scheme covers a wider range, including red, yellow, green, blue, mauve, and pink, all of which may be seen in the same piece. In fact no other rug of Asia Minor contains as a rule so many colours, which appear in the broad borders of old, well-woven pieces with glistening wool almost like mosaic work. Many of this class are namazliks with arches very similar to the arches in the rugs of Kir-Shehr, which is distant only twenty-five miles to the north; and in the panels above the spandrel are not infrequently designs of vandykes borrowed from the Ladiks. Some suggestion of the tree of life often appears in the field, and again rows of flowers may extend into it from the sides. Some of the best examples are very handsome.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally red, yellow, blue, green, and ivory, also mauve and pink. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. Warp, wool. Each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is frequently equally prominent at the back, but generally one is depressed below the other. Weft, wool, of medium to coarse diameter dyed red or brown. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. Pile, wool of medium length. Border, broad, of three to four stripes. Sides, a three-cord selvage, frequently red. Both ends, coloured webs and fringe. Texture, loose. Weave, moderately coarse. Usual length, four to six feet. Usual width, two thirds to three quarters length.

Nigdes.—Near the base of the Anti-Taurus mountains in the eastern part of the province of Konieh is the city of Nigde, which is little known in this country as a rug-producing centre, though its fabrics reach Europe. Many of them are namazliks, that are distinguished by their high geometric arches. The borders often show the influence of the Kurdish tribes, and contain patterns common in the Mesopotamian valley; but their colour scheme of red, blue, and yellow more closely resembles the Anatolian. Most of them are of small size and are poorly woven.

Tuzlas.—Another class of Asia Minor rugs rarely seen are the Tuzlas. They are generally regarded as Anatolians, but are made by people who live about Lake Tuz Gul in the province of Konieh. Some of them are well woven, and have soft woollen pile and attractive patterns. The prayer arch of the namazliks bears some resemblance to the arch of the Kir-Shehrs; the panel is relatively high; and not infrequently the borders have rosettes similar to those of Bergamos. The principal colours are red, blue, green, and ivory.

Kaisariyeh.—One of the few Asia Minor centres for the manufacture of silk textiles is the city of Kaisariyeh, the ancient Cæsarea, near the eastern part of Anatolia. Formerly rugs of excellent quality were made there; but the modern products are, as a rule, inferior both in workmanship and material to those of Hereke. Frequently their dyes are aniline and the colours garish. Many of them are prayer rugs with arches resembling the Ghiordes pattern, but their borders are more conventional. Woollen rugs which are copies of other well-known Asia Minor pieces are also woven there.

COLOUR PLATE VII—LADIK PRAYER RUG

The rug here represented conforms in every particular to one of the best types of Ladik prayer rugs. It contains the beautiful border stripe of Rhodian lilies, the pomegranates and vandykes in the panel below the central field, and the queer designs of scrolls and serrated leaves so peculiar to these rugs. It is interesting to see how the pattern of the innermost stripe, which consists of a row of S-forms at the top and sides, is changed so as to resemble a ribbon at the bottom, to note the eight-pointed stars resting on octagons in the lower panel, so suggestive of nomads, and also the designs which have been placed near the two corners on the left, between the rosettes and Rhodian lilies of the main stripe, as if to divert the spell of the “evil-eye.” Such irregularities, denoting the idiosyncrasies of the weaver, add to the charm of Oriental rugs.

Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt

Yuruks.—Suggestive of gipsies, yet widely unlike them, are the tribes of Turkoman descent known as Yuruks. This term means “Wanderers;” and they are well named, since throughout the western part of Asia Minor they follow their sheep, cattle, and camels from the rich pastures among the mountain tops of the interior, where they live in summer, to the fertile, sunny plains bordering the seashore in winter. Even near Smyrna and the slopes of Mt. Olympus may be seen their black goat’s-hair tents, where the unexpected guest is always welcome.

In their rugs is the reflection of their untrammelled lives, unaffected by the refinements of cities; and as their lives are different from those of all other inhabitants of Asia Minor, so are these rugs entirely distinct, resembling more than anything else the work of the wild Kazaks of the Caucasus. In them will be recognised the same long nap, the same massing of colour, the same profusion of latch-hooks, and other simple designs. The colours, however, are less brilliant, bright reds and yellows being more sparingly used; but on the other hand the depth of floccy nap gives a subdued richness to the dark metallic madder, blue, green, and brown, such as is rarely seen in any Kazak. The patterns show the usual diversity of nomadic rugs. The fields may contain crude, unrelated figures, or diagonal stripes on which are small geometric designs. Again from the Kurdish tribes to the east may be adopted the pear designs as well as floral forms, but the drawing is always far from realistic.

Most of the modern rugs have fine wool coloured with vegetable dyes, and stout warp and weft woven to give flexibility; but their patterns show a want of all artistic feeling. Now and then, however, comes to light a piece that has stood the wear of more than a century, showing the touch of a higher craftsmanship, and with colours softened by each succeeding year.

Type Characteristics. Colours, principally brown, red, and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the warp does not show at back. Warp, wool or goat’s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a half knot is equally prominent at back. Weft, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses two, three, or four times between every two rows of knots, varying in the same rug. Pile, wool, clipped long. Border, from four to six stripes, occasionally with an outer edging. Sides, generally a heavy double overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords. Lower end, a coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord, and warp loops; or the warp threads may be knotted and hang loose. Upper end, a coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord, a braided selvage, and a warp fringe; or the warp ends may be braided together at short intervals. Texture, loose. Weave at back is of moderately coarse grain. Usual length, four to nine feet. Usual width, two fifths to two thirds length.

ASIA MINOR BORDER STRIPES

Regarded as a whole, the borders of Asia Minor rugs show but slight relationship to either the geometric patterns of the Caucasian, or the floral patterns of the Persian; for as a rule the geometric features either are subordinate or suggest an origin by degradation from floral designs, and the floral features generally are represented by an orderly arrangement of disjunct forms rather than by continuous vines with pendent flowers. Yet there is no doubt that some were copied by Caucasian weavers, and that many were derived from Persian patterns. They are frequently, however, more artistic than the former, more interesting than the latter, and rival both in beautiful colouring and delicate drawing.

Primary Stripes.—Several different stripes peculiar to Ghiordes prayer rugs are illustrated in Plate [G], Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (opp. Page 192). The first of these is probably the oldest. It is so strikingly suggestive of the Herati design of rosette and attendant leaves that there can be little doubt of its Persian origin. The seed-like processes of the alternate rosettes are noticeable. The second, which is found in many of the Ghiordes rugs, shows the same pattern more conventionalised, with the rosette resembling an open pod and with the leaves almost octagonal-shaped. The third is a still greater evolution of the same pattern in which leaves and rosettes of nearly equal shape and size are placed at three angles of a quadrangular space. The last, which is a very elaborate pattern somewhat similar to the first, is found in a few old rugs. Besides these, a number of parallel lines similar to those of Kulah rugs (Plate [G], Fig. 12) are sometimes seen in the Ghiordes.

Plate G. Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs

One of the best known Ghiordes stripes found in odjaliks and sedjadehs is shown in Plate [G], Fig. 6. It is a broad stripe with wide, vine-like bands covered with rows of small flecks or flowers. Between each flexure of the band are designs probably symbolic of early sun worship.

In Plate [G], Fig. 7, is represented the most usual and beautiful stripe of the Ladik prayer rugs. The principal motives are Rhodian lilies, and rosettes identical with Persian forms, that are probably conventionalised roses. Another stripe, in which the lily is replaced by a conventionalised vine, is shown in Plate [G], Fig. 8. Both these stripes are found only in Ladik rugs. Other stripes seen now and then in Ladik and Melez sedjadehs are illustrated in Plate [G], Figs. 9, 10, and 11, each of which shows a conventionalised leaf.

One of the most typical Kulah stripes is seen in Plate [G], Fig. 12. It might in fact be regarded as a number of parallel stripes, but as will be evident by observing a large series of Kulahs it serves the function of a single broad stripe. Often the separate bands are replaced by a ground of uniform colour marked by parallel rows of minute flowers of regularly varying colour. Occasionally this stripe is copied by Ghiordes weavers.

In Plate [G], Fig. 13, is a well-known stripe that appears both in Kulah and Rhodian rugs. As previously explained, its origin is probably floral, though the drawing is geometric. A formal stripe found in Bergamos, and consisting largely of diamonds and eight-pointed stars, is represented in Plate [G], Fig. 14.

Figs. 15 and 16 of Plate [G] illustrate the border stripes of Melez rugs. Each contains regularly spaced rosettes, separated by conventionalised leaf forms. A much more geometric Melez border, in which the rosettes are replaced by eight-pointed stars and the leaves by discs, is shown in Plate [G], Fig. 17.

A geometric stripe of uncertain origin that is found in some Koniehs is shown in Plate [G], Fig. 18.

In Plate [G], Figs. 19 and 20, are represented two stripes characteristic of Kir-Shehrs. The former is a dainty pattern consisting of a row of bushes separated by the lily design. It is occasionally found in the Melez also.

A typical Mudjar stripe in which the geometric patterns are subdivided into small and richly coloured mosaic work is seen in [Plate G], Fig. 21.

In Plate [G], Fig. 22, is illustrated a Yuruk border stripe such as is frequently seen in modern pieces.

Secondary and Tertiary Stripes.—In Plate [H], Figs. 1 and 2 (opp. Page 194), are illustrated two secondary stripes frequently seen in Ghiordes and Kulah rugs. The first is most suggestive of a running vine, and the second has doubtless been derived from it.

A more ornate pattern, which generally accompanies the broad band of perpendicular lines peculiar to Ghiordes and Kulah rugs, is shown in Plate [H], Fig. 3. The arrangement of three leaves in angles of quadrangular spaces suggests relationship to the primary stripe of Plate [G], Fig. 3 (opp. Page 192).

Two other secondary stripes found in Ghiordes rugs are seen in Plate [H], Figs. 4 and 5. The former, which is also found in Kulahs is a vine and flower subject to many modifications.

A tertiary stripe containing a ribbon-like vine is very usual in Ghiordes and Kulah pieces. One of these, which is very graceful, is shown in Plate [H], Fig. 6.

Another angular vine with pendent flower, that appears as a secondary stripe of a large number of Ladik prayer rugs, is illustrated in Plate [H], Fig. 7. This resembles a few Persian stripes, but the drawing of the pendent leaf is characteristic of Asia Minor.

Figs. 8 and 9 of Plate [H] represent two tertiary stripes often seen in Ladiks and Kulahs. They illustrate the evolution of patterns; for in the same stripe of a rug will sometimes be seen the first of these and the simple ribbon pattern of Plate [F], Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158), and also in the same stripe of another rug will sometimes be seen the second of these and a continuous row of “ff” designs, as in Plate [H], Fig. 2.

The most typical of all Kulah secondary stripes, though it is also seen in Rhodian rugs and occasionally in an old Ghiordes, is illustrated in Plate [H], Fig. 10. A somewhat similar stripe is shown in Plate [H], Fig. 11. The design looks like a Chinese motive, but that it is evolved from a vine will be seen by comparing these stripes with those in Figs. 4 and 12. All of them are Asia Minor border stripes.

Plate H. Secondary and Tertiary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs

In Figs. 13 and 14 of Plate [H] are illustrated the swastika and S stripe, which are seen now and then in Asia Minor rugs, such as Kulahs, and also in Caucasian rugs.

One of the most typical of Melez secondary stripes, representing processes like cogs projecting in a row from alternating sides of the stripe, is shown in Plate [H], Fig. 15. The stripes shown in Figs. 16 and 17 of Plate [H], representing a row of small rosettes and a row of octagonal discs, are also occasionally seen in Melez rugs.

The very angular vine shown in Plate [H], Fig. 18, is sometimes seen in Koniehs.

A very unusual secondary stripe (Plate [H], Fig 19), found in a few Anatolians, represents a fret pattern, which was probably copied from some monument.

The chain pattern (Plate [H], Fig. 20) is occasionally seen as a tertiary stripe in the Ghiordes. It appeared in Asia Minor rugs of several centuries ago, and has been copied by the weavers of Caucasia. Sometimes the lines are angular, and again the S’s are separated by small round or square dots.

TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF ASIA MINOR RUGS

Legend:
KNOT—
H = Horizontally
P = Perpendicularly
WARP—
g = goat’s hair
s = silk
e = each equally prominent
d = 1 to the knot depressed
h = 1 to the knot doubled under
WEFT—
s = silk
j = jute
No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
SIDES—
O = overcasting
S = selvage
LOWER END
W = web
S = Selvage
K = Rows knots
L = warp loops
F = fringe
UPPER END
W = web
S = selvage
K = Rows knots
T = turned back and hemmed
F = fringe

ASIA MINOR	KNOT				WARP
	G = Ghiordes	S = Sehna	Number to Inches		w= wool	c= cotton	s/l	At back
			H	P				e	d	h
Anatolian Bergamo Ghiordes Karaman Kir-Shehr Konieh Kulah Ladik Meles Rhodian Sivas Youruk	G G G G G G G G G G G G		5-9 5-9 7-12 6-9 5-9 5-8 5-10 9-12 5-8 5-8 7-11 5-7	6-12 7-10 8-16 8-13 5-10 6-10 7-12 10-13 6-11 7-9 9-15 6-9	w w w w w w w w w w w	c c	[g]	e e e e e [e] [e] e e e	[d] d [d] d d [d] d	[h]

ASIA MINOR	WEFT				SIDES		LOWER END
	w = wool	c = cotton	s/j	No.	O	S	W/S	K	L	F
Anatolian Bergamo Ghiordes Karaman Kir-Shehr Konieh Kulah Ladik Meles Rhodian Sivas Youruk	w w w w w w w w w w w w	c c	[j]	2-4 2-6 2 2 2-6 2 2/[1] 2 4 2/[1-4] 2 2-4	O O	S S S S S S S S S S S [S]	W W W [W] W W W W W W W W	[K]	L L L	F F F F F F F F F F

ASIA MINOR	UPPER END				NAP	WEAVE	TEXTURE
	W/S	K	T	F	l = long m = medium s = short	f = fine m = medium c = coarse	l = loose m = medium f = firm
Anatolian Bergamo Ghiordes Karaman Kir-Shehr Konieh Kulah Ladik Meles Rhodian Sivas Youruk	W W W W/[S] W W W W W/S W/S W W	K	T [T]	F F F F F F F F F F F F	m m/l s l m m m/s m m/ l m/s l	c f f c c m/c m/c m m/c m/c m/c c	l m m l l m/f l m/f l m/l f l

[] indicates the less frequent condition.

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