CHAPTER XVI
HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS
HE owner of an Oriental rug will find the pleasure to be derived from it will be greater if he knows where and by whom it was made. This is particularly true if it is one of those pieces of which the charm depends more on its individuality than on the masterly handling of line and colour. The study of classification, therefore, will well repay the effort; though unfortunately it is often discouraging, since it involves a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred different classes, almost all of which are found to have exceptions to the best known types. To add to the difficulty, the opinions of dealers in regard to the less known classes are very often erroneous; and detailed descriptions, even at the best, are unsatisfactory. Without a long personal experience in handling rugs, combined with careful study, it is impossible to become expert; but familiarity with one class makes it easier by comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish others.
The beginner should first learn to identify each of the six groups. Of these the Chinese can readily be distinguished by their well-known patterns, which are found in no other part of the Orient except in the rugs known as Samarkands, Yarkands, and Kashgars; and the Indian may generally be recognised by the realism and formal arrangement of their floral patterns. Relatively few of either group are found in the United States; and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other four groups, they alone will be considered in detail. Leaving out of consideration, then, the Chinese and Indian rugs, it should be remembered:
(a) That, as a rule, rugs from Persia have floral patterns; and rugs from Asia Minor, Caucasia, and Central Asia have geometric.
(b) That figures with latch-hooks belong principally to rugs of the Caucasian group and, to a limited extent, to the rugs of the Asia Minor group.
Plate 63. XVIII Century Chinese Rug
(c) That fields covered with designs of octagonal or diamond shape belong to rugs of the Central Asian group.
(d) That about two thirds of the Persian group have cotton warp; and the remaining third, as well as the Asia Minor and almost all the Caucasian and Central Asian group have woollen warp.
(e) That about one third of the Persian group have one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot doubled under the other so as to be hidden at the back; and that this is not the case with the remaining two thirds nor with almost all classes of other groups.
(f) That, with few exceptions, the Persian rugs have a side finish of overcasting; and the other groups have both overcasting and selvage.
(g) That the rugs from Persia and Central Asia have both light and dark colours which, though rich, are subdued and harmonious; that the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious; and that the rugs of the Central Asian group have dark tones of red, blue, and brown.
(h) That all of the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have the Ghiordes knot; that the rugs of Central Asia, with rare exceptions, have the Sehna knot; that the rugs of Persia with woollen warp have the Ghiordes knot; and that those with cotton warp have either the Ghiordes or the Sehna knot.
(i) That the few classes of rugs which have very long end-webs belong to the Central Asian group. Of the classes with moderately long end-webs, several belong to the Central Asian and the Asia Minor groups, only two belong to the Persian group, and none belongs to the Caucasian group.
Excluding the Indian and Chinese rugs, it follows from the above statements that:
Of these four groups the Persian has the largest number of classes, some of which can only with difficulty be distinguished from one another. They may, however, conveniently be divided into the following sub-groups, depending on the technical peculiarities of the weaving and the material of the warp, so that the task of learning the class of a particular rug will be greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these sub-groups it belongs, and then eliminating the others from consideration.
| Cotton Warp |
| One thread of warp to each knot doubled under and hidden at back. |
| Sehna Knot (A) |
| Kashan Kermanshah Khorassan Kirman Meshed Mir Sarabend Sarouk. |
| Ghiordes Knot (B) |
| Gorevan Herat Herez Serapi Tabriz | ||||
| Each thread of warp equally prominentat back or one slightly depressed. |
| Sehna Knot (C) |
| Feraghan Mahal Muskabad Royal Sarabend | ||
| Ghiordes Knot (D) |
| Gulistan Iran Joshaghan Luristan Sultanabad | ||||
| quincunx effect of weft at back. |
| Sehna Knot (E) | Sehna | |||
| Ghiordes Knot (F) |
| Hamadan Ispahan (modern) |
It should be remembered, when studying the foregoing table, that all classes of rugs are subject to occasional variations in the technicalities of their weave, as for instance, the Herats may have woollen warp and Sehna knots; the Tabriz very often have linen warp; some of the Feraghans, Mahals, Muskabads, and Sehnas have the Ghiordes knot and some of the Sultanabads have the Sehna knot; the Joshaghans may have woollen warp; and in modern Ispahans the weft sometimes crosses twice between two rows of knots.
| Woolen Warp, Ghiordes Knot. |
| One thread of warp to each knot doubled under at back | (G) |
| Bijar. Niris[37] | |
| Each of the two threads of warp to a knot equally prominent at back, or one slightly depressed | (H) |
| Karadagh. Suj-Bulak. Kurdistan. Afshar. Mosul. Shiraz.[38] | |||
| Quincunx effect of weft at back | (I) | Karaje.[39] | ||||
With reference to size, these rugs may conveniently be divided as follows:
| Rugs invariably of carpet size |
| Gorevan. Mahal. Muskabad. Serapi. Sultanabad | ||
| Rugs frequently, but not always, of carpet size |
| Bijar. Herat. Kermanshah. Khorassan. Meshed. Sarabend. Tabriz. | ||
| Rugs frequently seen as runners |
| Hamadan. Karaje. Kurdistan. Mosul. | ||
Of the sub-groups represented on Page 284, “A” includes those that have the closest and finest woven texture. In this respect the Kashans, Sarouks, and Kirmans are, in the order named, superior to the others; and the Kermanshahs are the coarsest and the least evenly woven. In sub-group “B” the Tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap. The Gorevans and Serapis have several concentric medallions, in which are designs of archaically drawn leaves, and have generally the so-called turtle border. The Herats have the typical Herati border. Of the classes of sub-group “C,” the Royal Sarabends are the closest woven. The Feraghans are slightly coarser and the Mahals and Muskabads are much coarser and have longer nap. The Luristans, Joshaghans, and Gulistans are the best woven of sub-group “D.” At the back of Luristans each half knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead; and in a few Joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct. Both Irans and Sultanabads are coarsely woven. Comparing sub-groups “E” and “F,” the weave of Sehnas presents a file-like appearance at the back; and in Hamadans the weft is of much coarser diameter than in the other two classes. The Bijars of sub-group “G” are much stouter than the Niris and have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more completely doubled under the other. The webs at the ends of the Niris are very much longer than those of Bijars. Sub-group “H” contains the Kurdistans, Suj-Bulaks and Mosuls, all of which are woven in territory where for generations the Kurds have held sway, and show Kurdish characteristics. The Western Kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown colours, nomadic character, and coarse warp and weft. The Persian Kurdistans are very stoutly and firmly woven, and usually have one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot depressed below the other. The Mosuls have each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot equally prominent at the back; and a characteristic feature is the coloured, crudely spun yarn of weft, which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as high as the yarn of the knots at the back. In a typical Suj-Bulak the alignment of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated. The Karadaghs have Caucasian characteristics; the Afshars have coarse, wiry wool for the weft, and threads of warp strung so that each half knot is distinct.
Although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable evidence for determining the class to which a rug belongs, the patterns are important guides. It will be well, therefore, to remember that:
A Persian rug is probably a Shiraz, Karadagh, Karaje, Mosul, Kurdistan, or Afshar, if the pattern is partly geometric.
If the field has concentric medallions, the rug may be a Kermanshah, Sarouk, Kashan, Sehna, Gorevan, Herez, Tabriz, Mahal, Muskabad, or Sultanabad.
If the field is covered with pear designs, the rug may be a Sarabend, Burujird, Khorassan, Shiraz, Niris, Iran, Joshaghan, or Luristan.
Plate 64. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung Period
If the field is covered with small Herati designs, the rug may be a Feraghan, Sehna, or an Iran.
If the field is covered with small designs of the Guli Hinnai plant, the rug may be a Feraghan.
If the field is covered with the Mina Khani pattern, the rug may be a Persian Kurdistan.
A Persian rug is usually a Shiraz, Niris, Mosul, or Kurdistan if the nap is long.
It is almost invariably either a Shiraz or a Niris if the webs of the ends are long, and the overcasting of the sides has a barber-pole design or has short lengths of different colours. The Niris resembles the Shiraz; but one thread of warp to each knot is more depressed, the ends generally have longer webs, and the field is more frequently covered with large pear designs. It is a Shiraz if short tassels or tufts project at regular intervals from the ends; and it is probably a Niris if it has a long end-web of different coloured stripes.
It is probably a Karadagh, Gorevan, Serapi, Herez, or Tabriz if the sides are finished with a selvage.
Many of these classes have features by which they can be distinguished at once from all others. For instance:
The Sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs of moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate lines; borders of several stripes, of which one or two are ivory white with an angular vine from which are suspended mechanically drawn pear designs, and one or two narrow stripes with reciprocal trefoils. Only two other classes are similar: the Iran copies, which are always woven more coarsely and have the Ghiordes knot, and the Burujirds, which are rarely seen.
Most Feraghans have fields that are completely covered with small Herati or Guli Hinnai designs, and have the turtle pattern in the border. The only other rugs that are similar are the Iran copies, which have the Ghiordes knot and are more coarsely woven.
Almost all Hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad band of camel’s hair surrounding the border, and the coarse weft crossing only once between two rows of knots so as to give a quincunx effect at the back.
Gorevans are invariably of carpet size. They have fields almost covered with central medallions on which are archaically drawn leaves, and a broad central border stripe with a large conventionalised turtle pattern. They have usually the same colour tones, which once seen are not forgotten. The Serapis are similar to Gorevans but are usually older and of better colours.
The Kermanshahs have tones of ivory, pink, and light green, that are softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug. The fields have concentric medallions with dainty floral forms that are rarely seen in other classes except the Sarouks and Kashans; and the borders, that correspond in drawing and colouring with the field, have an outer edging that is almost invariably of pink, but sometimes dark blue. The drawing and colours, which are not easily described but quickly learned, at once distinguish these pieces from all others.
Some Mesheds resemble Kermanshahs, but the nap is more silky, uneven, and lustrous. The texture at the back is finer.
The rugs of Tabriz, which are usually made in carpet sizes, may be distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe at the ends. They are not likely to be confused with any classes but the Mesheds, Khorassans, and Kermanshahs; but the nap is shorter, and harsher to the touch; the knot is Ghiordes, and the drawing more formal.
Almost the only Persian rug that has small, geometric, adventitious designs and latch-hooks is the Shiraz. It is the only one that has small tufts of wool projecting from the sides; and with the exception of the Niris is the only one that, as a rule, has a barber-pole overcasting and a long web at the ends. It is also one of the most loosely woven.
The Sarouk and Kashan may be distinguished from all others by their short velvety nap; dark rich colours; fields of graceful foliated stalks and floral forms resting on concentric medallions; and the fine, firm, texture of the weave. A carefully drawn design of the running latch-hook appears in the borders; and the weft is usually some shade of blue. The Kashans are almost the same as Sarouks but have closer weave and finer texture. They very rarely come in large sizes.
Muskabads and Mahals are invariably made in large carpet sizes. Their texture is firm; they are very coarsely woven; and there is great irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at the back. Of the two, the Mahals are the better grade.
A large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to each knot doubled under the other is almost always a Bijar.
Sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate size. With few exceptions the field is covered with Herati or pear designs. They can be identified by the quincunx appearance of the fine cotton weft at the back and the file-like feeling of the weave.
The only Persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows evidence of Caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the patterns is the Karadagh.
The Gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their dull colours. In many of them each thread of warp is encircled by the right half of some knots and the left half of others.
The Asia Minor rugs have so many features in common that they cannot conveniently be divided into sub-groups. For instance: almost all have a coloured weft, a coloured web with fringe at the ends, and a selvage at the sides; all, excepting the Ghiordes and a few modern pieces, have woollen warp and weft; and all have the Ghiordes knot. To be sure, a distinction may be made in the length of the nap, since as a rule the Bergamo, Rhodian, Karaman, Yuruk, and some of the Anatolians have a long nap; and the remainder usually have a short nap; and also in the weaving, as in the Bergamo, Ghiordes, Karaman, Kulah, and Ladik, one thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed, and in the remaining classes all threads of warp are equally prominent; furthermore, Anatolians, Bergamos, Karamans, Rhodians, and Koniehs, have rarely more than three stripes to the border; and Kir-Shehrs, Kulahs, Ladiks, and Ghiordes have seldom less than five; but these features are not always constant and pronounced. The patterns, therefore, and those smaller designs which frequently are peculiar to a single class are of considerable assistance in distinguishing one from the other. The arch of the namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference to Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63).
Leaving out of consideration modern pieces, made to meet the demands of exporting companies, the Bergamo and Rhodian have certain points of resemblance. As a rule, they are almost square, and have long nap, long webs with coloured bands at the ends, a side selvage, and coloured weft. The Rhodian may generally be distinguished by their brighter colours and their panels, suggesting windows, placed parallel to the length of the rug. The Bergamos, which are more frequently seen, have rich, deep blue and red colouring, and more devices to avert the evil eye than any other Oriental rug.
Two panels, one above the arch and the other below the field, are almost invariably seen in the Ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in the Kulahs, but rarely in any other classes. The typical pattern of the central border stripe of Ghiordes prayer rugs, consisting of most conventionalised leaf and rosette, is not seen in any other rugs; nor is the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and sedjadehs, consisting of an undulating band covered with small flecks and fringed with latch-hooks.
The most characteristic features in the pattern of Kulahs are the numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of the border, and the secondary stripe with design like a Chinese device represented in [Plate H], Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194).
The pomegranates at the end of the field, and the Rhodian lilies in the main stripe of the border, distinguish Ladik prayer rugs from all others. Figures of vandykes, which are seen in some Anatolians and Mudjars, are also a constant feature of Ladiks.
A characteristic feature of Koniehs is the row of sprigs with three triangular-shaped petals that project from the border against the field.
As a rule, the Kir-Shehrs contain in the field a larger amount of grass-green colour than any other rug.
The narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one another like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are important aids in distinguishing Melez rugs.
On account of their long pile and their patterns of latch-hooks and other geometric figures, the Yuruks alone of all this group resemble the Caucasian rugs. They may also be distinguished from other Asia Minor rugs by the facts that the weft is of coarse, wiry wool, and the threads of warp are not strung closely together, so that at the back each half knot appears very distinct from the other.
A similarity prevails in the technique of most Caucasian rugs, as all have the Ghiordes knot, and almost all have warp and weft of wool, sides that are selvaged, and ends with a web and loose fringe. Moreover, classes that are in a measure geographically related show resemblances, as for instance: the Chichi, Daghestan, Kabistan, and Shirvan, which have short nap; the Tcherkess, Kazak, and Genghas which have medium to long nap; and the Soumak, Shemakha, and Kuba, which have a similar selvage at sides and ends. The only classes in which one thread of warp to each knot is depressed or doubled under the other are the Karabagh, Shemakha, and Shusha, from the southeastern part of Caucasia, and the Lesghian from the northern part.
Plate O. No. 1, Shah Abbas design. No. 2, Mina Khani design. No. 3, Guli Hinnai design. No. 4, Herati design. Nos. 5-a, b, c, d, e, f, Swastikas. Nos. 6-a, b. c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, Pear designs. No. 7, Cloud-bands. No. 8, Pitcher. No. 9, Motives of Asia Minor and Armenian rugs. No. 10, Octagonal disc. No. 11, Combs. No. 12, Motives of Melez rugs. Nos. 13-a, b, c, d, 14, 15, conventionalised leaf-forms in Asia Minor rugs. Nos. 16-a, b, c, The lotus. No. 17, Knot of destiny. Nos. 18-a, b, Motives of Daghestans and Kabistans.
The Soumak with its flat stitch and with ends of yarn hanging loose at the back is unlike all other rugs. At the sides is a carefully woven selvage, and next to the nap at the end is a narrow selvage of fine spun threads. The rugs of Shemakha, woven by some of the same tribes who dwell nearer the mountains, have similar selvages at the sides of blue or bluish green, similar ends of a narrow web of “herring-bone” weave and one or more rows of knots, and a medium long nap of rich blues, reds, yellows, browns, and greens. The Kuba rugs are almost identical with them, except that each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back, whereas in the Shemakhas one thread to each knot is depressed. When once these selvages, the narrow end-webs of “herring-bone” weave, and the particular tones of colour characteristic of these rugs have been carefully observed, they are not forgotten. The well-known Georgian stripe (Plate [J], Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is rarely found in any but these three classes.
The Baku rug may be distinguished by its geometric-shaped pear designs, and stiffly drawn birds. If modern, the tones are dull.
Long, shaggy nap, strong colours, of which red and green are almost invariably present, and large designs surrounded by numerous small nomadic figures are the general features of a Kazak. The Tcherkess has a striking resemblance to it, so that they are constantly mistaken for one another; but the Tcherkess is generally better woven and the pattern usually consists of what is known as the “Sunburst” resting on a field of dull red or a tawny shade. The border is almost invariably of three stripes, of which the central has the tarantula design, and the two guards have a reciprocal sawtooth design.
The field of the typical Chichi has an all-over pattern of small geometric design; and its main border stripe has rosettes separated by diagonal ribbon-like bars, as shown in Plate [I], Fig. 6 (opp. Page 226).
Rugs from the Karabagh district may frequently be recognised by the Persian influence in the drawing of their patterns.
Genghas may readily be distinguished from other classes of this group by the fact that the weft crosses more than twice and frequently many times, between every two rows of knots, which are not appressed, so that the weft, as it encircles the warp, appears at the back like a narrow beaded surface.
Daghestans, Kabistans, and Shirvans have so many different patterns that it is not always easy to distinguish the classes; but it will be some assistance to remember that the border design of wine cup and serrated leaf (Plate [I], Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found in about one half of the Shirvans, and that the bracket design (Plate J, Fig. 19, opp. Page 228) is peculiar to Daghestans and Kabistans.
Plate 65. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung Period
The small Central Asiatic group is not only unlike other groups, but may naturally be divided into three sub-groups, which are also distinct from one another and contain well-defined classes, viz.:
(a) Afghan, Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Khiva, Yomud, and Beshire.
(b) Samarkand, Kashgar, and Yarkand.
(c) Beluchistan.
In the first sub-group the prevailing colours are dark reds and browns with minor quantities of blue, green, and ivory. The Afghans are almost always of large size, and may be recognised at once by the broad web of the ends and the large octagonal shaped figures placed in contact in perpendicular rows. The Royal Bokharas are smaller, the end webs are not so wide, the octagons are never in contact and are separated diagonally by diamond-shaped figures. The Princess Bokharas and many Tekkes have the Katchli pattern. The Yomuds resemble the other classes of this sub-group in colour; but in the fields, diamond designs have entirely replaced the octagons.
The rugs of sub-group “b” almost always have cotton warp; whereas the rugs of sub-groups “a” and “c” invariably have woollen or goat’s hair warp.
The Samarkands are somewhat similar in colours and patterns to Chinese rugs, but may be distinguished by the fact that they almost invariably have three border stripes, whereas the Chinese usually have only one or two. The Kashgar and Yarkand also show Chinese influence.
The Beluchistans with brown, blue, green, and claret colours may be identified at once by their long embroidered webs at each end.
In the determination of the class to which a rug belongs, the pattern first of all attracts attention; and if it be one peculiar to a single class, it is an important guide. But in the great majority of cases, this will not be sufficient. It is, therefore, desirable to observe if the designs be floral or geometric, if the colours be subdued or obtrusive, if the knot be Sehna or Ghiordes, if the warp be cotton or wool. The variations in finish of sides and ends are also an index of the class. The pattern and these few technical details are the only characteristics by which most dealers attempt to determine the different kinds of rugs. But in the case of half of them, such evidence is far from conclusive. The back should be even more carefully examined than the front; because here are shown those subtle, but nevertheless positive distinctions, relating to the manner of tying the knot and the treatment of warp and weft, which are the most permanent tribal characteristics of Oriental weaving. It should be noticed, then, if each thread of warp encircled by the yarn that forms the knot lies in the same plane parallel with the surface and is equally prominent; or if one to each knot be depressed below the other, or if it be doubled under the other so as to be concealed. It should also be noticed if the weft be coloured or uncoloured, of fine or of coarse diameter; and if a thread of weft crosses only once or two or more times from side to side between every two rows of knots. Furthermore, the knots themselves should be carefully scrutinised to see if each row of them is firmly pressed down upon the weft, if each knot has a length equal or exceeding its width, if the yarn of which they are formed is drawn tight against the warp, and if it is loosely or closely spun. Only by consideration of all these different points, and sometimes even more, such as the nature of the colours, the character of wool, and the manner in which it is spun, is it possible to determine doubtful cases of identification.