Rudimentary Architecture for the Use of Beginners / The Orders and Their Æsthetic Principles

by W. H. Leeds

DORIC ORDER.

It has been already observed, that in the genuine Doric the column consists of only shaft and capital, which latter is composed of merely an echinus and abacus, the first being a circular convex moulding, spreading out beneath the other member, which, although a very important one, is no more than a plain and shallow square block upon which the architrave rests, not only firmly and safely, but so that the utmost expression of security is obtained, and pronounced emphatically to the eye. Such expression arises from the abacus being larger than the soffit or under surface of the architrave itself; and as the former corresponds, or nearly so, with the lower diameter of the shaft, it serves to make evident at a glance that the foot of the column is greater than the soffit of the architrave placed upon the columns. Thus, as measured at either extremity, the column is greater than the depth or thickness of the architrave, and projects beyond the architrave and general plane of the entablature. Now this would produce a most unsightly effect were the columns of the same, or nearly the same diameter throughout. In such case they would appear not only too large, but most clumsily so, and the entablature would have the look of being set back in the most awkward and most unaccountable manner. Instead of which, the architrave, and consequently the general plane of the whole entablature, actually overhangs the upper part of the shaft, in a plane about midway between the smallest diameter of the column, just below the capital and the face of the abacus. Even this, the overhanging of the entablature, would be not a little offensive to the eye, were the abacus no larger than the architrave is deep; whereas, being larger, it projects forwarder than the face of the architrave, thereby producing a powerful degree of one species of æsthetic effect, namely, contrast,—and if contrast, of course variety also; for though there may be variety without contrast, there cannot be contrast without variety. Another circumstance to be considered is, that were not such projection beyond the face of the architrave given to the abacus, that and the rest of the capital could not correspond with the foot of the shaft, and thus equalize the two extremities of the entire column. As now managed, all contradictions are reconciled, and the different sorts of contrast are made to contribute to and greatly enhance general harmony. In the outline of the column we perceive, first, contraction,—then expansion, and that in both directions,—for in like manner as the column diminishes upwards and the capital expands from it, its shaft may be said to expand and increase in bulk downwards, so as to agree with the abacus or upper extremity.

Though a few exceptions to the contrary exist, the shaft of the Doric column was generally what is technically called fluted, that is, cut into a series of channels touching each other, and thus forming a series of ridges upon its surfaces,—a mode of decoration, we may observe, altogether the reverse of that which was practised by the Egyptians, some of whose columns exhibit, instead of channels or hollows, a series of convex mouldings that give them the appearance of being composed of very slender pillars or rods bound together. Many have attempted, with perhaps pains-taking but idle inquiry, to account for the origin of such fluting or channeling, supposing, among other things, that it was derived from the cracks and crevices in the stems of trees, or from the streakings occasioned by rain on the shafts of the columns. Most perverse ingenuity! We do not find any thing like such marked streakings on columns even in this rainy English climate of ours; much less would they have been at all visible in such a climate as that of Greece. Others have supposed that these channels were at first intended to hold spears! that is, to prevent them from slipping and falling down when set up against a column; than which idea it is hardly possible for the utmost stretch of ingenuity to go farther in absurdity.

We, who are less ambitious, content ourselves with supposing that the fluting of columns was introduced and adopted principally for the sake of effect. If other motives for doing so existed, we know them not, nor need we care, since study of effect alone suffices to account for such mode of decoration. By multiplying its surfaces, it gives variety to the shaft of the column, and prevents it from showing as a mere mass. With the same, or very nearly the same bulk and degree of solidity as before, it causes the column to appear much less heavy than it otherwise would do, and contributes to a pleasing diversity of light and shade, reminding us of Titian’s ‘bunch of grapes.’ Being upon a curved surface, the channels serve to render the circularity of the column more apparent, since, though they are all of the same width, they show to the eye narrower and narrower on each side of the centre one,—no matter in what direction the column is viewed. Here then we have variety combined with uniformity, and a certain apparent or optical irregularity with what we know to be perfect regularity. In the Doric Order the number of channels is either sixteen or twenty,—afterwards increased in the other Orders to twenty-four; for they are invariably of an even number, capable of being divided by four; so that there shall always be a centre flute on each side of the column, that is, in a line with the middle of each side of the abacus. Doric flutings are much broader and shallower than those of the Ionic or Corinthian Orders;—broader for two reasons,—first, because they are fewer in number; and secondly, because there are no fillets or plain spaces left between them upon the surface of the shaft. Their proportionably much greater shallowness, again, may be accounted for equally well: were the channels deeper, not only would they seem to cut into the shaft too much, and weaken it, but also produce much too strong shadows; and another inconvenience would be occasioned, for the arrises or ridges between the channels would become very sharp and thin, and liable to be injured. The mode of fluting Doric columns with mere arrises between the channels, instead of fillets, has been retained by the moderns as characteristic of the Order; but as the Order has been treated by them, it is little better than a mere distinction, with very little regard to general character. In the original Doric almost every part is marked by breadth, or by flatness, or by sharpness. There are no curved mouldings or surfaces, except the cymatium of the cornice and the echinus of the capital, which last is generally kept exceedingly flat. The breadth and shallowness of the channels, and the flat curves in which they commence and terminate, are therefore in perfect keeping with the style in other respects; so also are the sharp arrises or ridges between the channels or flutings on the surface of the shaft, they being expressive of a severe simplicity. The same remark applies to the horizontal annular narrower channels or incisions immediately beneath the echinus of the capital, and lower down, which last are just the reverse of the projecting astragal or convex moulding given to the Doric capital by the moderns. Why such horizontal channels or grooves should have been cut in the very thinnest and weakest part of the column, where they diminish instead of adding to strength, it is not easy to say, except that they were merely for the sake of effect,—of producing shadow, and increasing the proportions of the capital, to which they seem to belong. We leave others, should any be so disposed, to object that the lowermost groove or grooves, as the case may be, give the capital the appearance of being a separate piece, merely joined on to the shaft without such joining being concealed. Looking at it differently, we will rather say that such groove is intended to mark to the eye the commencement of the capital, the portion above it of the shaft being thereby converted into the hypotrachelium or necking of the capital itself, which is thus enlarged in appearance without being actually increased, and rendered unduly heavy. It is not, however, every example of the Order that has such necking: while in some the groove separating the capital from the shaft is diminished to a mere line,—which looks like a joining not intended to show itself,—in others it is omitted altogether. With respect to the echinus, we have little more to remark than that its office—which it performs admirably—is, by expanding out, to connect the diminished upper end of the column with the overhanging abacus; and the former being circular and the latter square, but adapted to each other in size, a beautiful combination is produced of a circle inscribed within a square; and the result is variety, contrast, and harmony. In its profile or section,—by which latter term is understood the contour of any moulding or other member,—it is usually very flat, little more than a portion of a cone (turned downwards), with scarcely any perceptible degree of convexity, except just beneath the abacus, where it is suddenly rounded and diminished, so that the abacus does not seem to press upon or compress it too much.

We arrive now at the entablature, the first or lowermost division of which, the architrave, otherwise called by the Greek name of epistylium (from ἐπι, upon, and στύλος, column), is no more than a plain surface whose height, including the tænia or fillet which finishes it and separates it from the frieze, is equal to the upper diameter of the column. Such, at least, may be considered its standard proportion, that by means of which it conforms to and harmonizes with the column itself. The second or middle division of the entablature, namely, the frieze, constitutes in the Doric style a very characteristic feature of the Order, being invariably distinguished by its triglyphs and metopes. The former of these are upright channeled blocks, affixed to or projecting from the frieze, and are supposed to have been originally intended to represent the ends of inner beams laid upon the architrave transversely to it. The metopes, on the contrary, are not actually architectural members, but merely the intervals or spaces between the triglyphs; so that without the latter there could not be the others, because it is the triglyphs which produce the metopes. With slight variations in different examples, the frieze is of about the same height as the architrave,—a trifle less, rather than more; and the average proportion for the breadth of the triglyphs is the mean diameter of the column, or that taken midway of the shaft. The face of the triglyph has two glyphs or channels carved upon it, and its edges beveled off into a half channel, thus making what is equal to a third glyph, whence the name triglyph, or three-channeled. We have till now reserved speaking of what, although it shows itself upon the architrave, belongs to the triglyph, and is in continuation of it, namely, the fillet and guttæ attached to the tænia of the architrave immediately beneath each triglyph, and corresponding with it in width. These small conical guttæ or drops are supposed, rather whimsically, by some to represent drops of rain that have trickled down the channels of the triglyph, and settled beneath the ledge of the architrave. Others suppose them to have been intended to indicate the heads of nails, screws, or studs. Leaving all such suppositions to those who have a taste for them, we will be satisfied with discerning artistic intention and æsthetic effect. That member of the triglyph,—for such we must be allowed to consider it,—is of great value, serving, as it does, to impart somewhat of decoration to the architrave, to break the monotony of the otherwise uninterrupted line of the tænia, and to connect, to the eye at least, the architrave and frieze together. Although in a much fainter degree, the architrave is thus made to exhibit the same system of placing ornamental members at regular distances from each other, as is so energetically pronounced in the frieze itself. If it be asked why the same, or something equivalent to it, was not extended to the architrave in the other Orders, our answer is, because a similar motive for doing it does not exist. The triglyph being suppressed in the Ionic and Corinthian frieze, the accompanying guttæ beneath it were of necessity omitted also, otherwise they would have made evident that the triglyph ought to have been shown likewise. There is, indeed, one example, the monument of Thrasyllus, of a Grecian Doric entablature, whose frieze is without triglyphs (wreaths being substituted for them), and the guttæ are nevertheless retained. But how?—instead of being placed at intervals, as if there were triglyphs, they are continued uninterruptedly throughout, so that the idea of triglyph disappears; besides which, the example here referred to is altogether so anomalous and exceptional as to be not so much a specimen of the Doric Order as of the Doric style, modified according to particular circumstances; on which account it is highly valuable, since we may learn from it that where peculiar circumstances required—at least admitted of peculiar treatment, the Greeks did not scruple to avail themselves of the liberty so afforded.

With regard to the arrangement of the triglyphs, one is placed over every column, and one or more intermediately over every intercolumn (or space between two columns), at such distance from each other that the metopes are square; in other words, the height of the triglyph is the measure for the distance between it and the next one. In the best Greek examples of the Order there is only a single triglyph over each intercolumn, whence that mode is sometimes called monotriglyphic or single-triglyphed intercolumniation; which is the closest of all, the distance from axis to axis of the columns being limited to the space occupied above by two metopes and two triglyphs, i. e. one whole triglyph and two halves of triglyphs. In such intercolumniation the number of the triglyphs is double the number of the columns, minus one. Further, it is evident that as there must be a triglyph over every column, the triglyphs must regulate the intercolumniation. The width of the intercolumns cannot be at all less than the proportion above mentioned; neither can it be increased, except by introducing a second triglyph,—and if a second triglyph, a second metope also, over each intercolumn, thus augmenting the distance between the columns to half as much again, which becomes, perhaps, too much, the difference between that and the other mode being considerably more than the diameter of a column; whereas in the other Orders the intercolumns may be made, at pleasure, either a little wider or a little narrower than usual. One peculiarity of the Grecian Doric frieze is, that the end triglyphs, instead of being, like the others, in the same axis or central line as the columns beneath, are placed quite up to the edge or outer angle of the frieze. In itself this is, perhaps, rather a defect than the contrary, although intended to obviate another defect,—that of a half metope or blank space there,—for it produces not only some degree of irregularity, but of æsthetic inconsistency also, the triglyph so placed being, as it were, on one side of, instead of directly over the column. One advantage attending it is, that the extreme intercolumns become in consequence narrower than the others by half a triglyph, and accordingly a greater degree and expression of strength is given to the extremities of a portico.

The Doric Cornice.—The third and last division of the entablature which remains to be considered is, although exceedingly simple, strongly characteristic, and boldly marked. With regard to its proportions, it is about a third or even more than a third less than the other two, and may itself be divided into three principal parts or members, viz. the corona, with the mutules and other bed-mouldings, as they are termed, beneath it and the epitithedas above it. The mutules are thin plates or shallow blocks attached to the under side or soffit of the corona, over each triglyph and each metope, with the former of which they correspond in breadth, and their soffits or under-surfaces are wrought into three rows of guttæ or drops, conical or otherwise shaped, each row consisting of six guttæ, or the same number as those beneath each triglyph. Nothing can be more artistically disposed: in like manner, as an intermediate triglyph is placed over every two columns, so is an intermediate mutule over every two triglyphs. The smaller members increase in number as they decrease in size; and in the upper and finishing part of the Order, the eye is led on horizontally, instead of being confined vertically to the lines indicated by the columns below. The corona is merely a boldly projecting flat member, not greatly exceeding in its depth the abacus of the capital; in some examples it is even less. The epitithedas, or uppermost member of the cornice, is sometimes a cymatium, or wavy moulding, convex below and concave above; sometimes an echinus moulding, similar in profile to the echinus of the capital. The cornice may be said to be to the entablature, and indeed to the whole Order, what the capital is to the column,—completing and concluding it in a very artistic manner. By its projection and the shadow which it casts, the cornice gives great spirit and relief to the entablature, which would else appear both heavy and unfinished. In the horizontal cornice beneath a pediment, the epitithedas is omitted, and shows itself only in the sloping or raking cornices, as they are called, along the sides of the pediment.

Antæ.—Pilasters, as well as columns, belong to an Order, and in modern practice are frequently substituted indifferently for columns, where the latter would be engaged or attached to a wall. In Grecian architecture, however, the antæ,—as they are thus termed, to distinguish them from other pilasters,—are never so employed. They are never placed consecutively, or in any series, but merely as a facing at the end of a projecting wall, as where a portico is enclosed at each end by the walls forming the sides of the structure, in which case it is described as a portico in antis. Although they accompany columns, and in the case just mentioned range in the same line with them, antæ differ from them, inasmuch as their shafts are not diminished; for which reason their faces are not made so wide as the diameter of the columns, neither are their capitals treated in the same manner, as both shaft and capital would be exceedingly clumsy. The expanding echinus of the column capital is therefore suppressed, and one or more very slightly projecting faciæ, the uppermost of which is frequently hollowed out below, so as to form in section what is called the ‘bird’s beak’ moulding. In a portico in antis the want of greater congruity between the antæ and the columns is made up for by various contrasts. Flatness of surface is opposed to rotundity, vertical lines to inclined ones (those of the outline and flutings of the column), and uniformity, in regard to light, to the mingled play of light and shade on the shafts of the columns. Instead of attempting to keep up similarity as far as possible, the Greeks made a studied distinction between antæ and columns, not only in those respects which have been noted above, but carried difference still further, inasmuch as they never channeled the faces of their antæ, whereas the moderns flute their pilasters as well as columns. Hardly was such marked distinction a mere arbitrary fashion; it is more rational to suppose that it was adopted for sufficient æsthetic reasons and motives; nor is it difficult to account, according to them, for the omission of channeling on the shafts of antæ. Upon a plain surface the arrises between the channels would have occasioned an unpleasing harshness and dryness of effect, as is the case with fluted Doric pilasters, and would have been attended with monotony also, the lines being all vertical, and consequently parallel to each other; whereas in the column, the channels diminish in breadth upwards, and all the lines are inclined, and instead of being parallel, converge towards each other, so that were the shaft sufficiently prolonged, they would at last meet in a common point or apex similar to that of a spire. Owing to this convergency, the lines on one side of a vertical line dividing the column, or rather a geometrical drawing or elevation of it, into two halves, instead of being parallel, are opposed to each other, like the opposite sides of an isosceles triangle; and this opposition produces correspondence.

Pediment.—In addition to what has been already said relative to this very important feature of Grecian architecture, some further remarks will not be at all superfluous. In the first place, then, the pediment proves to us most convincingly that a figure which, considered merely in itself, is generally regarded as neither beautiful nor applicable to architectural purposes, may be rendered eminently beautiful and satisfactory to the eye. Reasoning abstractedly, it would seem that if such figure is to be made use of at all, the equilateral triangle would recommend itself in preference to any other, as being obviously the most perfect and regular of all triangles. For a pediment, however, such form would be truly monstrous; and yet even the equilateral triangle, or even one of still loftier pitch, may, under some circumstances, become a pleasing architectural form, as we may perceive from pyramids and Gothic gables. How, then, is this seeming inconsistency or contradiction to be explained? It explains itself, if we merely reflect, as we ought to do, that in architecture, forms and proportions are beautiful not positively but only relatively. Were it not so, the same forms and proportions would be beautiful, and equally so under all circumstances, without any regard to purpose or propriety. It must also be taken into account that habit, custom, association of ideas, or prejudice, greatly influence our notions of architectural beauty. We are prejudiced in favour of the low Greek pediment, if for no other reason, because it is sanctioned by Greek authority and is according to Greek precedent. In all probability, had that people employed high-pitched instead of low-pitched pediments, we should, without inquiring further, have admired the former rather than the latter. What we have now to inquire is, why lowness of pitch for the pediment best agrees with the Greek system and its principles. Notwithstanding that the pediment forms no part of the Order, since the latter is complete without it,—and in fact the pediment occurs only at the ends of a sloping roof,—the pediment must, when it does appear, be in accordance with the Order itself, or that front of the building which is beneath the pediment; consequently the pitch of the latter must be regulated by circumstances,—must be either greater or less, according to the proportions of the front itself. So far from being increased in the same ratio, the wider the front,—the greater the number of columns at that end of the building,—the lower must the pediment be kept, because the front itself becomes of low proportions in the same degree as it is extended or widened. Under all circumstances, the height of the pediment must remain pretty nearly the same, and be determined, not by width or horizontal extent, but by the height of what is beneath it. The height of the pediment or its tympanum (the triangular surface included between the horizontal cornice of the Order, and the two raking cornices of the pediment) never greatly exceeds the depth or height of the entablature; for were it to do so, the pediment would become too large and heavy, would take off from the importance of the Order, and appear to load its entablature with an extraneous mass which it was never calculated to bear.

We hardly need observe that it was, if not a constant, a very usual practice with the Ancients to fill in the whole of the tympanum of the pediment with sculpture, and also the metopes of the frieze, by which the latter, instead of being mere blank spaces between the triglyphs, were converted into highly ornamental features.