IONIC ORDER.
How this Order originated,—what first led to the adoption of volutes as a suitable decoration for the capital,—whether they were mere decoration, or were at first intended to express some meaning,—whether they were intentionally devised for the latter purpose, or grew out of some accidental hint,—must now be entirely matter of conjecture. Of one thing we may be quite certain, that the Order as we now find it in the best and best known examples, was not struck out all at once, but must have passed through several stages till it was ultimately matured into perfection.
Although the capital is the indicial mark of the Order,—that by which the eye immediately recognizes and distinguishes it,—the entire column is of quite a different character from the Doric. Besides having the addition of a base, the shaft is of more slender or taller proportions, and consequently made much less visibly tapering; for if it diminished in the same degree as the Doric shaft does,—the Ionic being about two diameters longer,—the upper one would, in consequence of such tapering, become much too small; and a further consequence would be that the foot and base of the column would appear much too large,—perhaps clumsily so. Not knowing expressly to the contrary, we are at liberty to suppose that it was the altered form and character of the capital itself which first led to the formation of a base or series of mouldings at the bottom of the shaft, in order to produce such degree of finish below as would correspond with and balance the richness and flow of outline given to the capital. And it must be allowed that the swelling contours of the base are admirably in keeping, and harmonize with the play of curves in the volutes; whereas, were the shaft to stand immediately upon the floor or pavement without any base, as in the Doric Order, although such treatment is in perfect correspondence with the character of that echino-abacus Order, it would be just the reverse in the voluted one. There would be a harshness and abruptness below, in grating discord with the graceful flow of lines in the capital above. This feeling dictated the necessity for a corresponding base, which, although generally spoken of as an addition to the shaft, may with far greater propriety be said to have been taken out of it. Any actual addition to the foot of the shaft would have been the same as an enlargement of it, producing disproportion, and therefore deformity. The most rational explanation therefore is, that the original diameter for the foot of the shaft was retained, but the foot itself shaped into mouldings, and the portion immediately above it pared away or reduced, so that the column became more diameters in height than before. That being done, and a distinct base so obtained, it was found necessary to make a further change, for the sharp arrises of the Doric mode of fluting occasioned a degree of harshness quite at variance with the greater delicacy aimed at in other respects. Those arrises were accordingly converted into fillets, which are not actual members, but merely spaces left between the channels or flutes themselves, which last are consequently narrower than in the Doric column; and their comparative narrowness is further increased by their being augmented in number, from that of twenty to twenty-four. Thus the change from the Doric to the Ionic column may be accounted for, rationally at least, and æsthetically, if not historically. We do not, indeed, profess to know and determine the actual origin of the volutes of the capital, and therefore leave those who put faith in Vitruvius to believe, if they can, that they were derived from the imitation of the curls in a lady’s head-dress; or, as others will have it, that the idea was borrowed either from rams’ horns, or the slender and flexile twigs of trees placed upon the capital for ornament! We also leave those who are not satisfied with our way of accounting for the base given to the Ionic column to fancy that this member was intended to imitate the ancient chaussure or sandals.
The Ionic capital is far more complex than that of the Doric, and not only more complex, but more irregular also: instead of showing, like the other, four equal sides, it exhibits two faces or fronts parallel to the architrave above it, and two narrower baluster sides, as they are termed, beneath the architrave. Some consider this irregularity a defect, which, if such it be, is to be got over only by either turning the volutes diagonally, as in some Roman and modern examples, or by curving concavely the faces of the capital, instead of making them planes, so as to obtain four equal faces or sides, as is done in the capitals of the inner Order of the Temple of Apollo at Bassæ. At least that method, and the other one of turning the volutes diagonally, are the only methods that have been practised for giving perfect regularity to the Ionic capital by means of four equal faces; for, though difficult, it is possible to accomplish the same purpose differently, by making the abacus quite square, as in the Doric Order, and letting the volutes grow out of it on each side or face, their curvature commencing not on the upper horizontal edge, but descending from the vertical edges of the abacus. In fact, the volutes might be fancied to have originated in a prolonged abacus, first falling down on each side beneath the architrave, and then coiled up on the back and front of the column for the two faces, which thus became greater in width; after which a smaller ornamental abacus was introduced as a crowning member, immediately beneath the architrave. As it is now treated, the great extent of the two flat voluted faces prevents the capital from being square. Let us endeavour to explain this: as average measurement, we may put down 50 minutes, or 10 less than the lower diameter, for that of the upper diameter of the shaft; 65 for the sides of the abacus; from 56 to 60 for the soffit of the architrave, which last accordingly overhangs the upper part of the shaft; and 90 minutes, that is, three modules, or a diameter and a half, for the faces of the capital, measured across the volutes. Now, were the capital square—as deep from back to front as it is wide in front—its bulk would be excessive, and out of proportion with the column and other parts of the Order, and inconsistent with the delicacy aimed at in all respects. The mere lateral expansion of the capital, on the contrary, as viewed in front, does not occasion any appearance of heaviness,—rather that of richness; more especially as the bulk is greatly diminished by the following ingenious expedient. Instead of the baluster side being made cylindrical by being kept of the same diameter throughout, and equal to the face of the volute, it is gradually diminished from each face; so that the side of the capital thus becomes in a manner hollowed out; and not only that, but great play of form is imparted to it, and its curvature both contrasts and harmonizes with the curves of the volutes themselves.
If there be not the same completeness with respect to uniformity in all the four sides as is obtained in the Doric and Corinthian capitals, at any rate the most admirable artistic contrivance and propriety are exhibited. The only thing to be objected against the Ionic capital is, that in the end columns of a portico the form of capital just described occasioned obvious if not offensive irregularity, because on the return or side of the building the baluster side showed itself beneath the face of the architrave: yet even this was of little consequence if there was merely a single row of columns in front; but where the colonnade was continued along the flanks of the building also, a very unsightly sort of irregularity was produced; for while all the other columns on those flanks showed the faces of their capitals, the end one would show its baluster side. Here then a difficulty presented itself that demanded some ingenuity to overcome it; and hardly can we sufficiently admire the happy expedient by which it was surmounted. It was necessary to give the capital at the angle two adjoining voluted faces, so that it should agree with those of the other columns both in front and on the flank of the building. This was accordingly effected by placing the volute at the angle, diagonally, so as to obtain there two voluted surfaces placed immediately back to back,—a most happy and simple contrivance, which, now that it has been applied, every one is at liberty to fancy he could have found out for himself. Nevertheless it is not every one that approves of it, for there are some who affect to regard that disposition of the volute at the angle as a defect. If it be strictly considered merely in itself, it may, perhaps, be objected to such capital that in itself it is irregular, one of the volutes in each of its faces being turned obliquely and foreshortened, while the other volute in the same face is seen directly in front, as in all the other capitals. Yet surely such partial and trifling irregularity may very well be excused, instead of being imputed as a defect, since it obviates far greater irregularities, and contributes so effectively to general harmony and symmetry. At all events, it is incumbent upon those who make the objection to show how much better they could have managed matters. So far are we from objecting to it, that we do not see why the same diagonal disposition of the volutes should not, occasionally at least, be employed for all the capitals alike, thereby giving them, although in all other respects perfectly Greek as to style, four uniform faces, as in some of the Roman and Italian examples of the Order.
How little modern Architects are capable of modifying the Ionic capital, and adapting it to particular circumstances, may be seen in the colonnades of the façade of the British Museum, where, at the re-entering or internal angle formed by colonnades at right angles to each other, the column at the angle has two adjoining voluted faces given to it; but as a re-entering or inner angle is circumstanced quite differently from an external one, the consequence is that each of those faces falls opposite the baluster side of the columns ranging with it either way. We explain this briefly in two simple diagrams, in which f indicates the face or voluted side of the capital, and b the baluster side. In an external angle, or the return of a portico, the faces and sides are arranged thus, so that b b b b come opposite each other; but in an internal or re-entering angle, the reverse takes place; for we have then this disposition of the faces and sides of the capitals, in which a voluted face comes opposite to the baluster side of the next capital,—a most unsightly irregularity, and one all the more unpardonable because it could have been got over, if in no other way, by converting that column (a) into a square pillar, which would besides give strength, or the expression of it, where such expression is very desirable.
If these observations on the Ionic capital seem to detain us too long, we cannot help it: they are nothing less than indispensable for a proper understanding of its nature, and the peculiarity of circumstances attending it. What remains to be observed is, that owing to its complexity, that capital admits of very great diversity of character and decoration. It is sometimes without, and sometimes has a necking to it, which may either be plain or decorated, as may best accord with the particular expression, either as to richness or quiet simplicity, which is aimed at as the characteristic of the entire design. The capital may be modified almost infinitely in its proportions; first, as regards its general proportion to the column; secondly, as regards the size of the volutes compared with the width of the face. In the best Greek examples the volutes are much bolder and larger than in those of the Roman and Italian, in some of which they are so greatly reduced in size, and become consequently so far apart from each other, as to be insignificant in themselves, and give the whole capital an expression of meagreness and meanness. The spirals forming the volute supply another source of variety, since they may be either single or manifold. In what is called the Ilissus Ionic capital there is only a single spiral, or hem, whose revolutions form the volute, which mode, indeed, prevails in all the Roman and modern Ionics; but in the capitals of the Temple of Erechtheus at Athens, there are, besides that principal spiral, other intermediate ones which follow the course of its revolutions. Again, the cathetus, or eye of the volute, where the spiral or spirals terminate, admits of being made smaller or larger. It is, besides, sometimes flat, sometimes convex, and occasionally carved as a rosette. All these variations are independent of the general composition of the capital, and though not all equally good, they both suggest and authorize other modifications of the Ionic type, and fresh combinations.
One exceedingly interesting example, highly valuable as suggestive study,—one quite sui generis, and perhaps on that account viewed with more of prejudice than relish, is the internal Order of the Temple of Apollo at Bassæ, delineated and described by Mr. T. L. Donaldson, in the supplementary volume to Stuart’s ‘Athens.’ This example, which seems to have found favour only in the eyes of Mr. C. R. Cockerell, who has employed it on more than one occasion, has, as already intimated, four similar faces; yet if it so far agrees with many Roman and modern Ionic capitals, it differs from them totally in every other respect. While the faces of the latter are formed rather by merely sticking on the volutes diagonally, instead of turning them, so in the example now under notice, each face may be said to be arched, since it curves downwards on each side from the middle of its upper edge, instead of being there straight or horizontal beneath the architrave. Owing to this circumstance the faces of the capital have the look of being rather affixed to than properly connected with the abacus, and there is a certain degree of incongruousness and want of finish. So far, then, there is room for improvement, and perhaps in some other respects also; yet upon the whole there is much to approve of and admire in this capital, among whose peculiarities it deserves to be noted that the space between the volutes is not above half the width of the volutes themselves. Nor is it for its capital alone this that example of the Order is remarkable, its base being equally peculiar, on account of its simplicity of form, and still more so, perhaps, on account of its very great expansion, spreading out below to considerably more than two upper diameters of the shaft; which perhaps causes the capital to appear rather too small in comparison with it. This base is all the more remarkable because it differs entirely from what is called the Ionic base, although not employed by the European Greeks for that Order, who made use of what is styled the Attic base, consisting of two tori and a scotia, or deep curved hollow, between them. The proper Ionic base, or what is so called, differs from every other form of that member, being greatly contracted in its lower mouldings, which, if not a deformity, is not a particular beauty, as it gives the base too much the appearance of being reversed or turned upside down; and hence it is difficult to assign any probable or sufficient motive for such conformation of mouldings in the foot of a column. Perhaps the only modern instance of the application of that base occurs in the tetrastyle (four-columned) portico of Hanover Chapel, Regent Street, whose Order is copied from the Temple of Minerva Polias at Priene, in Asia Minor; to which example we shall presently have occasion to refer again when we come to speak of the Ionic entablature. Before so doing we have to call attention to another peculiarity in the columns within the Temple at Bassæ, whose base is [above shown]: we allude to the mode in which the shafts are fluted, which seems to indicate a transition from the Doric to the Ionic style, the fillets being exceedingly narrow, and the channels shallow and very slightly curved, which gives the shaft altogether a different character from that attending the usual mode of fluting practised for this Order.
Although it is a modern composition, derived from the study of Greek fragments, yet certainly not on that account the less meritorious than if it were an express copy from some one particular example, we may be allowed to speak of the Order, or rather the columns of the hexastyle (six-columned) portico of the Church in Regent Square, Gray’s Inn Road, erected between twenty and thirty years ago by Mr. Inwood, soon after the completion of St. Pancras’ Church, whose portico so admirably exemplifies the florid and elaborately wrought Ionic of the Temple of Erechtheus at Athens. The columns of the Regent Square Church,—and it is on account of the columns alone that we allude to it,—differ from all other known examples; not only in their bases and capitals, but also in the very peculiar mode of fluting, or rather striating, employed for their shafts. Not having detailed drawings, or any drawings at all to assist us, we cannot pretend to enter into description, but can only say that base, shaft, and capital are unlike all received examples, and at the same time so well adapted to each other as to produce artistic unity and consistency of character; and that character is stamped by breadth and simplicity. With respect to the fluting, it partakes of what may be called striating, the fillets showing themselves rather as narrow surfaces raised upon the shaft, than the channels as positive hollows between them. The capital is at once graceful and simple, and derives much of its peculiar character from the enlarged eye of the volute, which is occupied by a rosette ornament.
Interesting as it would be to particularize other examples, we cannot do so here, which is the less to be regretted because mere verbal remarks, unaccompanied by drawings on such a scale as to fully show all their minutiæ, would not be very satisfactory. Perhaps we shall be thought to have already dwelt rather too long on the mere column, for we have not yet quite done with that part of the Order. It remains to be observed, that notwithstanding its situation is such as to render detail there hardly noticeable, the baluster side of the capital was always enriched. In Greek examples it had a series of wide channels with broad fillets between them, and where great richness was affected, as in the Ionic of the Temple of Erechtheus, the fillets had an additional moulding upon them, carved into beads. In the Asiatic examples, on the contrary, and Roman ones also, the baluster side is usually cut into the form of leaves, bound together, as it were, in the centre by a broad moulded ring, which produces an exceedingly good effect; and indeed, in several instances, much better taste is manifested in that obscure part of the capital than in the face itself.
Although it is repetition to say that the base usually given to this Order by the Greeks was the Attic one, consisting of two tori, divided by a scotia, we here refer to that part of the column again for the purpose of noting a species of enrichment applied to it, the upper torus being sometimes fluted horizontally, at others cut to resemble an interlaced chain-like ornament, now called a guilloche. Modern Architects, however, invariably leave the upper torus of the base quite plain, even when they scrupulously copy every other part of the column. The only instance of channeling upon the upper torus, to which we can point, is that of the portico of St. Pancras’ Church, which building well deserves to be carefully examined and studied by those who would acquire a correct idea of the exquisite finish and richness of Grecian Ionic details, and their effect in execution.
For Ionic Antæ a few words will suffice. Without exactly agreeing with that of the column, the base does not differ very materially from it, except, indeed, in the Ilissus example, where it is lower than the other, and consists only of a shallow scotia with a channeled torus above it. In the Erechtheum example it is distinguished from the column base chiefly by both lower and upper torus being channeled. The capital, or, as it is more commonly termed, anta-cap, on the contrary, is differently shaped from that of the column, in consequence of having no volutes; wherefore it is not by any means so wide, neither is it so deep. The mouldings, too, though of the same character, are differently disposed. Still the anta-cap corresponds with the capital as to plainness or enrichment,—being either carved or not, as those of the latter happen to be; and if the capital has an ornamented necking, so also has the anta. One singularity in the treatment of Ionic antæ, is that of the face of the anta, a slight break being made down the middle of it, which causes it to appear composed of two very narrow faces put together side by side, but not exactly flush with each other. This kind of antæ, in imitation of those of the Erechtheum—perhaps the only precedent for it—has been adopted for St. Pancras’ Church. What could have led to it is rather difficult to conjecture, since there does not appear to be any adequate motive for it, or any purpose gained by it.
Ionic Entablature.—As expressed in the terms of the diameter of the column, that is, measured by it, the entablature exceeds that of the Doric Order. In the Parthenon the entire height of the entablature is not more than 2 diameters; while in both the Ionic and Erechtheum it is 2 diameters and 17 parts, or the third of a diameter more; whereas it would seem that the Ionic column being much slenderer, the entablature ought to be less than 2 diameters in height, instead of being more. And so it is, and less in a considerable degree: it is the height, not the diameter, of the column which regulates the height of the entablature; in other words, the height of the latter must be in proportion to that of the former.[2] Now 2⅓ diameters for the entablature is much less in proportion to a column 8 or 9 diameters high, than 2 diameters for the entablature is to one that is only 6 diameters high. In the latter case the entablature is equal to one-third of the column, and one-fourth of the whole Order; but in the other, 2⅓ diameters amount to only a fourth, or thereabouts, of the height of the column, and consequently to only about a fifth of the entire Order.
The Ionic architrave does not differ materially from that of the Doric. Its average or standard height is the upper diameter of the column. In the plainer examples of Ionic, such as the Ilissus one, the face of the architrave is quite plain, as in the preceding Order, and distinguished from it only by the Doric tenia being converted into a moulding of a plain bead and small echinus, surmounted by a narrow tenia or broad fillet. In more decorated examples, as that of the Erechtheum, the face of the architrave is divided into three surfaces or courses, called faciæ, which very slightly project before or overhang each other, and the moulding between the architrave and frieze is increased in depth; there is a greater number of mouldings, and some of them are enriched by being carved, or, as it is termed, cut.
As to the Ionic frieze, triglyphs being discarded for it, and no other characteristic members substituted for them, it becomes no more than a plain surface interposed between the architrave and cornice, unless,—as is now never done, although it was, in all probability, generally done by the Ancients,—it is enriched with figures in bas-relief or other sculpture. Yet as mere sculpture of that kind, however essential to effect, is not taken into account, or considered to belong even to the character of an Order, but to be something quite extraneous that may either be introduced or omitted at pleasure, it is omitted accordingly; whereby the frieze is reduced to a mere blank surface, which leaves nothing more to be said concerning it.
The Ionic cornice affords but little scope for further observation, more particularly in the Athenian examples, in which it consists of little more than the corona and cymatium above it, and some narrow bed-mouldings beneath the former member, partly got out of its hollowed soffit or under surface. Consequently the whole cornice looks rather meagre and poor, especially if the richer form of capital with a necking to it be employed for the columns. In such case there is no corresponding degree of richness and increased importance in what is, nevertheless, the completing member or division of the entire Order, and ought accordingly to be treated as such. On this account we hold the cornice of the Erechtheum example to be very unsatisfactory, and to derogate from what is the character of the Order in all other respects: while the capital is particularly ornate, luxuriant, and complicated in design, the cornice, which, as has been before remarked, is to be considered as the capital of the entire Order, is particularly simple and severe; and owing to the want of a sufficiency of bed-mouldings beneath it, the corona appears to jut out too abruptly immediately over the frieze, without due preparation for it. Were the frieze sculptured, such enrichment would, perhaps, without any thing further, confer an adequate degree of ornateness upon the whole entablature, and bring it into keeping with the highly finished columns. If, on the contrary, the frieze is to be left plain, the best way would be to reduce its height a little, and perhaps that of the architrave also, and enlarge the cornice by introducing dentels into it. These last-mentioned members,—which, although considered by modern writers to be characteristic of the Ionic Order, and to be to its cornice what mutules are to the Doric, and modillions to the Corinthian, do not appear to have been so regarded by the Greeks themselves,—consist of a series of narrow upright blocks (supposed to represent the ends of joists), placed closely together, so that the spaces between them, which are only about half as wide as the blocks themselves, appear to indent that portion of the cornice, which, when introduced without being so ornamented, is called an uncut dentel band.
The Priene example, to which we referred when speaking of Ionic bases, offers what, in our opinion at least, is a far better model for an Ionic cornice than that of the Erechtheum, and which, with perhaps some modification of it, might very well be applied to the more florid Athenian Order; and though to do so would be contrary to precedent, that would matter little, so that the change itself were in conformity with artistic effect and æsthetic principles.
The Temple of Jupiter at Aizani in Asia Minor exhibits a remarkable example of the Ionic Order, the details of which were recently published, for the first time, by M. Texier. In its general conformation the base resembles the Priene example; but the entablature is quite different. The architrave is divided into three faciæ, separated by a cut moulding; and the upper faciæ is surmounted by an exceedingly deep and highly enriched course of mouldings. The frieze, too, is ornamented in a very unusual fashion, acanthus leaves being placed upon it at intervals, somewhat after the manner of triglyphs, and connected together with scrolls. The cornice has both dentels and modillions and a narrow corona, but a deep cymatium or epitithedas, enriched with carving.
We will not pursue our notice of the Greek or Ancient Ionic any farther, but here conclude it with observing, that notwithstanding its decided superiority to the Roman, &c., especially in its capital, the former has not been adopted by the Italian and French Architects of the present day. In this country, on the contrary, the Greek Ionic has been employed almost to the entire exclusion of the other, from the time of its being first made known to us by means of Stuart and Revett’s ‘Antiquities of Athens,’ and the ‘Ionian Antiquities;’ to which publications may be added the ‘Unedited Antiquities of Attica,’ which contains other specimens of the Order, found at Eleusis, remarkable for their refined simplicity and also their gracefulness. Not the least important lesson to be derived from these and similar publications is, we permit ourselves to say, the learning from them that the Greeks treated their Orders with artistic spirit and freedom, conforming to a certain type or general standard for each, but varying their details and modifying their proportions.
For examples of Grecian Doric and Ionic which may be seen in London, and which the student would therefore do well to look at and carefully examine for himself, since he will from these learn more than he possibly can do from books alone, we refer to the following buildings: for Doric, the tetrastyle portico of Covent Garden Theatre, and the hexastyle one of the Colosseum in the Regent’s Park; which latter shows the Order to much greater advantage than the other, owing to its being free from such disturbing and very un-antique additions as several doors and windows within it, which inevitably destroy all breadth and repose;—it has also the advantage of a west aspect, by which the full effect of light and shade is produced. For Ionic examples, we refer to St. Pancras’ Church, New Road, whose order is a faithful transcript from that of the Erechtheum; the same building also affords an instance of the application of a caryatid order of female figures in the porch, or rather the porch-like structure, on its north and south sides,—the idea of which is taken from a similar small structure attached to the Athenian Temple;—the University Club House, Pall Mall East, where the same Order is applied upon a much smaller scale, and raised upon a basement floor;—the Chapel in South Audley Street;—the portico of the Post Office, and the façade of the British Museum;—the portico of the College of Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, whose columns, proportioned according to the Ilissus example, were originally plain, but were fluted, and the mouldings of the entablature cut, when the building was altered and greatly improved some years ago, by Mr. Barry;—the portico of Hanover Chapel, Regent Street, which, as the reader is already aware, shows the Priene Ionic;—and lastly, for we will not further extend this list, the portico of the India House, Leadenhall Street, which is remarkable for its frieze being sculptured, and its pediment also filled in with figures in relief. Of similar decoration for the Doric Order we cannot point out any instance here, both the metopes of the frieze, and the pediment, being left plain in all our English specimens of that Order.