Women Pianists.

Of the many distinguished women pianists since Liszt, the most eminent was Mme. Clara Schumann, a pupil of her father, Friedrich Wieck. She played in public from the age of thirteen, winning instant recognition. Her marriage to Schumann diminished her public activity, but after his death in 1856, she resumed her career. She taught at the Hoch Conservatory at Frankfort, besides playing in public in Europe and England. Among other famous women pianists were Madame Clauss-Szavardy, Mme. Arabella Goddard Davidson, and Mme. Sophie Menter. Mme. Teresa Carreño, a pupil of L. M. Gottschalk and G. Mathias, has had a remarkable career as concert-pianist. Mme. Essipoff, a pupil of Wielhorski and Leschetizky, taught for many years at the St. Petersburg Conservatory, after brilliant concert tours. Miss Fanny Davies, a pupil of Reinecke and Mme. Schumann, Mme. Roger-Miclos and Mlle. Clotilde Kleeberg, pupils of the Paris Conservatory, are all pianists of distinction. In this country Miss Adele aus der Ohe, a pupil of Kullak and Liszt, Mme. Bloomfield-Zeisler, a pupil of von Wolfssohn and Leschetizky, and Mme. Helen Hopekirk, a pupil of the Leipzig Conservatory and of Leschetizky, now a teacher at the New England Conservatory, and Mme. Szumowska-Adamowska, before mentioned as a pupil of Paderewski, are all pianists of great ability.

In conclusion, it may be stated that while Liszt’s pupils have done much to carry on the traditions which he originated, much has also been accomplished for the advancement of pianistic art by Leschetizky and his pupils, a remarkable group of teachers at the Paris Conservatory, and by such independent pianists as de Pachmann, Busoni, Siloti, Godowsky, Bauer and Hofmann, while many able conservatories and private teachers in America are enabling the American pianist to compete favorably with Europe.

Questions.

Who is the best-known piano teacher of today?

Name some of his famous pupils. Which one instituted prizes for American composers?

Name some pianists who have profited by Paderewski’s advice. Which one has made successful tours of America?

Name the most famous Italian pianists. Which one has made masterly transcriptions of Bach and Liszt?

What pianist has made a specialty of Chopin?

What young pianist has made an especially brilliant impression in America?

Name the pioneer pianists of America.

Who is the most famous of American composer pianists?

Name some talented women pianists.

Suggestions for a Review of Lessons XLI to XLVIII.

This period is of great interest to the student, as the greater part of the piano literature in use today is the work of composers belonging to the Romantic and Post-Classical schools. It must not be forgotten that in studying the history of music the object is to learn to know the music of the best composers, not merely certain facts and dates in the lives of these composers. The works cited in the lessons give a wide latitude in the matter of choice and a clear idea of the contribution of the different composers.

Lesson XLI.—1. Take a composition by each of the composers mentioned and show its distinctive qualities. 2. Show the deeper, fuller, more poetic character of the compositions of Field as compared with Clementi.

Lesson XLII.—1. Give a sketch of Schubert the man. 2. Name the special qualities of Schubert’s music. Why does he belong to the Romantic school?

Lesson XLIII.—1. What is the nature of Weber’s contribution to music? 2. What are the special qualities of Mendelssohn’s works?

Lesson XLIV.—1. Compare Schumann’s work in the short pieces and in the large forms. In which was he the more successful? 2. Give an analysis of some of his short pieces.

Lesson XLV.—1. In what forms did Chopin do his best work? Mention some pieces as illustrations. 2. In what ways did he show national spirit? Mention pieces.

Lesson XLVI.—1. Give a sketch of the important factors in the making of Liszt the pianist. 2. What influence did he exert on music?

Lesson XLVII.—1. Compare Rubinstein and Liszt. 2. What influence did Brahms exert on music?

Lesson XLVIII.—1. Make a list of the various pianists and classify them as to nationality and school.

LESSON XLIX.
The Art-Song. Oratorio after Mendelssohn.

Development of the Art-Song Idea.—A most significant phase of musical activity is that centred around the art-song for solo voice. In the period before the opera, choral singing was the principal medium for vocal music. With the Opera came a style of composition from which was developed the principle of the Aria, the latter dominating both Opera and Oratorio for many years, as the form for an art-song for a solo voice. In this form, as we have seen, the production of vocal effects, the making of attractive melody, and the opportunity for virtuosic display were sought first of all. It was not until the beginning of the 19th century, when Schubert’s peculiar genius asserted itself, that we meet what can be truly called the art-song, a form of composition without the artificiality of the operatic aria and with higher musicianly and artistic qualities than those that mark the people’s song. Several tendencies contributed to bring this about. Gluck’s theories and practice led both composers and people to pay closer attention to the text and to its delivery. The development of instrumental music, particularly the principles of thematic treatment, led composers to the inventing of new melodic and rhythmic figures that should serve as the basis of accompaniments of higher artistic quality than those founded on some variation of the Alberti bass figure. Piano technic had greatly improved, and so had the instrument. And it may also be said that the verse of this period was better suited for a dramatic musical setting than the formal, often stilted and artificial lyrics of earlier days, with their shepherds and shepherdesses and constant reference to pastoral and classical life.

Italian, French and English Forms.—A study of musical conditions in Italy, France, Germany and England shows a different style of the solo song in each country, each having some distinctive feature that maintains today, and one that may be said to characterize the song-idea of that people. The Italians were so taken with the opera and in the course of its development it so fully embodied the national love for sweet, graceful melody that a species of art-song apart from the opera had little or no chance to shape itself. The French Chanson has never yielded place to the methods which distinguish the modern art-song. The French language has certain qualities which seem to call for a treatment that centres the attention in the voice part rather than on the song as a whole, according to the German idea. Yet French composers have produced and still make most beautiful and charming songs which unmistakably embody the national characteristics, clearness, polish and an effective singing melody. The old English Ballads are pieces of narrative verse; but the term has been used so freely and for almost every kind of verse that it is not possible to give it a precise definition. Thomas Morley, in a work on music, which he published in 1597, mentions “songs which, being sung to a dittie may likewise be danced”; in 1636, in a book called “The Principles of Musicke,” the author, Butler, refers to “the infinite multitude of Ballads set to sundry pleasant and delightful tunes by cunning and witty composers, with country dances fitted to them.” The principles of musical construction and the character of the text are such that we do not find in the English ballad the true germ of the art-song.

The German “Lied”, a poem intended for singing, as it came from the hands of the great poets, such as Goethe and Heine, seems to have afforded to composers the inspiration to the making of a style of song that should have the value of a musical setting in full consonance with the character of the text. As instrumental music developed, the Volkslied, the people’s song, the natural medium for expression, gradually disappeared. Yet composers made use of it as a medium, such masters as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Weber giving attention to it, although the demand for a simple, clear melody, due to the dominance of the Italian opera, and for an accompaniment that was always much subordinated, prevented the art-song (Kunstlied) from taking a high place. Since then the accompaniment has been given more and more prominence, less attention being paid to pure melody and more to the value of harmony and rhythm as the means for characteristic color and expression. Melody, which is made up of a succession of phrases, cannot furnish a sequence of sharp effects so readily as can well contrasted chords; hence the old idea of tune changed as harmony became better understood. The methods of song composers vary, and a classification is made by German writers: A song that has simple form and tune akin to that of the Folk-song is called “Volksthümlich”; one that has the same tune to the different stanzas is called strophic; one that is carefully worked out, the music illustrating every shade of meaning and emotion is called “Durchcomponirt”; a narrative song is called a “Ballad” or “Ballade.” The great masters in song composition are Schubert, Schumann, Franz and Brahms.

Schubert as a Song Writer.—A consideration of Schubert’s education and his general make-up shows clearly why he should seek outlet for self-expression in song rather than in the large instrumental forms. We find that he was not systematically educated in musical science, like Mozart, Beethoven or Weber, and that he was by nature very spontaneous and amenable to external influences. Such a composer is particularly open to the effect of a poem and will turn to the small song form rather than to the elaborate instrumental forms. Many of Schubert’s songs were written on the spur of the moment in response to an impulse from reading a chance bit of verse. The first reading of the poem usually gave the complete idea, both tune and accompaniment; whether it should have the simple folk-song character, a more declamatory style, strophic or the more elaborate form, depended upon the character of the text. It is fortunate for music that he was brought into contact with some of the finest lyrics in the field of poetry, such as called forth his highest powers in melody, harmony, rhythm, modulation, declamation and recitative, for he aimed to the very fullest extent possible to heighten the thought of the text by the emotional power of music. It is a phase of Schubert’s genius that some of his finest songs were written before he had reached his majority.

Schumann and His Songs.—Schumann brought to song writing a different type of mind from that of Schubert, more poetic, more gloomy, more emotional, a fine literary training, a faculty for expression in word as well as in tone, a fund of new forms of expression in instrumental music, particularly the piano, so that we find in his songs certain elements that indicate development toward a more highly organized structure. Schumann was highly intellectual, hence we find in his songs a close union of voice and instrumental parts in working out the fundamental conception of the poet’s meaning; and so deeply does he carry out this plan that the accompanist must enter most thoroughly into the singer’s part, and vice versa, that the full effect be brought out; as compared with the songs of Schubert and Mendelssohn we can say that the latter are the “verses set to tunes, while Schumann’s songs are poems in music.” The piano part of a Schumann song contains the atmosphere of the poem, is an attempt to heighten the meaning by suggesting thoughts and feelings which the words, spoken or sung, cannot express; sometimes it is an entirely independent composition, and carries out to a final close the thought left unfinished by the voice, thus avoiding the conventional ending, by the singer, on the tonic chord. Schumann’s effort was to express his own reading of the poet’s lines by the musical means that seemed to him best suited to the purpose. To this end he refused to allow himself to be bound by conventional treatment, either of voice or instrument.

Robert Franz (1815-1892) combined in his songs the romanticism and general methods of Schumann, with a polyphonic treatment inspired by his deep study of Bach. He wrote to various styles of verse, hymns, love-songs, lyrics of the field, the forest, the hunter, the soldier, and though his songs lack the tender, passionate, melodious quality of Schubert’s and the deep poetic feeling of Schumann’s, they are nevertheless models of perfect, even elaborate workmanship in which the composer follows with great faithfulness the mood of the poet; Schumann, on the contrary, seems to project his own interpretation of the poem into his music, while Schubert seems to grasp the emotion at its highest moment and the song pours out as the spontaneous expression of the singer.

Three Modern Writers.—Of modern writers, those who contributed most to the development of the art-song are Wagner, Brahms and Richard Strauss, the first-named by his style and treatment of the voice and the instrumental part rather than by his songs, which are few in number. Brahms wrote nearly two hundred songs, varying in character and quality, and using a highly-developed accompaniment, often intricate in its construction, complicated in rhythm and restless in harmonic support, employing all the resources which his mastery of chromatic harmony placed at his disposal. He frequently wrote in the style of the Folk-song, making use of its simple melodic quality, enriching it, however, by his great skill in elaboration in the accompaniment. Brahms’ songs are great favorites on concert programs. Richard Strauss (b. 1864) is the leading composer of today, and has used in his songs the principles that distinguish his large works. These songs are very difficult, both for voice and accompaniment, and are full of tonal coloring, for Strauss has adapted to the miniature form of the song the means of harmonic and rhythmic effects which he uses so powerfully in his orchestral scores. When well sung and well played, the hearer cannot but be absorbed by the wealth of musical effects of the highest emotional and picturesque quality displayed in Richard Strauss’ songs. In a full study of songs and song writers, many more names would be mentioned; those selected for consideration in this lesson represent those who have contributed most significantly to the development of the modern art-song.

Oratorio Composers after Mendelssohn.—The later history of the Oratorio requires some consideration at this point. After Mendelssohn, many of the leading composers of Europe turned their attention to this form of composition, influenced, in many instances, by the splendid opportunities for production offered by the strong choral organizations and festival associations of Germany and England, as well as by the great advances made in orchestral playing, which gave to composers resources far beyond those at the hand of Mendelssohn and his predecessors. We may mention, among the Germans, Schumann, whose “Paradise and the Peri” was produced in 1843; Liszt, who was much attracted to sacred subjects, wrote two oratorios, “The Legend of St. Elizabeth” and “Christus”; Rubinstein, who used his great skill in tone painting with orchestral masses in “Paradise Lost” and in his sacred opera “The Tower of Babel”; Brahms, whose “German Requiem” is a standard work to be done well only by thoroughly disciplined vocal and instrumental forces; and Dvořák, who has shown great power in his “Stabat Mater.” Among the French writers most prominent in this form of composition are Berlioz, whose “Requiem” is a colossal work in which he drew upon all the resources of the orchestra to heighten the powerful, dramatic character of the text; Gounod, who wrote his remarkable works, “The Redemption” and “Mors et Vita” for English production; Saint-Saëns, whose “Noël,” a Christmas work, is oratorio in style and construction, although small in dimensions; and César Franck, the most modern of all, whose “Beatitudes” has been made the subject of much discussion. English composers, following the lead of Handel and Mendelssohn, have given great attention to this form. Bennett, the friend of Mendelssohn, produced a beautiful work, “The Woman of Samaria”; Costa, an Italian by birth, spent a great part of his professional life in England; hence his oratorio, “Eli,” may be classed with English works; Sullivan wrote two oratorios, “The Prodigal Son” and “The Light of the World”; Macfarren’s “St. John the Baptist” and Mackenzie’s “Rose of Sharon” can be classed among oratorios. The most eminent in this form at the present day is Elgar, “The Dream of Gerontius” and “The Apostles.” Young Italy has lately shown interest in this form, the most noteworthy being the Abbé Perosi, who is under the patronage of the Pope. In the United States the leading representatives are J. K. Paine, of Harvard University, with the oratorio “St. Peter,” Dudley Buck, “Golden Legend,” and H. W. Parker, “Hora Novissima.”

The Cantata.—More popular even than the Oratorio with choral societies is the Cantata, both sacred and secular, and the great increase in strong choral organizations, particularly in England, Germany, France and the United States, has resulted in the production of a number of splendid works which show dramatic power and the highest skill in handling voices and instruments. These works contain opportunities for the use of the finest quality of melody, variety of rhythm, solid harmonic or the more fluent polyphonic style, richness of harmonic coloring and every accessory in the way of tone painting by the orchestra, which such masters as Berlioz and Wagner pointed out. The important works are too many to be mentioned here; only the composers’ names can be given. In Germany, Brahms, Bruch, Dvořák, Gade, Goetz, Hiller, Hofmann, Rheinberger; in France, Berlioz and Massenet; in England, Bennett, Corder, Cowen, Macfarren, Mackenzie, Smart, Sullivan, Coleridge-Taylor among the younger men; in the United States, Buck, Foote, Chadwick, Gilchrist, Paine, H. W. Parker, and Carl Busch.

Questions.

Compare the Aria and the Song.

Mention the characteristics of the Italian, French and English people’s songs.

What are the characteristics of the German Lied?

Give a sketch of Schubert as a song writer.

Give a sketch of Schumann as a song writer.

Compare the two.

Give a sketch of Franz as a song writer.

Compare him with Schubert and Schumann.

Who are eminent among modern song writers?

Mention the special characteristics of each.

Name the leading composers of Oratorio after Mendelssohn, and their works.

What is the difference between an oratorio and a cantata?

What composers have done successful work in this line?

Songs of the leading composers, classic and modern, should be studied. The lessons on Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, etc., mention notable songs. Analyze an oratorio by one of the composers mentioned in this lesson, also one or more cantatas.

Felix Weingartner.     Gustav Mahler.
Richard Strauss.     Siegmund Hausegger.

LESSON L.
The Symphonic Poem in Germany.

Wagner’s Influence.—The genius of Wagner produced and applied to Opera a far richer and more complicated orchestration than had existed before his day. Since then, in many periods and in many countries, composers have tried to adopt his style, and apply it to the symphonic as well as to the operatic stage. In the field of purely orchestral music, Liszt and Berlioz had already formulated a free style, and their symphonic poems, departing from the set form of the symphony, have also served as models for later composers. Almost the only recent exponent of the strict form was Johannes Brahms, for Anton Bruckner, working on similar lines, did not achieve great success with the public.

Richard Strauss.—For many years it was thought that Wagner’s orchestration would remain unrivalled in the field of music. But Richard Strauss (born at Munich, Germany, 1864) has made a further advance in this respect, and handles the full modern orchestra with the utmost skill. Son of a court horn-player, his musical genius showed itself in his earliest years, and his studies with the court capellmeister, F. W. Meyer, resulted in the publication of several works. At first he followed Brahms and the stricter school, and his F-minor symphony is a worthy production in that form. A meeting with von Bülow led to his appointment as assistant-conductor at Meiningen. To show his ability, Strauss had to conduct, without rehearsal, his Serenade, Op. 7, for thirteen wind instruments; and the excellence of this work brought him the desired position. It was at this time that he met Alexander Ritter, a man of broad intellect and radical ideas. Under the new influence, Strauss renounced his classical style, and began to compose the tone-pictures and symphonic poems that have made his name so important. As he is the chief modern representative of the new school, his works merit detailed examination.

His Early Symphonic Poems.—After an Italian trip in 1886, Strauss gave his impressions of that country in the form of the symphonic fantasie “Aus Italien,” his first work in the free style of subjective emotion-painting. It is in four movements, each a complete tone-picture. The first, “On the Campagna,” gives a vivid impression of spacious solitude, with a hint of the pageants and battles once witnessed by this great Roman field. The second movement, “Amid Rome’s Ruins,” aims also to give “fantastic pictures of vanished splendor, feelings of sadness in the midst of the sunlit present.” The third movement, “On the Shores of Sorrento,” resembles the symphonic scherzo, while the finale gives an animated picture of “Neapolitan Folk-Life,” introducing the air of “Funiculi” and other popular Italian tunes.

After four years of conducting at the Munich court theatre, Strauss settled in Weimar, where he produced three more important works. The first of these, “Macbeth,” showed that he had abandoned the old form in favor of the symphonic poem, in which the different movements are fused into one large whole, free in form. The picture of Macbeth, ambitious and cruel in spite of his timidity, is ably developed, but the portrayal of Lady Macbeth brings a still stronger climax of magnificent orchestral power.

“Don Juan,” the second of the three, is founded on Lenau’s poem. The hero is not a ruffian adventurer, as in Da Ponte’s libretto, but is depicted as an arch pessimist, hunting through the world for perfection in pleasure, but never finding it. There are restless and uncertain melodies at the opening, to illustrate the hero’s unsatisfied longing. A knightly theme follows, typical of Don Juan himself. Then come various episodes, full of attractive enthusiasm, but always ending with the same vague unrest. A wild carnival, followed by sudden silence and the cutting theme of a trumpet, announce the hero’s end.

“Tod und Verklärung” (Death and Transfiguration) is a work of great power and beauty. It depicts an exhausted sufferer, asleep in the quiet sick-room, dreaming of the beauty of his lost youth. Then follows a more discordant episode, which may well picture a fierce contest with the powers of disease, ending in defeated exhaustion. A third portion brings renewed memories of the morning of life; passages of joyous enthusiasm and noble aspiration suggest the high hope of youth and the glorious achievement of manhood; but again comes the struggle with the powers of Fate, ending in despair and death. The fourth part is an apotheosis, representing the triumph of man’s upward striving over death. This section contains some of the most impressive orchestral beauties in the range of Strauss’ works.

Program Music.—In the older symphonic form, it was not necessary for the composer to suggest a title for his work. Many have done so—Beethoven in his “Pastoral Symphony,” Mendelssohn in the “Scotch,” for example; but the exquisite beauty of Schubert, or the romantic charm of Schumann will impress the hearer without the use of extraneous suggestions. In the modern school of program music, founded by Liszt, the composer gives the audience a more or less detailed account of the subject that inspired him, and tries to paint in tones the events or moods suggested by the title. Much, therefore, depends on the choice of the subject. If it is well-known, and gives definite suggestions of certain moods which can find expression in the orchestra, then it may receive legitimate treatment by being set to music. But if the subject is not one that lends itself to broad emotional treatment, or if the composer aims to picture definite events or objects, he is departing from the true function of his art. Music deals with expression of emotion, and should not attempt something that belongs rather to other arts, such as Literature or Painting. Many persons think that Strauss has gone too far in this direction, especially in his later works.

His Later Symphonic Poems.—In “Till Eulenspiegel,” the hero is a mediæval rogue, whose adventures are found in an old German tale. He is a wandering mechanic, who does anything but tend to business. He is always indulging in madcap pranks, in which he manages to escape from his well-merited punishment. In the composition, Strauss has given free rein to his fancy, and portrayed, with rare orchestral skill, the fantastic jokes, the sly humor, and the rollicking disposition of the graceless rogue. The work is in rondo form, with definite themes to typify the hero. These themes form the basis of the music, and are varied and developed with infinite skill and remarkable orchestral irony.

“Also Sprach Zarathustra” (Thus Spake Zarathustra) is based on Nietzsche’s mystic philosophy. Zarathustra, or Zoroaster, alms to teach the doctrine of the “Over-Man,” by which man is to become a sort of demigod who rises above good and evil into realms of joy. A picture of the “Hinterweltlern,” or dwellers in the Rear-World of common humanity, portrays their yearnings, their joys, and passions, while their sorrows find voice in a tender “Grave-Song.” Science and its futility are represented by a fugue replete with chromatics. A passage entitled, “The Convalescent,” shows the defeat of the spirit of sorrow and evil, and the triumph of joy. Then follows the wild, chaotic, but strangely-effective “Dance-Song,” the exultation of the “Over-Man.” Yet his triumph is not lasting, for at the close, after a sudden stroke of the bell, comes the weird “Song of the Night-Wanderer,” and the piece ends mystically in two different keys, as if representing eternal doubt. Strange as this work may seem, its effect is one of vast sublimity, and Nietzsche’s wild philosophy is translated into orchestral effects of remarkable grandeur.

With “Don Quixote” Strauss enters the more definite field of program music, and aims to picture events. It is cast in the variation form, but is much more free in style than that title would imply. There is a theme for the Don, clear at first, but becoming obscure and illogical, to show that he loses his sanity. He is represented by a solo ’cello, while his faithful squire Sancho, strange to say, appears mostly in viola passages. Each variation treats of one adventure. The windmills are attacked, with disastrous results. The flock of sheep are heard, bleating in full chorus until put to flight. The bands of pilgrims are dispersed as robbers. The blindfold ride through the air on the wooden horse is made realistic by the use of the theatrical wind-machine. Other adventures follow, and at the end the knightly theme recurs in a clarified form, to show Don Quixote’s return to reason and death. It will readily be seen that this work is more experimental than the earlier ones.

“Ein Heldenleben” represents the fight of Strauss with his adverse critics. There are six well-marked sections. First comes the hero himself, portrayed by definite themes that are woven into a strong climax. Then his enemies are depicted, with remarkable irony, by a medley of crackling, snarling figures for woodwind. The hero’s helpmate is represented by a solo violin, and in this section an instrumental love-duet is introduced. Then follows a picture of the hero’s battlefield, ending in a song of victory. The hero’s works of peace are then described, and the meaning of the composition is made clear by the introduction of themes from the earlier works of Strauss. The final section shows the hero’s departure from an ungrateful world. This piece is grandly planned, but like other orchestral works of Strauss, its themes are not melodic and lack musical charm.

The “Sinfonia Domestica” pictures a day in the composer’s family life. Here, again, the subject is one that the hearer cannot understand without an arbitrary explanation. Strauss has given no complete analysis, but has deigned to explain that the three themes in the early part represent father, mother and child, that the picture begins in the afternoon and lasts until the next morning, and that the final fugue represents the education of the child. The unmelodic style of Strauss is little suited to such a subject, and the effect is such as to make the work seem puzzling, at first, if not actually ridiculous.

His Other Works.—Of the two early operas by Strauss, “Guntram” and “Feuersnoth,” neither has had real success; nor does his third production, “Salome,” seem important. Guntram is a fighter for love, a member of a mystic fraternity. He rescues Freihild from the tyranny of Duke Robert, who loves her, and in the struggle he kills Robert. Freihild falls in love with him, but he must renounce her, as he knows that he killed Robert out of rivalry in love, an unworthy motive. “Feuersnoth,” lighter in style, is based on the old legend of a scornful maiden, whose pride meets punishment. All fire in the town goes out, and no light can be rekindled, save by a touch of her body; so that she finds herself exposed to the multitude. In this work, as in “Heldenleben,” Strauss has introduced veiled attacks on his critics. The music to both operas shows the usual richness of coloring and orchestral intricacy, but their themes lack the direct power of the guiding motives in Wagner’s works.

The Songs of Strauss are many in number, and include some with orchestral accompaniment. They show a modulatory style, combined with a rare melodic beauty that seems strange in a composer who indulges in so much orchestral ugliness. Some of these songs, such as “Traum durch die Dämmerung” or “Allerseelen,” are gems of purest water. The songs are often involved in style, but always possess unity and directness of effect. Their beauty shows that the discords in the composer’s orchestral works are intentional, and not due to lack of melodic invention. Yet it would seem as if his great mastery of instrumental coloring could have been employed as effectively in scoring beautiful themes, instead of the commonplace passages so often found in his larger works.

Hausegger.—Siegmund von Hausegger (Graz, Austria, 1872) is another master of the modern orchestra. His father was a musician of broad experience and sound learning, so that it is not strange that his son’s gifts developed quickly. After his regular studies at the gymnasium and the university, Siegmund took up music in earnest, under his father and Degener. His youthful works were now augmented by a piano quartet, a fantasia, the orchestral ballad “Odinsmeeresritt,” the one-act drama “Helfried,” and the opera “Zinnober,” based on a tale of Hofmann. These were followed by a number of songs and choruses, but Hausegger’s real greatness was first revealed by the “Dyonisiac Fantasie,” a symphonic poem for full orchestra. This was followed by a still greater work, “Barbarossa,” while in 1904, at the Frankfort festival, came “Wieland der Schmied.” “Barbarossa” is in three movements. The first shows the happiness of the people gradually fading into sorrow and pain, until the Barbarossa theme at last is heard; for tradition says that the great emperor is not dead, but sleeps in the mountain Kyffhäuser, waiting to arise when the need of his people is too great to be borne. The second movement is a weird, ghostly picture of the enchanted mountain and the sleeping emperor; while the last depicts his awakening, his coming forth at the head of his knights, their victory, and the rejoicing of the people. Wieland is the wonderful smith whose swords cut off a head so cleanly that it remains in place. The first movement shows his vision of the beautiful maid Schwanhilde, appearing from celestial regions; but when he would claim her, she retreats, terrified. A second part shows his sorrow and despair. In the third movement hope again triumphs, and he forges for himself a pair of wings. In the last movement the united lovers leave the dull world behind, and take their flight to regions of eternal sunlight.

Other Orchestral Composers.—Gustav Mahler (Kalisht, Bohemia, 1860) gained his musical experience as a director in some of the lesser theatres, and is largely self-taught. Besides two operas and a number of beautiful songs, he has composed five symphonies. He has tried to enlarge the symphonic form without departing from it. His symphonies all aim to express some definite thought, such as pessimism finding its cure in simple faith, love of nature leading to a high idea of Pantheism, or doubt clearing in the joys of immortality. The movements are arranged in contrasting groups, and voices are introduced, at first solo, and then often in a final chorus of triumph. Mahler’s works are planned on a grand scale, but his music is often unclear and restless in effect. Paul Felix Weingartner (Zara, Dalmatia, 1863) is another musician who served his apprenticeship in the smaller theatres, and became one of the world’s great conductors. He is known by his two symphonic poems, “King Lear” and “The Elysian Fields,” as well as by two symphonies in strict form, and by several chamber works. His opera “Genesius” and his classical trilogy “Orestes” are other successful works. Jean Louis Nicodé (Jerczik, Posen, 1853) is somewhat older than the modern tone-poets, and if less important is still noteworthy as an exponent of the program tendency. His two greatest works are the “Symphonic Variations,” Op. 27, and “Das Meer,” for male chorus, soloists, orchestra, and organ. The latter is not a cantata, but rather a great suite, in which vocal movements are balanced against orchestral numbers. Among younger men, Hugo Kaun is familiar to Americans because of his long sojourn in Milwaukee. His symphonic poems based on Longfellow’s “Hiawatha” show much fluency and taste. Switzerland now has its set of young composers, with Hans Huber as their leader in the orchestral field.

The Present Situation.—The rich harmonies and free modulations of Wagner, combined with the setting aside of symphonic form by Liszt, have caused the more recent composers of Germany to give up almost wholly the writing of symphonies. The free style of tone-picturing has been widely adopted, in consequence of the example of Strauss. He has gone so far that some of his works seem merely colossal experiments in this direction, and it is not improbable that a revulsion from such extreme musical impressionism will take place some time in the future.

Questions.

What was the influence of Wagner’s style on symphonic music?

What was the nature of Richard Strauss’ training and the direction of his early compositions?

Describe his early symphonic poems.

What is program music?

Describe Richard Strauss’ later symphonic poems.

In what other styles of composition has he written?

Give a sketch of Hausegger.

Give an account of the work of Gustav Mahler.

Give an account of the work of Felix Weingartner.

Give an account of the work of other German writers of symphonic poems.

LESSON LI.
German Opera Since Wagner.

Goldmark.—Among those opera composers who are not direct imitators of Wagner, Carl Goldmark (Keszthely, Hungary, 1830) is the most noted. Son of a cantor in a synagogue, he showed decided musical taste while still a child, and at twelve played the violin in public. After a few conservatory lessons at Vienna, he was forced to make his own way, and live on the small salary obtained in theatre orchestras. He taught himself piano and singing, and was soon able to teach others also. He trained himself by reading the scores of the great master-works. In purely orchestral composition, his first success came with the “Sakuntala” overture, inspired by the story of the Oriental nymph of that name, who is wooed, forgotten, and found again by the Indian king, Dushianta. Later overtures are “Penthesilea,” “Spring,” “Prometheus Bound,” and “Italy.” Goldmark wrote two symphonies, the first (“Rustic Wedding”) resembling a suite of tone-pictures, while the second is in stricter form. He has also published a violin concerto, some chamber works, and vocal pieces. His music is marked by richness of harmony and warmth of instrumental coloring.

Goldmark’s Operas.—His first opera was the “Queen of Sheba,” dealing with the infatuation of Assad for that queen, at the court of King Solomon. Its scenes of splendid festivity and dramatic power, and its delightful music, won it an immense success, and Goldmark was nicknamed “Court Composer to the Queen of Sheba.” “Merlin,” his next work, is based on that wizard’s love for Viviane, in the days of King Arthur. It contains much noble music, but the libretto is weak and confused. “Heimchen am Herd” is an example of the style of Folk-opera introduced by Humperdinck. It is a setting of Dickens’ “Cricket on the Hearth,” and its music shows a most delightful freshness and charm. “Die Kriegsgefangene” treats the story of Achilles and Briseis with much expressive power, while “Götz von Berlichingen” is a setting of Goethe’s novel of that title. “Der Fremdling” (The Stranger) is a manuscript work.

Engelbert Humperdinck.

Humperdinck.—Engelbert Humperdinck (Bonn, Germany, 1854) won a remarkable success with his Folk-opera “Hänsel and Gretel,” a work which has almost founded a new school in Germany. Humperdinck studied architecture at first, but at Hiller’s advice took up music. “Hänsel and Gretel” is the story of two poor children who are left in the woods by their stepmother. They find a gingerbread house, inhabited by a witch who wishes to eat them; but Gretel pushes her into her own oven, and frees all the children previously under her spells. The greatness of this work, like that of Weber’s operas, in their day, lies in its union of the popular Folk-song style with the richness of modern orchestration. The music is fresh and tuneful, with an appealing sincerity that carries it directly to the heart. At a period when other composers seemed able to produce nothing but weak imitations of Wagner’s operas, this work won universal recognition. Humperdinck has produced several other fairy operas, such as “Dornröschen,” “Die Königskinder,” “Saint-Cyr,” and “Die Sieben Geislein,” but none of them has gained any lasting success.

Kienzl.—Another composer of originality is Wilhelm Kienzl (Waizen-Kirchen, Austria, 1857). He studied at Graz, Prague, Leipzig, and, finally, with Liszt, at Weimar. He, too, served as conductor in small theatres. His first opera, “Urvasi,” is based on an East Indian subject. Its music is brilliant, but lacking in dramatic effect. “Heilmar der Narr” deals with the magic healing qualities of a seventh son, who forfeits his power if rewarded; he cures his sweetheart, but loses his gift because he wins her, whereupon she sacrifices herself to bring back his skill. Kienzl’s greatest work is “Der Evangelimann,” treating of a true story of two brothers in a small Austrian hamlet. Both love the same girl, Martha, but she prefers Mathias. Johannes, out of jealousy, sets fire to a house where the lovers are meeting, and denounces Mathias as the incendiary. Martha tries in vain to save him, and he is imprisoned for twenty years. At the end of this term, Johannes, who has been prosperous and respected, is confronted on his death-bed by Mathias, who forgives him. This opera has been given in many countries, and translated into several languages. Its music shows much dramatic force, and goes far to redeem those scenes in the libretto that are lacking in action. A fourth opera by Kienzl is the tragi-comedy “Don Quixote.”

Schillings.—Among the composers who have modelled their works on those of Wagner is Max Schillings (Düren, Germany, 1868). He studied law at first, like Schumann, but soon turned to music, and became one of Wagner’s active assistants at Bayreuth. His “Ingwelde” is one of the many Viking operas that have followed in the lead of “Tristan and Isolde,” and aimed at effects of dramatic power. Ingwelde is forced by a careless oath to follow Klause, enemy of her husband, Gest. Bran, Klause’s brother, loves her also, and kills Klause. She returns to Gest, but Bran follows and kills him too, after which the pair die together. “Der Pfeifertag,” a later work, is evidently inspired by “Die Meistersinger.” It is a confused account of various adventures on “Pipers’ Day,” a mediæval festival. The chief episodes are the reduction of an excessive toll paid by the pipers, the pretended death of one of that Guild, who thus obtains a eulogy from a rival, and the union of two pairs of lovers. The music, though worthy, can hardly stand comparison with that of the great work upon which the opera was modelled.

Cyrill Kistler (Augsburg, Germany, 1848) was at one time thought to be Wagner’s real successor, but nearly all his works are now laid aside. They show an evident striving after musical grandeur, but are not wholly successful in attaining that effect. Kistler studied with Lachner and others at Munich, but became a Wagner enthusiast in spite of their formal training. In his first opera, “Kunihild,” the heroine is wooed by one of three brothers, who is successful in the magic ride necessary to win her. But there has been a feud between the houses, and another brother, to prevent the marriage, kills the bridegroom. A comic opera, “Eulenspiegel,” preceded by ten years the symphonic poem of Strauss. “Baldurs Tod” is based on the beautiful Norse Saga of the Sun-God. “Im Honigmond” is a smaller work, in romantic style. A more important production in the same vein is “Röslein im Hag,” which bids fair to be successful. “Der Vogt von Mühlstein” is a work of still more recent date.

August Bungert (Mühlheim, Germany, 1846) studied at Cologne and Paris, taking up composition at Berlin under the renowned Fr. Kiel. He has produced a light opera, “Die Studenten von Salamanca,” a “Tasso” overture, and the symphonic poem “Auf der Wartburg.” But his life-work has been the composition of a Hexalogy, or set of six operas, on Homeric subjects. The first two, “Achilles” and “Klytemnestra,” are from the Iliad, while the Odyssey furnishes the material for “Kirke,” “Nausikaa,” “Odysseus Heimkehr,” and “Odysseus Tod.” The abiding beauty of the old Greek poems has been faithfully preserved in the librettos, and the music has reflected, to some degree, the noble dignity of these epics. The first three works of the Odyssey cycle have been given, and have produced an excellent impression on the critics.

Siegfried Wagner.

Siegfried Wagner (Triebschen, Switzerland, 1869), son of the immortal Richard, has an undoubted right to carry on the family traditions. He studied with Kniese and Humperdinck, and became a very energetic conductor. His first opera, “Der Bärenhäuter,” is the story of a mediæval soldier who sells himself to the devil, but is redeemed by finding a sweetheart who will remain true during three years of absence. “Herzog Wildfang,” the next work, treats of a fiery duke who is made unpopular and supplanted by his crafty adviser, Mathias Blank. Mathias is afterward caught in trying to win the beautiful Osterlind by trickery, and his dishonesty in office is also exposed; whereupon the rightful duke comes to his own again, and Osterlind marries her real lover. “Der Kobold,” a third work, treats of the legend that the souls of murdered children wander about as kobolds until released by the sacrifice of the last of their race. “Bruder Lustig,” the fourth opera, is based on an Austrian subject.

D’Albert.—In Eugen d’Albert (Glasgow, Scotland, 1864), we find a man of real musical gifts. He studied under such men as Stainer and Prout in England, but he claims that his true musical education began only in later days, under Richter and Liszt. He has won international fame as a pianist, and has shown real musicianship in his purely orchestral works. These include two concertos for piano, one for violoncello, the “Esther” and “Hyperion” overtures, and a worthy symphony; all showing harmonic beauty and richness of color, without any inflation or exaggerated effects. His first opera, “The Ruby,” tells of a princess imprisoned in the form of that magic gem, but released by a poor young man who wins her. “Ghismonda” deals with the love of a princess for a young man of low degree, but noble character. On being surprised with the princess, he dies rather than reveal her love for him, but she proclaims his chivalry to the world. “Gernot” is an elfin opera, with much delicate music. “Die Abreise” shows the reconciliation of a married couple who have begun to drift apart, and the departure of the over-amorous cavalier who tried to widen the breach for his own purposes. “Kain” is a weirdly effective one-act drama, of the realistic school. “Der Improvisator” has for its libretto a rather weak arrangement of Hugo’s “Angelo, Tyrant of Padua,” while “Tiefland” is founded on a Spanish tale, in which true love triumphs over the schemes of a wicked Alcalde.

Hugo Wolf (Vienna, Austria, 1860—Vienna, 1902) had a constant struggle with poverty, and enjoyed but a short period of fame before yielding to insanity and death. His opera, “Der Corregidor,” is a delightful work, in comic vein, and the humorous scenes on the stage are treated with remarkable animation and skill in the orchestra. The Corregidor is a Spanish magistrate, who is too much smitten with Frasquita, the beautiful wife of the miller, Tio Lucas. The pair play him many tricks, and the opera ends with his discomfiture before his own consort. Wolf’s fame is much increased by the rare power and beauty of his many songs. Especially worthy of note are the “Feuerreiter,” “Gebet,” “Gesang Weylas,” and the “Italienisches Liederbuch.” His symphonic poem, “Penthesilea,” is another important work. His style is sometimes bizarre and involved, but his themes are always effective and significant.

Other Composers.—Max Bruch (Cologne, Germany, 1838) studied under Hiller, Reinecke, and Breuning. His chief opera, “Hermione,” is not important, but he has won lasting fame by the breadth and nobility of his epic cantatas, such as “Frithjof,” “Odysseus,” “Arminius,” and others. His concertos and serenade for violin are favorite works with soloists. Ludwig Thuille, a friend of Strauss, is given high praise by musicians, and his new opera “Gugeline” has been well received. Heinrich Zollner has won a popular success by his setting of Hauptmann’s delicate play, “The Sunken Bell.” Hans Pfitzner has produced an excellent work in his romantic forest-opera, “Die Rose vom Liebesgarten.” Leo Blech’s “Alpenkönig und Menschenfeind” has received numerous performances, while E. Klose’s fairy opera, “Ilsebill,” is a worthy example of its school.

Opera in Germany.—Since Wagner’s time, there has been no striking development in German opera, and his works still remain by far the most important in that field. None can rival him in the power, variety, and expressive qualities of his music. Strauss surpasses him in intricacy and novelty of instrumental effects, but Wagner himself first cleared the path in which Strauss was to follow. The greatest successes of Goldmark are those of twenty and thirty years ago. Humperdinck’s one chief work is frankly popular in style, and its attractiveness cannot fairly be compared with the grandeur of the music-dramas, even though it should found a school of its own. Bungert’s works, though well received, have not been given many performances, while many of those who have tried to imitate Wagner have echoed merely his outward mannerisms, and not the inward greatness of his works. It must be remembered, however, that a world-genius like that of Wagner does not appear in every country or every century, and that his importance prevents his successors from gaining their full meed of appreciation.

Questions.

Give a sketch of Carl Goldmark and his works.

In what style of opera has Humperdinck been most successful?

Give an account of Kienzl and his most important works.

Whose works seem to have furnished models for Max Schillings’ operas?

Give an account of the works of Kistler.

What is the great work of August Bungert?

Give the stories of Siegfried Wagner’s operas.

Give an account of Eugen d’Albert and his works.

Give an account of Hugo Wolf’s works.

What other composers have done important work in this field?

Summarize the work of the leading composers mentioned in this lesson.

Vincent D’Indy.      César Franck.
Camille Saint-Saëns.     Jules Massenet.

LESSON LII.
Old and New Schools in France.

Saint-Saëns.—The end of the 19th century in France has been marked by a decided contrast between the old and the new, Saint-Saëns and Massenet writing in the older style, while the pupils of Franck have striven after novelty in effect. Charles-Camille Saint-Saëns (Paris, France, 1835) witnessed the rise and fall of Meyerbeer, and the triumphs of Gounod, and was himself famous before the influence of Wagner reached France. His style is marked by great diversity, and displays equal skill in many different veins; but his music always shows the utmost facility of expression, a mastery of the technic of composing, and a remarkable ease and fluency. His has been a true musical development, founded on rational lines. He was always a warm admirer of Bach, Beethoven, and the Classical school, and while he appreciated Liszt, Wagner and other modern masters, he did not abandon the old ideas of form and melody. His works show the most exquisite symmetry of detail, like that of a finely-carved monument enriched by delicate tracery.

His Works.—Saint-Saëns studied at the Conservatoire, under Stamaty, Halévy, and Benoist. Though he failed in trying for the Prix de Rome, he produced a worthy symphony when only sixteen. In opera, his first success was the Biblical “Samson and Dalila,” a work of expressive power and vivid coloring. “Le Timbre d’Argent” and “La Princesse Jaune” are of earlier date. “Le Deluge,” is an operatic cantata. “Etienne-Marcel” won some success in Paris, while “Henry VIII” is a skilful blending of old and new styles. “Proserpine” and “Ascanio ” followed, while “Phryne” is a dainty example of opéra comique. “Parysatis,” “Déjanire,” and “Les Barbares” introduce grandiose effects for open-air performances. “Helène” is a shorter work, again on a Grecian subject. The composer’s versatility and smoothness of style prevent him from obtaining the highest dramatic intensity, but his music is always excellent. In the orchestral field, he has produced four later symphonies, five piano concertos (that in G minor being the favorite), and two suites. His symphonic poems include “Le Rouet d’Omphale,” a delicious orchestral spinning-song; “Phaeton” and “La Jeunesse d’Hercule,” also on mythical subjects; and the weird “Danse Macabre.” His violin concerto in B minor is a great favorite.

Massenet.—Jules Emile Frederic Massenet (Montreaux, France, 1842) is another Conservatoire pupil. Rejected at first by Bazin, as lacking talent, he worked steadily onward, and from a player in small cafés became one of the foremost figures in French music. His first great triumph came with “Marie Madeleine” and “Eve,” which are not strictly oratorios, but are more properly called sacred dramas. “La Vierge” and “La Terre Promise” are of later date. These works treat their subjects with modern spirit and passion, instead of the more classic oratorio style. Massenet is hardly the equal of Saint-Saëns in orchestral work, but his “Phedre” overture and his suites of tone-pictures are remarkably attractive. In opera, he won his spurs with “Le Roi de Lahore,” a spectacular Oriental subject. “Herodiade” is a sacred work, while “Manon” is a graceful setting of Prevost’s novel of that name. “Le Cid” is not so strong a work, for Massenet’s style is sentimental and passionate rather than heroic. “Esclairmonde,” with a romantic and legendary plot, displays remarkable beauty and richness of effect. “Werther,” based on Goethe’s novel, is another success. “Le Mage,” an Oriental subject, and “Thais,” with an Egyptian plot, were comparative failures. “La Navarraise,” with its love amid battles, is an echo of Italian realism. Massenet’s tender feeling and vivid emotion show at their best in his later works for the stage—“Le Portrait de Manon,” a delightful love-idyl, “Cendrillon,” a fairy opera, “Griselidis,” an old legend of wifely constancy, and “Le Jongleur de Notre-Dame.” The last is a touching story of a despised minstrel who wins favor with the Holy Virgin by his earnest desire to do something in her name, even if it be only to amuse her with his juggling tricks.

French Opera.—Among other French composers for the stage, Meyerbeer, Gounod and Bizet belong to a previous generation. Delibes won some notice with “Le Roi l’a Dit” and “Sylvia,” but his best work is “Lakmé,” another example of rich Oriental warmth and color. Ambroise Thomas is known chiefly as the composer of “Mignon,” a remarkably graceful setting of a libretto from Goethe’s “Wilhelm Meister.” “Le Songe d’un Nuit d’Été,” an earlier work, has also met with deserved success, but “Hamlet” is a ridiculous perversion of Shakespeare, and “Françoise de Rimini” failed to attain real tragic grandeur. Guiraud is known by his comic opera “Piccolino”; Poise set many of Molière’s plays; Lalo’s only notable work is “Le Roi d’Ys”; Godard’s dainty “Vivandière” is frankly light in style; while Salvayre’s ambitious “Dame de Monsoreau” is not a great success. Reyer’s “Erostrate” and “La Statue” were praised in their day, but he is better known by two later works—“Sigurd,” on the subject of “Die Götterdämmerung,” and “Salammbô,” a setting of Flaubert’s story of Carthage.

Franck and His Influence.—The new French school is almost wholly due to the work of one man, César Auguste Franck (Liége, Belgium, 1822—Paris, 1890). He settled in Paris, and studied at the Conservatoire. Modest and retiring by nature, “le bon père Franck,” as he was called, divided his time between teaching, composing, and playing the organ of the Ste. Clotilde Church. His simple faith and earnest work recall the spirit of the old mediæval artists, who devoted their lives and their music to the glory of the Lord. Franck’s works show a mastery and power that his pupils are scarcely able to equal, and his compositions have fairly won the esteem that was denied to them during the composer’s lifetime. Among them are the great D minor Symphony, the oratorios “Ruth,” “Rebecca,” and “The Redemption,” the opera “Hulda,” and the symphonic poems “Psyche” (with voices), “Les Djinns,” “Les Eolides,” and “Le Chasseur Maudit.” But Franck’s most notable work is “Les Beatitudes,” an eight-part oratorio treating the Sermon on the Mount. Franck’s style is radically different from that of Saint-Saëns or Massenet. It is harmonic rather than melodic, and extremely modulatory in effect. His progressions remind the hearer of Wagner; but they do not always possess the broad simplicity that underlies Wagner’s most intricate passages. Franck’s pupils have often fallen into the error of imitating his weakest points, and have brought about a style of harmonic vagueness that seems meaningless to many modern critics.

D’Indy.—Vincent d’Indy (Paris, France, 1852) is the greatest of Franck’s pupils, and the leader of the modern French school. As conductor, he has been an ardent champion of new and little-known works. His own compositions include many forms, and have all attracted attention. His first great work to reach the public was the “Piccolomini” overture, a part of his orchestral trilogy based on Schiller’s “Wallenstein.” Two important vocal compositions are “La Chevauchée du Cid,” for baritone, chorus, and orchestra, and “Le Chant de la Cloche,” a dramatic legend that won the prize given by the city of Paris. In the orchestral field, “Antony and Cleopatra” is an early work, as is also the “Jean Hunyadi” symphony. Of d’Indy’s two later symphonies, the first, based on a mountain air, contains many passages of sweetness and purity, while the second is more involved and modulatory in style. His earliest symphonic poem, “La Forêt Enchantée” is a delicate tone-picture based on a ballad of Uhland; “Saugefleurie” is founded on a story by de Bonnières; while “Istar” is inspired by parts of the old Assyrian epic “Idzubar.” D’Indy’s music is hardly popular in style, for its themes are not definitely melodic; but his skill in weaving them into an orchestral tissue is admired by all musicians. In opera, “Les Burgraves” and the lighter “Attendez-Moi Sous l’Orme” are youthful works, while “Fervaal” is a music-drama (action musicale) on a Druidic subject, and “L’Etranger” is symbolic in style. He has written some important works in musical literature and theory.

Charpentier.—Gustave Charpentier (Dieuze, France, 1860) was a Conservatoire pupil. The Prix de Rome took him to Italy, and his life there resulted in the pleasing orchestral suite “Impressions d’Italie.” This consists of five tone-pictures, entitled, “Serenade,” “At the Fountain,” “On Muleback,” “On the Summits,” and “Naples.” On his return he lived among the working-people of Montmartre, and their life is reflected in his later works. “La Vie du Poète” is a symphony-drama, giving episodes in the life of an unsuccessful genius. In the beginning, all is aspiration and enthusiasm. Then doubt follows. At first the poet is consoled by the serene beauty of the summer night, but his fears gain the upper hand. Then comes a picture of impotent raging and vain anger against fate, after which the poet tries to blot out his sorrows in the cheap gayety of the city. “La Couronnement de la Muse” is a pantomime, written with the idea that a working girl in each town or city should annually be chosen and crowned amid festivities. The composer’s greatest work, however, is the opera “Louise.” This tells the story of a poor working girl, whose parents forbid her to marry the somewhat wayward Julien. At the latter’s persuasion, she finally flies with him. Her parents try to reclaim her, but again she is drawn away, and her father is left shaking his fist at the terrible city that entices young girls from their homes. The music of “Louise” is full of power and realism, and even the street cries of Paris are echoed in its measures.

Bruneau.—Operatic realism has found a more prolific, if less successful, champion in Alfred Bruneau (Paris, France, 1857), another Conservatoire pupil. He has confined himself to librettos drawn from the novels of Zola. “Le Rêve,” an early work, is a psychological study of love, in the person of the dreamy Angelique, who dies from excess of happiness when her wedding is completed. “L’Attaque du Moulin” is a spirited story of the Franco-Prussian war, set in a more melodic and popular style. “Messidor” is again symbolic in style, the theme being a contrast between greed for gold and the simple pleasure of honest toil. “L’Ouragan” deals with the tempests of human passion and jealousy, as well as the hurricanes of nature. “L’Enfant Roi,” and the music to “La Faute de l’Abbé Mouret,” are more recent works. Bruneau is sincere and earnest in his efforts at realism, but his music is often heavy and uninspired. He has produced works in other fields, among them being a great “Requiem,” a “Heroic Overture,” and the symphonic poem “Penthesilée,” for voice and orchestra. His three books on French composers, and his many criticisms, have made him known in the domain of musical literature.

Debussy.—The new school of French music finds its most radical expression in the compositions of Achille Claude Debussy (Paris, France, 1862). A musician of great gifts, he chooses to imbue his music with a studied vagueness of effect, and wanders through a maze of changing keys and harmonies. Many persons find the result wholly incomprehensible at first, but on repeated hearing his works show a weird, elusive beauty that is worshipped by his adherents as the acme of musical expression. He, too, was a Conservatoire student, and won the Prix de Rome with the cantata “L’Enfant Prodigue.” Two lyric scenes, “La Demoiselle Élue,” and “Chimène,” first drew attention to the young artist. Then came the orchestral prelude to Mallarmé’s “L’Après-Midi d’un Faune,” a delicately-woven rhapsody, with much beauty and much weirdness in its harmonies. The Nocturnes, entitled, “Nuages” and “Fêtes,” are described by De Bréville as possessing the ethereal charm of a perfume that pervades the air, but defies analysis. A string quartet is in stricter form, but the “Proses Lyriques,” on subjects of Beaudelaire, also the “Chansons de Bilitis” and “Les Estampes” for piano, again show the free style. Debussy’s most ambitious work is “Pelleas et Mélisande,” an opera based on Maeterlinck’s play of that name. The poet’s words offer the same shadowy suggestions that the composer gives in music, and the harmonic effects of vague mystery are entirely in place here.

Chausson.—Ernest Chausson (Paris, France, 1855—Limay, 1899) proved himself a composer of real greatness, and was still in the prime of life when he met with a fatal bicycle accident, in 1899. Trained for law, he turned to music from choice, as Schumann did before him. A pupil of Massenet and Franck, he combined the direct expression of the former with the harmonic style of the latter, and produced works of a most attractive orchestral coloring. Among his compositions are a worthy symphony, the beautiful symphonic poem “Viviane,” the orchestral pictures “Solitude dans les Bois” and “Soir de Fête,” a “Poëme” for violin and orchestra, some chamber-music, and many pleasing songs and choruses. His one great opera was “Le Roi Arthus.” His works are full of tenderness and charm, yet not lacking in vigor and breadth; they have the modern harmonic richness and orchestral color, and are growing steadily in favor.

Other Composers.—Alexis Emanuel Chabrier, wholly self-taught in music, produced the brilliant orchestral rhapsody “España,” an attractive “Suite Pastorale,” a lively “Marche Joyeuse,” and some effective cantatas. In opera, his “Le Roi Malgré Lui” is an excellent example in lighter vein, but his greatest work is “Gwendoline,” on a Viking subject. Of all the Frenchmen, he was the one best fitted to attempt the bold, virile style required by the libretto. The most prominent orchestral writer of the younger generation is Paul Dukas, whose “Apprenti Sorcier” treats a humorous subject with rare skill. Théodore Dubois, for many years head of the Conservatoire, is best known by his oratorios, such as “Paradise Lost,” and his “Frithjof” overture. Gabriel Fauré, the organist, who succeeded Dubois as director of the Conservatoire in 1905, has produced a symphony, two string quartets, and a number of songs whose intricacy cannot obscure their exquisite grace. Other organist-composers are Charles Marie Widor, who wrote the opera “Maître Ambros” and the ballet “La Korrigane,” and Alexandre Guilmant, known by his great organ symphony and sonatas. Bourgault-Ducoudray has written many cantatas, and made a valuable collection of Breton Folk-songs. Pierné, Coquard, Erlanger and Hue won their fame in opera, while Duparc gained notice with his symphonic poem “Lenore.” Ropartz and de Bréville rank with the best of Franck’s pupils, while among women-composers, Augusta Holmés won renown by her mastery of broad orchestral effects, and Cécile Chaminade is known by her dainty songs and piano pieces.

The New French School.—When Wagner showed the harmonic resources of the modern orchestra, he led the way for a host of imitators, who have often done more harm than good. Such operas as “Fervaal” and “Gwendoline,” in large measure the result of “Tristan,” are proper applications of this style. But the idea of finding new harmonic effects has exerted its influence on orchestral writers also, and some modern composers, especially in France, have devoted all their energy to this, and have apparently sacrificed all thoughts of musical beauty. The French have even invented the term “cérébral,” which describes a composer who puts no emotion or feeling into his music, but works it out wholly from the brain. Thus many of the modern compositions must be regarded as great orchestral experiments, and the composer who combines this instrumental technic with real feeling and directness of utterance is the one who will meet with the greatest success.

Questions.

Which French composers represent the older style; which the new?

Give a sketch of the works of Saint-Saëns.

Give a sketch of the works of Massenet.

Name other important opera composers in France.

Who was the leader of the new French school? Give an account of his works. Name some of his pupils.

Who is the leading representative of this school today (1905)? Give an account of his works.

Which is the most important work of Charpentier?

In what lines of musical work did Bruneau labor? Name some of his works.

Who is the most extreme representative of the new French school?

What are the distinguishing characteristics of Chausson’s works?

Name other important French composers.

What is the character of some of the works of the advanced school of composition?

Pietro Mascagni.      Giacomo Puccini.
G. Sgambati.
Abbé Perosi.     Enrico Bossi.

LESSON LIII.
Musical Regeneration in Italy.

Musical Decadence.—When a nation clings to its own musical ideas, and persistently disregards the growth and progress of other nations, it usually enters upon a period of decay. This is what took place in Italy during the 19th century, and the country that produced Palestrina and the Scarlattis seemed for a time to understand nothing but the trivial operatic melodies of Rossini’s successors. In 1850, there were scarcely any concert halls in the country, and even the churches were content with operatic airs set to sacred words. Soon after this, Pinelli tried to give an orchestral concert, with sixty musicians; and the box-office receipts left only fourteen francs with which to pay them. Sgambati produced a Beethoven symphony, but had to do it at his own expense. As late as 1879, Saint-Saëns, who gave an organ recital at Milan, found the organ scarcely fit for an artist to play upon. In opera, it was only the broad judgment of Verdi that was able to look beyond the borders of his native land, and his “Aïda,” as well as Boïto’s “Mefistofele,” was the beginning of a new order of things.

Mascagni.—In 1890, the publisher Sonzogno offered a prize for the best one-act opera submitted to him, and this prize was awarded to Pietro Mascagni (Leghorn, Italy, 1863), then an unimportant musical leader at Cerignola. Mascagni was the son of a baker, who wished him to study law, and locked him up because he practiced the piano in secret. The boy was rescued by his uncle, and under the protection of Count Florestan pursued his studies at the Milan Conservatory. The opera that brought him such fame, which has since become world-wide, was “Cavalleria Rusticana,” or “Rustic Chivalry,” based on a tale by Verga. The scene is a village square, before a church. The heroine, Santuzza, is forsaken by Turiddu, who carries on an intrigue with Lola, wife of the carter Alfio. Santuzza, in despair, denounces him to Alfio, who challenges and kills him. The music is hardly of the highest standard; but it is popular and vigorous in style, and intensely powerful. The work is scarcely comparable to the music-dramas, yet every number is animated by the spirit of the words, and it is therefore dramatically true. Among the many favorite selections from its score are the “Siciliana” of Turiddu (sung as part of the overture, before the curtain rises), the broad and noble “Regina Coeli,” Lola’s serenely confident aria, “My King of Roses,” and the jolly “Brindisi,” or drinking chorus, to say nothing of the saccharine “Intermezzo.” The power and vividness of “Rustic Chivalry” made it an epoch-making work; but Mascagni’s later operas have not met with the same success. They include “L’Amico Fritz,” “William Ratcliff,” “Silvano,” “Iris,” “Le Maschere,” and the one-act “Amica.”

Leoncavallo.—The success of “Rustic Chivalry” aroused Ruggiero Leoncavallo (Naples, Italy, 1858) to try his hand in the same school. His early opera “Chatterton” was practically a failure, while his ambitious “Medici” trilogy (“I Medici,” “Savonarola,” and “Cesare Borgia”) met with no better reception. In “I Pagliacci,” however, he produced a work of the new school, that has taken its place beside Mascagni’s opera as an example of the new realism. The “Pagliacci” are strolling players. Canio, the leader, is aroused to madness by learning of the proposed elopement of his wife, Nedda, but she will not betray her lover’s name. They enact for the villagers a mimic tragedy of love and jealousy, but Canio makes it real by actually stabbing the faithless Nedda. Her lover then leaps from the audience to save her, only to meet a similar death at Canio’s hands. The music to this play is of a higher standard than Mascagni’s, though less directly popular in style. “Trilby” and “Zaza” are later works of little importance, while “Roland of Berlin,” composed by order for a libretto by the Emperor of Germany, aroused only passing interest.

Puccini.—When the great Verdi retired from active life as a composer, he named as his probable successor, Giacomo Puccini (Lucca, Italy, 1858). Descended from a musical family, Puccini could devote himself to his art without parental opposition, and he completed his studies under Ponchielli, at the Milan Conservatory. His “Le Villi” was really the origin of the modern one-act plays. “Edgar” resembles “Carmen” somewhat, but has a weak libretto, and music that is not always effective. “Manon Lescaut” is rather a succession of detached scenes than a single whole, but at times it displays a mastery of dramatic contrast far beyond Massenet. “La Bohême” is a delightfully sympathetic setting of Murger’s well-known novel, and its scenes of rollicking defiance to poverty and hunger remind one of the composer’s early struggles. The note of haunting sweetness that pervades the score marks Puccini as a man of rare musical gifts. In “Tosca,” the heroine of that name loves the artist, Mario, who aids a political refugee, at the risk of his own life. The governor, Scarpia, who captures him, loves Tosca also, and tortures him to make her yield to his desires. To save Mario, she consents, but stabs Scarpia at the last moment. But Scarpia’s treachery survives him, for the pretended execution, which was to let Mario escape, turns out to be real, and Tosca takes her own life in despair. The music shows a ripe mastery of dramatic power. The climax of the first act, merging into the church service, and the tragic power of the second, well contrasted with the strains of a festival cantata that float in through the window, are scenes that win unqualified praise from all critics. “Madame Butterfly,” on a Japanese subject, lacked the necessary delicacy, but the two preceding works have made Puccini the foremost man in Italian opera today.

The Realistic School.—Many composers of the “Verismo” school adopt a realism that deals only with the more brutal side of life, and their plots, though strong, are not always pleasing. Giordano’s “Andrea Chenier” and “Fedora” show musical worth, but Spinelli’s “A Basso Porto,” Coronaro’s “Festa a Marina,” and Tasca’s “A Santa Lucia” picture some of the coarsest phases of existence. Yet this defect may be condoned when we consider that the movement has infused new life and power into Italian music. Among those composers who have stood somewhat aloof from the new school, Franchetti is the most noteworthy. His operas include “Cristoforo Colombo,” “Germania,” and the later “Figlia di Jorio,” and he has written symphonies that place him among the best of the later Italian composers.

Perosi.—The revival in sacred music has been brought about wholly by one man, Don Lorenzo Perosi (Tortona, Italy, 1872). He studied faithfully, in spite of sickness—first at Milan, then under the learned Fr. Haberl at Ratisbon. He became a conductor at Imola, and afterwards at Venice, where he led his forces with decided vigor. Soon after this, he began to compose the oratorios that have made him so famous. His sacred trilogy, “The Passion of Christ,” included the “Last Supper,” the “Sermon on the Mount,” and the “Death of the Redeemer.” It made a sensation that reverberated through all Italy, and caused his appointment in the following year as honorary master of the Papal Choir. He has been untiring as a composer, producing no less than fifteen masses and nearly a dozen oratorios. Among the latter are “The Transfiguration,” “The Annunciation,” “The Raising of Lazarus,” “The Birth of the Redeemer,” and the two-part “Moses.” He writes with enthusiasm, and sees the actual picture before him while he works. His music does not possess the calm dignity shown by Palestrina, but its semi-popular style is well adapted to his hearers, and may lead the way to something better.

Sgambati.—The leading position among Italy’s new symphonic composers belongs to Giovanni Sgambati (Rome, Italy, 1843). Like many musicians, he was at first destined for a lawyer’s career, but began his musical studies in time to become known as a boy-prodigy. He settled in Rome, and soon grew famous as a pianist. He played Beethoven, Schumann and Chopin, and did much to introduce their works into Italy. He planned a trip to Germany, but when Liszt came to Rome he remained there to study under that great master. At this time his earlier compositions, mostly chamber works, brought him into notice in a new field. These quartets and quintets were followed by a festival overture, a piano concerto, and three symphonies in succession. His compositions are somewhat lacking in spontaneity, but they display great learning, and undeniable skill. His works show the influence of Liszt and Berlioz, mingled with the stricter style of the old Italian contrapuntal writers.

Other Orchestral Composers.—With Sgambati, Martucci also deserves mention in the instrumental field. He became identified with the artistic life of Naples, where he fought a similar fight for the cause of good music. Among several others, Del Valle de Paz is noted for his valuable educational work in Florence, no less than for his compositions. Busoni, so well known as a pianist, has also tried his hand at orchestral writing in the most extreme modern vein. Eugenio di Pirani is another composer who has identified himself with the German instrumental school. The literary champion of the new order of things has been Luigi Torchi, whose work in the magazines deserves the highest praise.

Bossi.—The most prominent figure among the younger devotees of the German style is Marco Enrico Bossi (Salo, Italy, 1861). He studied organ at first, and for ten years held the post of organist in the Como Cathedral. Four years of teaching at Naples were followed by similar work in Venice, where he gained deserved prominence. His compositions show great originality, and include many different forms. An early overture was given at the Crystal Palace, in London, which he visited during a piano tour. The one-act opera “Paquita” was followed by “L’Angelo della Notte” and “Il Veggento,” also a large work for the Milan Exposition of 1905. He has composed many masses, and the oratorio “Christus.” A more recent triumph is “Paradise Lost,” with Milton’s words—a work suggested by Mme. Rubinstein. His organ concerto won a decided success at the Chicago Fair, and his symphonic poem, “Il Cieco,” has been well received. He aims to blend the old polyphonic style with the rich instrumentation of modern Germany.

Buongiorno.—Among the adherents of German standards, Buongiorno (Bonito, Italy, 1864) is one who has devoted himself to opera. Studying at the Naples Conservatory, he became leader of an operetta troupe, for which he wrote many popular works. His first great opera was “Das Mädchenherz” (Il Cuor delle Fanciulle), which treats with admirable delicacy the love-story of Alba and Marino. She grows to be court singer, and defeats an older rival, but ambition makes her careless of love. Marino becomes a priest, and only when Alba is old and forsaken does his consolation show her what she has missed. The music displays much emotional beauty, and the “play within the play,” at the ducal court, allows the composer to imitate Bach, Handel, and other old masters with exquisite humor. “Michelangelo and Rolla” is a one-act play, again uniting a subject of real poetic worth with beautiful music. These two operas are far removed from the crudities of the “Verismo” school.

Wolf-Ferrari.—A composer who may fitly follow German ideals is Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, son of a German father and an Italian mother. His “Cenerentola” (Cinderella) has a rather tedious first act, but the second act shows all the appealing beauty and sympathetic feeling that mark the new romanticism. “Le Donne Curiose” is an excellent example of sparkling comedy, and has won much success in Germany. It treats of the misadventures of some women, who try to investigate a mysterious club formed by their husbands. A work in a different vein is the composer’s “Vita Nuova,” a fresh and inspired setting of sonnets and other selections from Dante’s great work.

Music in Italy.—It is difficult for one nation to adopt the musical expression of another, but this is practically what Italy has done. Verdi first gave up the trivial melodies so dear to the Italian populace, and adopted a worthier style. Like Boïto, he denied being influenced by Wagner, but his works show that he felt the force of the German master’s orchestral power. The realistic school of opera has brought into Italian music a vividness and power that are not surpassed by any other nation, while a still later generation has striven to cast off the crudities of this school and produce works of real orchestral value. Italy has already done much, and the progress of the last few decades seems to predict a bright future for her music.

Music in Spain.—During the last half-century, Spain, too, has developed some native composers. One of the best is Isaac Albeniz, whose “Pepita Ximenes” is a delightful comedy of love and intrigue. His Zarzuelas also have met with success. Felipe Pedrell, well known in European journalism, has written an ambitious trilogy on subjects illustrating the national motto, “Patria, Fides, Amor.” Larrocha, Vives, De Lara, and Antonio Noguerra are also worthy of mention. The Zarzuela is the peculiar Spanish form of light opera, resembling the Italian opera buffa, but possessing more brilliance and delicacy.

Questions.

What circumstances contributed to Italy’s musical decadence?

Give an account of “Cavalleria Rusticana” and how it came to be written.

What composer was influenced by the success of Mascagni? Describe his works.

Who wrote “La Bohême”? Tell about his education and his works.

What composers are prominent in the “Realistic” school in Italy?

Give an account of the work of Perosi in Oratorio.

Give an account of the works of Sgambati and other composers for the orchestra.

What composers follow German methods? Describe their works.

Tell something about music in Spain.

C. H. H. Parry.      A. C. Mackenzie.
Edward Elgar.
S. Coleridge-Taylor.     Granville Bantock.

LESSON LIV.
England and the Netherlands.

Music in England.—In the Middle Ages, the much-used art of Counterpoint was developed by the people of England and the Netherlands. In the Elizabethan age, the music of England was scarcely less important than her literature. Under Charles II, she could boast of Henry Purcell, one of the few great names in music. But in the 19th century her musical glory had faded, and sentimental songs and popular ballad-operas seemed all that she could produce. Her musical leaders went bravely to work, importing such composers as Mendelssohn and Wagner, and building up great music schools. There was, however, no high standard of taste in the country, so the task proceeded slowly. A race that is gifted with real love of music, and possesses worthy Folk-songs, can easily develop great composers; but England, like the United States, is too commercial for the best results. Dvořák once said of the English people: “They do not love music; they respect it.”

Stanford.—For some years, a group of five men were the advance guard of England’s development. While none of them showed any remarkable inspiration, their work was learned and thorough, and prepared the way for men of more originality. The foremost of them was Charles Villiers Stanford (Dublin, Ireland, 1852). After studying under Reinecke and Kiel, he became organist and conductor at Cambridge University. His works include five symphonies (among them the “Irish”), two overtures, an “Irish Rhapsody,” a piano concerto, two oratorios, and several cantatas; but he is best known by his operas. Of these, “Shamus O’Brien” is most popular, because of its subject, while “Much Ado about Nothing” shows much grace and elegance. “The Canterbury Pilgrims” aims to picture old England, as the “Meistersinger” did old Germany. Stanford’s work is always carefully planned, but not deeply inspired.

Parry.—Charles Hubert Hastings Parry (Bournemouth, England, 1848) fills a similar position at Oxford University. He has composed four symphonies, and two overtures, the “Tragic” and “Guillem de Cabestanh,” but his most important work has been in the field of oratorio. His sacred works include “Judith,” “De Profundis,” “Job,” and “King Saul,” also a great Magnificat and Te Deum. These, too, show excess of erudition, and are somewhat academic in character; but in all his choral work, Parry displays a breadth and power that deserve high praise. His incidental music to the “Frogs” and the “Birds” of Aristophanes is also worthy of mention. His contributions to musical literature are very important.

Other Musical Leaders.—Alexander Campbell Mackenzie (Edinburgh, Scotland, 1847) became teacher and conductor in his native city, afterwards joining the University forces. His “Colomba,” an early opera, displays much real dramatic worth; more, in fact, than his later productions. Among his other works are two oratorios, “The Rose of Sharon” and “Bethlehem,” while his entr’actes for “Manfred” and his powerful “Coriolanus” music also deserve notice. Frederic Hymen Cowen (Kingston, Jamaica, 1852) studied with Reinecke, Moscheles, and Kiel, and conducted in many cities, including Melbourne, Australia. He has written two oratorios, “Ruth” and “The Deluge,” four operas, including “Pauline” and “Harold,” and several cantatas, of which “The Sleeping Beauty” and “The Water Lily” are delightfully poetic. But his six symphonies are his most valuable works, the “Scandinavian,” “Idyllic,” and “Welsh” ranking in the order named. Arthur Goring Thomas (Eastbourne, England, 1850—London, 1892) devoted himself to the lighter style of romantic music, in which his opera “Esmeralda” and his posthumous cantata “The Swan and the Skylark” met with the most success. With these five should be classed Sir J. Frederick Bridge, often called in jest “The Westminster Bridge” because of his post as organist in Westminster Abbey. His works include many cantatas, oratorios, and lesser sacred pieces. His teaching has been made delightful by his inimitable humor, which often appears in his compositions also. Other men of this school are Walter Cecil Macfarren, Sir Walter Parratt, and Charles Harford Lloyd, while the excellent work of Sir Arthur Sullivan in light opera must not be forgotten.

Elgar.—In Edward William Elgar (Broadheath, England, 1857) we find a man who is possessed of real originality, and takes rank with the world’s great composers. This is all the more remarkable when we consider that he is almost wholly self-taught. Son of an organist, he soon grew familiar with the instrument, and gained further musical experience by playing in a theatre orchestra at Worcester. Too poor to go to Germany, he lived by teaching violin at first. He went through various books on harmony and orchestration, gaining much from Mozart’s “Thorough-Bass School,” and Parry’s articles in Grove’s dictionary. He ruled a score for the same number of bars and instruments as in Mozart’s G-minor symphony, and wrote a work in this form—an exercise which he considers of the utmost value. When he obtained a new orchestral work, he would go into the fields to study it.

His Works.—Elgar first won attention by his cantata “The Black Knight,” given at a Worcester festival. Its success caused him to continue with “The Light of Life” and “King Olaf,” the latter displaying much direct power and orchestral mastery. His “Variations,” which won a London triumph, possess great intrinsic worth; but each one is intended to portray some friend of the composer’s, and the work thus has an added meaning for his acquaintances. “The Dream of Gerontius,” a setting of Cardinal Newman’s sacred poem, met with remarkable favor. It is not altogether unified in effect, but contains many passages of compelling beauty and sublimity. It has been heard in many countries, and one German writer considers it the greatest sacred work of the last century, except the “Requiem” of Brahms. “The Apostles,” a later oratorio, is the first part of a proposed trilogy. It displays similar excellence, but at times is too mystic and psychological in effect. Other works by Elgar are three overtures: the attractive “Froissart,” the broadly-popular “Cockaigne” (typical of London), and the more recent “In the South.” The music to “Diarmid and Grania” is also worth mention, while the five songs, entitled, “Sea Pictures,” show remarkable breadth and nobility.

Coleridge-Taylor.—England boasts the first great negro composer in Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (London, England, 1875). Son of an educated African father and a white mother, he began violin lessons at six. At a more mature age, he studied piano with Ashton and composition with Stanford. His early works included a number of anthems, some chamber-music, and a symphony in A-minor. For his beloved violin he wrote the passionate “Southern Love-Songs” and “African Romances,” also the “Hiawatha” sketches. In 1898, he became world-famous by his cantata “Hiawatha’s Wedding-Feast,” which he followed with “The Death of Minnehaha” and “Hiawatha’s Departure.” These display a strength and profusion of passion that sway all hearers, and the glowing richness of the instrumentation forms an appropriate frame for Longfellow’s picture. Later vocal works are “The Atonement” and “The Blind Girl of Castel-Cuillé.” His other compositions include an orchestral ballade with violin, an Idyll, a Solemn Prelude, the music to “Herod,” and four waltzes. All show breadth of treatment, and effects of real beauty attained by simple means.

Bantock.—Some younger composers have headed a movement for greater originality, under the lead of Granville Bantock (London, England, 1868). His one-act operas “Caedmar” and “The Pearl of Iran” show much warmth of color, and his musical ideas are always worthy of the great literary conceptions in which he delights. His two overtures, “Eugene Aram” and “Saul,” the suite of “Russian Scenes,” and the more recent rhapsody, “The Time Spirit,” are the work of a truly musical nature. His greatest effort, however, is a set of twenty-four symphonic poems, illustrating Southey’s “Curse of Kehama.”

Other Composers.—In the new movement are William Wallace, Erskine Allon, Reginald Steggall, Stanley Hawley, and Arthur Hinton. Clarence Lucas and Cyril Scott are two other young men of prominence.

Edward German is a composer of remarkable gifts, for he attains effects of the utmost grace and musical beauty by the simplest diatonic themes. His “Rival Poets” and “Merrie England” are worthy examples of light opera, while the “English Fantasia,” the symphonic poem “Hamlet,” the suite “The Seasons,” and the “Welsh Rhapsody” are all works of pleasing freshness and originality. German has also made a name in the special field of incidental music, his settings including “Romeo and Juliet,” “As You Like It,” “Much Ado about Nothing,” “The Tempest,” and several other plays. In a period when many composers are losing themselves in the intricacies of the modern orchestral style, the clear simplicity of German’s compositions is an example of the utmost value.

The Belgian School: Benoit.—The new school of Belgium, fostered by the Brussels Conservatory, owes its origin chiefly to Peter Benoit (Harelbeke, Flanders, 1834—Antwerp, 1901), who broadened its influence by his teaching at the Flemish School of Music, in Antwerp. His early opera, “Het Dorp in t’ Gebergte” (The Village in the Mountains), showed delightful local color. A second opera, a mass, a concerto, and a choral symphony increased his fame, but he is identified chiefly with the cantata. His great works in this field include “Oorlog” (War), “Lucifer,” “De Schelde,” “De Rhyn,” the Rubens cantata, and “Promethée.” They are modern in effect, and show breadth of conception and real inspiration, united with ripe technical mastery. They have been described as great decorative pictures in tone, suggesting vistas of grand palaces, armies in battle array, rich fields of grain, mystic visions of the spirit world, or gorgeous triumphal marches.

Gilson.—Paul Gilson (Brussels, Belgium, 1865) has written for orchestra a Dramatic Overture, a Festival Overture, a Canadian and an Irish Fantasy, half a dozen suites, the “Bucolics” of Virgil, and other lesser works. But his best-known composition is the set of symphonic sketches entitled, “La Mer.” This illustrates a poem of Levis, frequently read before the performance. The different movements depict sunrise at sea, and the many-colored splendors of dawn; the rollicking songs and lively dances of the seaman; a love-duet and parting between a sailor and his sweetheart; and a fatal tempest, in which the themes of the sailors’ choruses are introduced in mocking irony as the ship goes down. Through it all runs a vein of poetic fancy, well suggesting the beauty and mystery of the sea. The oratorio “Francesca da Rimini” is another strong work, the best of Gilson’s productions in that form.

Lekeu.—Guillaume Lekeu (Verviers, Belgium, 1870-1894) was a composer whose early death cut short a career of great promise. His chief studies were pursued in Paris, where he came under the elevating influence of Franck. The subtle delicacy of his harmonic effects is a result of this teaching, and Lekeu seems like a member of the French school who strayed across the border by mistake. His early cantata “Andromède,” and his Fantasie on popular Angevin airs, gained him some notice. His works include two Symphonic Studies, an attractive “Poeme” for violin and orchestra, and an exquisite Adagio for violin, ’cello, and strings. His greatest vocal composition is the “Chant Lyrique,” for chorus and orchestra, but he has produced many songs of lofty melodic style. His music is marked by great originality and fertility of invention, but tinged with a spirit of melancholy and gloom.

Other Composers.—Edgar Tinel (Sinaai, Flanders, 1854) is another pupil of the Brussels Conservatory, where he studied with Fétis. His great work is the three-part oratorio “Franciscus,” treating the story of St. Francis of Assisi. Other works are “Sainte Godelieve” and the music to “Polyeucte.”

Jan Blockx (Antwerp, Belgium, 1851) is the most popular opera composer of his country. His greatest success is the “Herbergprinses” (Princess of the Inn), a work with a strong dramatic plot and music of remarkable freshness and vigor. “Thyl Uylenspiegel,” in Blockx’s opera of that name, is no longer the graceless rogue of the old German story, but a popular hero who rescues Maestricht from the Spaniards. Other operas of this composer are “The Bride of the Sea,” and “Maître Martin,” an earlier work. Other composers prominent in the new movement are Keurvels, Wambach, Mortelmans, Vleeshouwer, and Mathieu. The first place among the women is occupied by Juliette Folville, the young violinist, who has written the opera “Attala,” a march, parts of a symphony, and many smaller works.

Music in Holland.—Richard Hol was for many years the Nestor of the Dutch composers. His fame was assured by the patriotic hymn, “Comme je t’aime, O mon pays,” and his long career of activity was of great service to the cause of music in Holland. He was a prolific composer, and an excellent critic and journalist. Julius Roentgen, who studied under Reinecke and Lachner, was better known as pianist than as composer, but produced an excellent concerto, also “Das Gebet,” for chorus and orchestra, and other works. The best of the younger men are Bernard Zweers and Alphonse Diepenbrock, while others deserving mention are Van t’Kruys, Gottfried Mann, Dirk Schaefer, and the Brandt-Buys brothers. Among the women-composers, Catherine van Rennes and Hendrika van Tussen-Broek have done excellently in small forms, while Cornelia van Oosterzee attempts ambitious orchestral work, and Cora Dopper has entered the field of opera. Amsterdam has become a great musical centre, and Holland, no less than Belgium, is reaping the result of the widespread educational movement.

Questions.

What obstacles have hindered the English in developing composition?

Tell about the work of Stanford.

Tell about the work of Parry.

Name other important English composers.

Give an account of Elgar and his works.

What characteristics are strong in the works of Coleridge-Taylor?

Name other prominent composers of the new English school.

Give an account of the work of Benoit, of Gilson, Lekeu, and other Belgian composers.

Who composed the most popular Belgian opera? Tell about other works by this composer.

Name some leading composers of Holland.

LESSON LV.
National Schools: Bohemia and Scandinavia.

The Influence of Folk-Music.—Some races are endowed with a better musical taste than others. Among these favored peoples the Folk-song, the music that appeals directly to the popular heart, needs only the touch of a gifted composer to fashion it into a great national school. In the case of England and Belgium, we have seen that even the most thorough musical education cannot wholly atone for a lack of real public taste in music. Scotland, possessing a wealth of beautiful Folk-songs, has not yet given birth to a composer who can employ its style in larger forms. But in Bohemia and the countries of Northern Europe, the Folk-music has not only been worthy in itself, but has been properly developed and amplified by gifted composers.

Smetana.—František Škroup (1801-1862) composed many popular Bohemian Volkslieder, and wrote the first national opera, but the real founder of the Bohemian school was Bedřich, or Frederick, Smetana (Leito mischl, Bohemia, 1824—Prague, 1884). Parental opposition could not prevent his studying music, and we find him at Prague, under Proksh, and, later on, taking lessons of Schumann. That master recommended a course with Mendelssohn, but as the pupil was too poor, he changed his advice and suggested a study of Bach. Smetana became an ardent admirer of Liszt, at whose house his own career was decided. Hearing Herbeck remark, while there, that the Czechs were merely reproductive, he made a solemn resolution to devote his life to the building up of a national school of music in Bohemia.

His Works.—While conductor at Gothenburg, Sweden, he produced three worthy symphonic poems: “Richard III,” “Wallenstein’s Camp,” and “Hakon Jarl.” On his return, he wrote “The Brandenburgers in Bohemia,” the first of the eight operas that have made him so famous in his native land. This was Wagnerian in style, and at once the critics assailed him fiercely for trying to bring Bohemia under the musical domination of Germany. To show that he could write in a more popular vein, Smetana produced a second opera, “Prodaná Nevĕsta,” (The Bartered Bride), which proved a marvel of musical grace and delicacy, and was enough in itself to establish the reputation of any composer. “Dalibor” is a dramatic work in serious vein, while “Libuše” is based on a national subject. “The Two Widows” and “The Kiss” are light operas of marked success, the latter being often cited as a perfect model for this style. “The Secret” is in the same vein, while “The Devil’s Wall” is again on a national legend. Other notable works are the string quartet “Aus Meinem Leben,” and the “Carnival of Prague”; but Smetana’s greatest orchestral work is the set of six symphonic poems entitled “Ma Vlast” (My Fatherland). These depict “Vyšehrad,” a historic fortress; “Vltava,” the river Moldau; “Sarka,” a mythical Amazon; “Bohemia’s Groves and Meadows,” “Tabor,” the Hussite camp; and “Blanik,” the magic mountain where the warriors sleep. Smetana’s music shows an inspiration and depth of feeling that make him rank with the world’s great composers, and his struggles against poverty and disease form a story of the utmost pathos.

Dvořák.—The greatest of Smetana’s pupils was Antonin Dvořák (Mühlhausen, Bohemia, 1841—Prague, 1904). Son of a butcher, he persuaded the village schoolmaster to give him lessons. He began composition at Zlonitz, and soon sent home a polka to surprise his family; and as he had written it without considering the transposing instruments, thus causing three different keys to sound together, the resulting discords certainly accomplished that purpose. After further study at Prague, he was able to gain a Government pension, and to interest such men as Hanslick and Brahms. He spent his time in “hard study, occasional composition, much revision, a great deal of thinking, and little eating.” Being asked what teacher helped him most, he replied: “I studied with God, the birds, the trees, the rivers, myself.”

Antonin Dvořák.      Christian Sinding.
Edvard Grieg.     Friedrich Smetana.

His Works.—Dvořák’s many operas, including “Wanda,” “Dimitri,” “Armida,” and others, have been surpassed in importance by his orchestral works. His “Stabat Mater” and the cantata “The Spectre’s Bride” are important vocal compositions. His overtures include such well-known examples as the “Husitzká,” “Mein Heim,” “Othello,” “In der Natur,” and the “Carneval.” Other instrumental works are the famous “Slavic Dances,” the Slavonic Rhapsodies, the “Scherzo Capriccioso,” three Ballades, and a “Hero Song.” Before coming to New York, in 1892, he had written four great symphonies; but the fifth, “Aus der Neuen Welt,” is of the greatest interest to Americans, since Dvořák here adopted the plantation style in his themes, to show what could be done in building up an American school of music. He was eminently successful in handling his material, and he produced a greater and more truly national work than any resident composer has yet done. In general, Dvořák’s style is more cosmopolitan than that of Smetana, and his faculty of melodic invention makes his works attractive. He enriched the symphony by two Bohemian dance-movements—the Dumka, and the Furiant.

Other Bohemians.—Zdĕnek Fibich, though little known outside of his own country, was another famous opera-composer. He devoted some efforts to melodrama also, “Hippodamia” being his chief work in this field. He published two symphonies and several symphonic poems, the latter showing the influence of Liszt. Reznícĕk, who has recently identified himself with the musical life of Germany, has produced five operas, of which the sparkling comedy “Bonna Diana” and the later “Till Eulenspiegel” are the best. Josef Suk, son-in-law of Dvořák, has composed some attractive instrumental music, while Nápravník, of an earlier generation, won operatic successes in St. Petersburg. Hungary, too, has a national school of opera, founded by Franz Erkel. This school is carried on by such men as Alexander Erkel, the Doppler brothers, Mihalovitch, Zichy, and Hubay, while Dohnanyi is better known as pianist than as composer. Poland is represented by Paderewski, while Soltys has won renown in symphony, and Stalkowsky in opera.

Norwegian Music.—Norway is preëminently a land of song. Its sombre fiords, dark forests, and smiling meadows have at all times inspired a school of Folk-music whose plaintive sweetness exerts the utmost charm on the musical auditor. In Edvard Hagerup Grieg (Bergen, 1843-1907) we find a composer of wonderful melodic gifts and expressive power, who has preserved admirably the flavor of the local Folk-songs and dances. Grieg owed much to the wise training of his mother, a woman of rare gifts. At Ole Bull’s advice, he took a course at Leipzig, after which he studied further with Gade, at Copenhagen. There he met Rikard Noordraak, who first aroused his enthusiasm for the songs and legends of his native land.

Grieg’s Works.—Grieg’s genius was essentially lyric and melodic, but this in no way detracts from the greatness of his orchestral works. The “Autumn” overture is clear and beautiful, with the simplicity of strength, not of weakness. The “Norwegian Dances” mark the beginning of the national style that is carried out in the melodrama “Bergliot,” the two “Peer Gynt” suites, and “Sigurd Jorsalfer.” The piano concerto, somewhat in the style of Schumann, is one of Grieg’s best works, and shows the utmost perfection of melodic and harmonic architecture. The “Elegiac Melodies,” the “Norwegian Themes,” and the “Holberg Suite,” all for strings, are further examples of his rich fulness of romantic utterance. His choral and chamber works show the same sympathetic treatment, while his piano works and songs include some of the most exquisite gems in the entire musical repertoire. His works show endless melodic invention, great power of expression, and a warmth of tender sentiment that seems never to lose its charm.

Christian Sinding (Kongsberg, Norway, 1856) studied at Leipzig also, and won a royal scholarship that took him to Munich and Berlin. He belongs to an artistic family, for one brother, Otto, is a painter, and another, Stefan, a sculptor. Sinding’s music is melodic in character, and distinctively Norwegian in style, but less so than that of Grieg. His orchestral works include an excellent symphony, brought out under Weingartner and later by Thomas; an attractive concerto for piano, and two for violin; a “Rondo Infinito”; and the interesting suite, “Episodes Chevaleresques.” His chamber-music, violin sonatas, piano solos, and songs are made of the most attractive material.

Other Norwegians.—Johann Severin Svendsen, though prominent in Danish music, is really Norwegian by birth. Son of a military bandmaster, he soon obtained a position similar to his father’s. But he longed for higher things, and after a tour as violin virtuoso, he studied at Leipzig, under Reinecke. He traveled much, meeting in Paris an American woman whom he afterwards married in her own country. After some experience in Christiania, he became court conductor in Copenhagen, where he owns the baton used by von Weber and inscribed with that composer’s name. His orchestral works include two symphonies, four Norwegian Rhapsodies, the legend “Zorahayde,” and the “Carnival at Paris,” but they are too conventional to take foremost rank. A prominent composer among the younger Norwegians is Ole Olsen, of Hammerfest, whose symphonic poem “Asgardsreien” is but one of his many successes. Gerhard Schjelderup is one of the modern radicals, and shows all the complexity and dissonance of Strauss. Agathe Backer-Grohndahl is the leader of the Norwegian women-composers.

Music in Denmark.—In Denmark, the fame of Gade obscured that of other composers, and such a man as J. P. E. Hartmann could gain scarcely more than local reputation. The most important name in recent years is that of August Enna, who won a popular operatic triumph in 1892 with “Die Hexe.” He was almost wholly self-taught, for poverty prevented him from taking lessons, sometimes even from buying music paper. “Cleopatra” is a later work, while “The Little Match-Girl” was the beginning of a series of fairy operas. Enna handles his orchestra with boldness and skill, and displays vocal fluency and thematic excellence. Eduard Lassen gained more renown by his melodious songs than by his operas or orchestral works. Otto Malling is known for his piano pieces, while Victor Bendix has attempted the symphonic poem. Ludwig Schytté, a friend of Liszt, has made Berlin his home, and is identified with light opera as well as piano music.

Music in Sweden.—The national opera of Sweden was brought into being by Ivar Hallstrom, soon after the middle of the 19th century. Since then, a new school has arisen, showing the influence of Liszt, Wagner, Schumann, and at times, Berlioz, with the plaintive sweetness of the native Folk-music pervading it all. Anders Hallen, the first of the new romanticists, has written four operas (of which “Hexfallen” is the best), several symphonic poems and Swedish Rhapsodies, a number of ambitious cantatas, and some beautiful Swedish and German songs. He unites the charm of his native music with strength of passion and richness of instrumentation. Emil Sjögren shows a harmonic feeling worthy of Grieg, but his boldness in modulation often produces bizarre effects. He excels in the smaller forms, such as his “Spanish Songs,” “Tannhäuser Lieder,” and several piano cycles. Wilhelm Stenhammar, pupil of these two, shows much enthusiasm and spirit in his music, but his operas are now laid aside. Wilhelm Peterson-Berger is the best of the new opera-composers, his music-drama “Ran” being a recent success. Hugo Alfven has attempted the symphony, with fair success. Tor Aulin, a famous violinist, has produced concertos and other works for his instrument, while Erik Akerberg has devoted his energy to choral works. Elfrida Andree is the most prominent of the Swedish women-composers.

Music in Finland.—The national epic of Finland is the Kalevala, a work of real poetic beauty. There is also a collection of shorter lyrics, called the Kanteletar. These have furnished inspiration for a large number of modern composers, of whom the most important is Jean Sibelius. He studied with Becker in Berlin and Goldmark in Vienna. On his return to Helsingfors, the capital, he became the leader of the new Finnish school. His two symphonies are worthy if not absolutely great, but his symphonic poems, and the suite “King Christian IV,” show real musical beauty. He has been active in the smaller forms also, and holds the Government pension for musical excellence. Armas Jarnefelt is another good orchestral composer, while Ernest Mielck, who died at twenty-two, showed a lyric beauty not unworthy of Schubert. Richard Faltin is one of the older song-composers. Martin Wegelius, died 1906, did valuable work as director of the Musical Institute, while Robert Kajanus became prominent as the founder and leader of the Helsingfors Philharmonic Orchestra. Both are excellent composers, the former working chiefly in vocal forms, the latter in the orchestral field.

Questions.

Who founded the Bohemian school of composers?

Who was his greatest pupil?

Name the most important works of these two composers.

What contribution did Dvořák make to the symphony?

Who is the leading Norwegian composer?

Name some of his best-known works.

Compare Grieg and Sinding.

What composers of Danish birth have won appreciation?

Name the leading Swedish composers.

Who is the most important Finnish composer?

LESSON LVI.
The Russian School.

Folk-Music in Russia.—The Slav nature differs greatly from that of the races of Western Europe, and this difference appears also in the Slavonic music. For a proper understanding of the Russian Folk-songs, the student should be familiar with the country and its history, its vast steppes, its lonely summers and dreary winters, and the patient poverty of its long-suffering peasants. It is rich in legendary lore, and the poetry of Pushkin and Gogol has wrought the wild beauty of these tales into permanent form. The popular melodies trace their origin back to pagan times, and show infinite variety. There are epic chants, songs of weddings and funerals, and weirdly beautiful cradle-songs, Their delicate, capricious rhythm, and their strangeness of harmony and cadence, possess the utmost attraction. At times the songs are strong and savage, at times tranquil and majestic, or brisk and graceful; but usually they are tinged with the profound melancholy of an oppressed race. The church music, too, with its old modes and deep-voiced choirs, flourishes in unusual purity.

The Rise of Russian Music.—In the middle of the 18th century, the Imperial Court began to import foreign composers, and St. Petersburg was enabled to hear and see such men as Paisiello, Cimarosa, and Boieldieu. Works in the native language soon followed, and the Venetian Cavos became so identified with Russian music that he might almost have passed for a native. The first Russian composer, however, was Glinka, whose “Life for the Czar” (1836) was received with profound enthusiasm by the entire nation. Other composers followed, the best of whom were Dargomishky and Seroff. The former died only recently, and his later works show the Wagnerian influence. Instrumental music flourished also. The rich melodic beauty of Rubinstein charmed all Europe, and only the passionate power of Tchaikovsky placed it in the background. But now even he, the greatest of the Russians, is not considered truly national by his countrymen, who think him too German in style.

Balakireff.—Of the five men who strove to make Russian music distinctively national, Mily Alexejevitch Balakireff (Nijni-Novgorod, Russia, 1836) was not the greatest, but may justly be called the founder of the movement. After his university studies, he came under the influence of Alexander Oulibicheff, a retired diplomat who devoted himself to music. The young man soon settled in St. Petersburg, where he met Cui, and began with him the work of developing the new school. Balakireff has been active as pianist, teacher, and concert leader. The musical principles adopted by him and his four associates called for the use of Russian Folk-music in just the way that Dvořák employed the plantation style in his “New World” symphony. This idea is at least as old as the days of Weber, whose “Freischütz,” written in the popular vein, made such an overwhelming triumph in Germany. With the wealth of beautiful Folk-songs in Russia, it has been possible to produce an immense amount of interesting music, with which the Western world is as yet by no means fully acquainted. Balakireff himself was not prolific as a composer, but his works, though few in number, show real value. They include a symphony, three overtures (Russian, Czech, and Spanish), incidental music to “King Lear,” the symphonic poem “Russia,” and a second one, “Tamara,” based on the legend of a beautiful Caucasian princess who entertained the passing cavalier for a night, while in the morning the river Tarek bore away his corpse. Another Oriental subject is the difficult piano fantasie “Islamey.” His lesser works include mazurkas, some four-hand pieces, and a score of remarkable songs, masterly in their perfection of detail.

Anton Arensky.      César Cui.
Alexander Glazounov.     Mily Balakireff.
Nicholas Rimsky-Korsakoff.     Sergei Rachmaninoff.

César Antonovitch Cui (Vilna, Russia, 1835) has been the literary champion of the new school. Son of a French soldier, Cui studied engineering, and became professor of fortification. In his writings we may see that the new Russians seem unwilling to admit the greatness of Wagner, but they have none the less adopted nearly all his dramatic theories. Like him, they revolted against the inanities of the old Italian opera, which was merely a singing-concert. They admitted that after Beethoven and Schumann, the symphony could say little of new import, but reform was needed in opera; the plot should be worthy, and the music not only good in itself, but appropriate to the sentiment. Yet Russian opera has not followed Wagner, but has proceeded along its own lines; and Cui even writes: “I would like to preserve my compatriots from the dangerous influence of Wagner’s decadence. Whoever loves his music, ceases to appreciate real music; whoever admires his operas, holds Glinka as a writer of vaudevilles. The desire to find something deep where nothing exists can have only dangerous consequences.” These strictures are not unlike certain early German criticisms of Wagner, now happily forgotten. Cui’s own operas include “The Prisoner of the Caucasus,” “William Ratcliff,” “Angelo,” “Le Filibustier,” and “The Saracen,” but none has won any real success. His music is good, but even his own countrymen admit that it lacks novelty or individuality. “Angelo” is the composer’s favorite. He, too, has done much in the smaller forms.

Moussorgsky.—The strangest figure in the group of five was, by all odds, Modest Petrovitch Moussorgsky (Karevo, Russia, 1839—St. Petersburg, 1881). Like Cui, he received a military training, and became an officer, but his restiveness soon caused his resignation, and two later attempts at Government work were again failures. His fondness for drink, and his many excesses, soon marked him as a Bohemian whose dominating passions and savage independence could brook no restraint. The same qualities are shown in his music. He was a poet by nature, expressing in great thoughts the passion and misery of humanity, but never taking the trouble to master the technic of his art. Thus his two operas, “Boris Godunoff” and “Chovanstchina,” did not meet with favor until smoothed and polished by his more learned friends. The same is true of his “Night on Calvary” and “Intermezzo” for orchestra. His “Defeat of Sennacherib” is one of many “Hebraic Choruses,” while the “Tableaux d’une Exposition” are among the best of his piano pieces. His songs include settings of Goethe and Heine, as well as the Russian poets.

Alexander Porphyrievitch Borodin (St. Petersburg, Russia, 1834-1887) could claim kinship with the old princes of Imeretia, the former Caucasian kingdom whose rulers boasted of their descent from King David. He studied medicine and surgery, and wrote several important works on chemistry. He was active in the cause of higher education for women, and founded a medical school for them. In music he owed his development chiefly to Balakireff, though he composed at an early age, almost by instinct. The success of his first symphony encouraged him to write two others, as well as an orchestral scherzo. His two string quartets are full of originality, and his choral and piano music shows the same quality. He is best known in America by the “Steppenskizze,” a tone-picture of the vast Russian plains traversed by Oriental caravans. His greatest work, however, is the opera “Prince Igor,” on an old Russian war-legend treated by Pushkin. Borodin is a master of sombre effects, and his dissonances are at times almost too striking; but there is real musical worth, also, in his compositions.

Rimsky-Korsakoff.—The best of the renowned group of five is decidedly Nicolai Andreievitch Rimsky-Korsakoff (Tikhvin, Russia, 1844). He, too, adopted a vocation other than music, graduating from a Government school and afterwards attaining the rank of admiral. His chief musical work has been in opera, and his dozen productions in this form are nearly all widely popular in his native land. “The Czar’s Betrothed” is the best known, but the “May Night,” “The Snow Maiden,” and “Sadko” are not far behind it in favor. “Mozart and Salieri” is a one-act version of a poem by Pushkin, based on the suspicion that Mozart was really poisoned by his Italian rival. In the orchestral field, “Antar,” “Scheherezade,” and “Sadko” are three symphonic poems that show remarkable mastery of expression. Other orchestral works are an overture on popular melodies, another on church themes, a “Serb Fantasie,” a “Spanish Caprice,” and a “Fairy Legend.” He has written a noble and dignified concerto, dedicated to Liszt, and the usual number of lesser works. He shows the greatest skill in handling instrumental color, an art for which the Russians are noted. His music is descriptive, dramatic. His inspiration never flags, and his treatment of the thematic material is always interesting and skilful. His music may perhaps be criticised as lacking unity, but its breadth and originality are undoubted.

Glazounoff.—Among men of a later generation, Alexander Constantinovitch Glazounoff (St. Petersburg, Russia, 1865) is the most prominent, and the only one who may dispute with Rimsky-Korsakoff, his former teacher, the position of greatest of the living Russian composers. Son of a rich bookseller, he was able to devote all his energies to music, and produced at eighteen a symphony that won the congratulations of Liszt. Since then he has composed works as beautiful as they are numerous. His early creations show a tendency to fantastic and imaginative subjects. The haunting beauty of the forest, the inspiring charm of spring, the compelling magic of the sea, the gorgeousness of the Orient, the majesty of the historic Kremlin, all find an echo in his great orchestral rhapsodies. His seven symphonies are marvels of harmonic richness and melodic beauty. His “Triumphal March” for the Chicago Exposition, and a “Coronation Cantata” for the Czar, were both written to order. His early overtures are based on sacred themes, but the “Carnival” and the “Ouverture Solennelle” are again in the style of vivid coloring to which he has accustomed his hearers. His eighty or more published compositions include ballades, marches, suites, mazurkas, and other numbers for orchestra, to say nothing of chamber works, songs, cantatas, and two piano sonatas. For a time, he renounced his early style, and wrote serious works in classical German vein, but he returned to it with a number of ballets, or pantomimes with real plot and full orchestral accompaniment.

Anton Stepanovitch Arensky (Nijni-Novgorod, Russia, 1861-1906) is another of a younger generation, and like Glazounoff, did not limit himself to the style of Russian Folk-music, but aims to be more cosmopolitan. Educated at St. Petersburg, Arensky soon became known by a symphony and a piano concerto, and was called to Moscow as professor of counterpoint. In that city he increased his reputation by a grand opera, “A Dream on the Volga.” “Raphael,” a one-act work, was followed by the ballet, “A Night in Egypt,” but Arensky’s greatest opera is “Nal and Damajanti,” on an East Indian subject. His other works include a second symphony, a fantasie with piano, a violin concerto, and a “Memorial March.” He displays real strength of feeling, and he shows the influence of Schumann and Tchaikovsky, especially in his piano music.

Other Composers.—Taneieff, one of those who held apart from the national movement, has written a symphony, some string quartets, and numerous choruses, but is best known by his “Oresteia,” an orchestral trilogy based on the tragedies of Aeschylus. This is a work of dignity and power, but at times lacking in inspiration. Rachmaninoff, a pupil of Arensky, is one of the younger men who won fame as a pianist and piano composer before attempting larger works. His more ambitious compositions include two concertos, a symphony, a symphonic poem, and the cantata “Spring,” also two operas “The Bohemians” and “The Avaricious Knight.” Another piano composer is Stcherbatcheff, a pupil of Liszt, who displays excessive boldness in his effects, though his “Fairy Scenes” are charming in style, and his “Fantasies Etudes” show the influence of Schumann. Liadoff is another composer of piano works, such as the “Arabesques” and the “Birioulki.” Scriabine is one of the more recent piano writers who has won his spurs in the symphonic field also. Pachulski, too, has become known by his piano compositions. Wihtol has done much valuable work in collecting the Lett Folk-melodies. Solovieff has attempted opera, though not with any remarkable success. Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, active in the musical life of Moscow, has produced operas, suites, and the set of lyric scenes, entitled “Asia.” Michael Ivanoff is another opera composer, whose “Sabawa” has met with some favor. Among many others worthy of mention, Sokoloff has written chamber-works, Alpheraki is noted for his songs, Antipoff and Blumenfeld have produced excellent piano music, while Rebikoff, known for the same reason, has won new laurels with his so-called mimodrame, “Genius and Death.”

Tchaikovsky.—Although the new Russian school does not recognize Peter Iljitsch Tchaikovsky as an exponent of national musical ideas and although he represents a blending of Teutonic and Slavonic methods, yet his music partakes of the latter, rather than of the former temperament, and he is therefore included among the Russian composers in this lesson. He was born May 7, 1840; at ten he went to St. Petersburg. He was intended for the legal profession and was appointed to a place in the Ministry of Justice when only nineteen years old. Shortly after, he entered the harmony classes at the Conservatory, resigned his Government position, and entered the musical profession. In 1866 he became professor of harmony at the Moscow Conservatory; in 1867, brought out his first symphony and his first opera. In 1877 he resigned his post at the Conservatory and gave himself up to composition. In 1891 he visited the United States. He died, October 12, 1893, in St. Petersburg.

His compositions include eight operas, six symphonies, eight overtures and fantasias for orchestra, seven works for special occasions, eight orchestral suites, three string quartets, a trio and sextet, three concertos and two other pieces for piano and orchestra, three works for violin and orchestra, and two for ’cello and orchestra, a large number of piano pieces and vocal works.

An English critic sums up Tchaikovsky’s orchestral works thus: Good points, beauty of melody, brilliancy of workmanship, beauty of color; weak points, undue pursuit of the morbid, extravagance of idea, noisiness of orchestration.

Conclusion.—At the beginning of the 20th century, the chief characteristic of music seems to be a development of national schools. As already explained, in those countries that have worthy Folk-music, composers find the material ready for them to fashion. Such has been the case in Norway, Sweden, and Bohemia, as well as in Russia. Countries that have not this advantage, such as England, the Netherlands, or America, atone for it in part by study and education; but this seldom produces great musical geniuses. Italy, where the common people cared for nothing but the lighter style of tune, has had to build anew, upon foreign foundations. France is making a brave struggle after novelty, but seems to lack the needed inspiration; while Germany, for the moment, seems content with mastering the modern orchestra. The Russian school is today the most spontaneous, the least artificial; and it cannot fail to grow in appreciation during the next few years.

Questions.

What is the character of the Slavonic Folk-music?

Who was the first Russian composer of prominence?

Give a sketch of the work of the composers, Balakireff, Moussorgsky, Cui, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakoff and Glazounoff.

What composition and by whom is it considered one of the most difficult pieces written for the piano?

What composer’s influence is shown in the works of Arensky?

Name other prominent Russian composers.

Theodore Thomas.
Lowell Mason.     Stephen C. Foster.

LESSON LVII.
Music in the United States.

The Cavaliers and the Puritans.—The English settlers who came to this country and located at Jamestown, and their successors, brought with them from their home the songs they sang there—gay songs, cavalier songs, love-ditties and the countryside tunes; but they left them at this, making no attempt to adapt them to their new surroundings. Indeed, it was as much a matter of fashion to be able to play or to sing some new ballad just brought from London as it was to have the latest fashion in dress. The Cavaliers were not the people to give a distinctive tone to music in their adopted home. The stern, severe, religious atmosphere of the New England Colonies did more for the beginnings of American music, although the first efforts were unpromising enough, since the Puritans discountenanced all music except that of Psalm tunes, which were probably sung in unison, since at that time there could be little question of singing in parts. Owing probably to a scarcity of hymn-books, it was customary to read the hymn line by line, and to sing in alternation with the reading, a custom observed in some sections of the United States even in the latter part of the 19th century. It was inevitable that the more progressive among the clergy and the people should demand better singing of the Psalms; and from this came the first singing schools, the beginning of musical education in the Colonies. A singing school is noted in Boston in 1717. As this movement spread, choirs were organized, since those who had gained some skill in singing and in reading from notes would naturally draw together, at first informally, later in regular organizations. This occurred as early as the middle of the 18th century.

Hymn-Tune Composers.—The prominence given to the singing of Psalms and hymns is doubtless due to the fact that the first composers developed in the Colonies confined their efforts to the production of hymn-tunes. The first to gain prominence was William Billings, born in Boston in 1746, died there, 1800. He was a tanner by trade and was, of course, self-taught. His efforts at harmonizing were rather crude, as is to be expected, since he had but few models in composition. He introduced a somewhat florid style, although without training in counterpoint. Yet the critic can see in the work of the early composers such as Billings, a rough vigor and a striving for a more distinctive melodic and rhythmic character than is to be found in the tunes brought over from England, showing traces of the forces already at work to differentiate the American character from the English. Billings’ first collection of tunes was published in 1770. Other composers of this period were Oliver Holden, who wrote the widely-sung “Coronation,” Andrew Law, Jacob Kimball, Daniel Read and Timothy Swan. The two other important cities, Philadelphia and New York, had some musical activity during the Colonial period. In 1741, Benjamin Franklin published a collection of hymns, performances were given of operas, and concerts for charitable purposes were organized, yet nothing in the way of native composition developed.

Early Musical Organizations.—A musical atmosphere is essential to musical development and progress, and a musical atmosphere comes only from organized effort in musical work. The first efforts in this direction were vocal, following the same line of development as that we observed in the history of music as a whole, namely: first, vocal and choral music; secondly, instrumental and particularly orchestral. The earliest important society of this kind was the Stoughton (Mass.) Musical Society, which grew out of a singing class formed in that town, by Billings, in 1774. This organization still exists. The most famous and most significant body for musical development was the Handel and Haydn Society, still in existence, which was organized in Boston, in 1815, with a chorus of nearly one hundred voices. Boston had at this time some well-trained musicians, and others came there from Europe in later years, making it the centre of American musical life for years.

Lowell Mason.—In 1826, a young man from the South, but born in Massachusetts, came to Boston to begin a musical career, which formed a link between the early singing school stage and the work of the present day. This was Lowell Mason, who was born in 1792, but spent his younger days in Savannah, Ga., where he studied music as an amateur. As the fruit of his efforts in composition, he published a collection of church music which was endorsed by the Handel and Haydn Society, and proved very successful, encouraging him, some years later, to take up music as a profession. He was essentially a man of the people among whom he lived and by nature an efficient teacher, to which he added a skill and training that ensured him the respect of those who came under his instruction. He traveled over New England and parts of New York State, holding musical conventions, and teaching the principles of music to hundreds of singers and teachers from far and near. His work thus closely touched the people, and in a day when music was not taught in the public schools, contributed greatly to spread a love for and a knowledge of vocal music. He died August 11, 1872.

Musical Instruments.—When instrumental music began to receive a share of public attention, a great step was taken toward development of music in the United States. In cities like Boston, New York, Philadelphia and some Southern homes, instruments of the spinet and virginal type could be found in the 17th and 18th centuries. The flute was a gentleman’s instrument in those days, following the English custom. The violin also received some attention. (Thomas Jefferson was very fond of this instrument.) Naturally, the first instruments were brought from England, yet the record shows that John Harris, of Boston, who had learned the trade in England, offered for sale spinets of his own make, in 1769. Some church organs were built several years earlier. The harpsichord and piano followed in due course of time, as we can gather from advertisements and concert programs. There is controversy as to the making of the first pianos in the United States. Both Philadelphia and Boston seem to have had makers in a small way before the beginning of the 19th century. The pioneer in this industry was Jonas Chickering, who served his apprenticeship in Boston and started in business on his own account, in 1823. The growth of interest in music arising from the organization of choral societies and the labors of Lowell Mason, and the musicians of foreign birth who came to this country created a demand for music outside of that for the voice, organ and piano, for many of these musicians had been players in orchestras in Europe.

Early Orchestras.—The first permanent body of orchestral players, the Philharmonic Society, was formed in Boston. The chief promoter was a German, named Graupner, who came to the city named, in 1798. He gathered round him a few professionals and some amateurs, so that the nucleus of an orchestra existed before the Handel and Haydn Society was formed. Graupner also kept a music store and printed music. A large orchestra was established in 1840, which remained active for nearly a decade. New York had an organization of instrumentalists which was started about the same time as Graupner’s society in Boston, but its real work in this line did not occur until 1842, when the Philharmonic Society was founded, with a strength of from fifty to sixty players. This society still exists. The strongest musical force in Philadelphia was the Musical Fund Society, which came into existence in 1820, one object of which was to spread musical knowledge in the city. It built a hall, which still stands, and gave both vocal and instrumental concerts. Beethoven’s first symphony was given there, as early as 1821.

Permanent Orchestral Organizations.—The credit for raising the standard of orchestral work and of spreading a popular appreciation of the classics in absolute music belongs to Theodore Thomas, born in Germany, in 1835, whose family came to this country in 1845. He became a proficient violinist while still a boy. His first efforts in the line of the higher music were in the domain of chamber-music; in these concerts he was associated with Dr. William Mason and others. In 1864, he began his work in the orchestral field, in New York, visiting other cities with his men and spreading a knowledge of the works of the masters. Mr. Thomas conducted a series of concerts in Philadelphia, but finished his labors in Chicago, as the conductor of the Chicago Orchestra, which was established for him. He died in 1905. Following the increased interest in orchestral music in New York City, due to the work of Thomas, the Boston musical public called for a higher standard and a more skilled set of players than the successors of the old Philharmonic Orchestra, the Germania and the Harvard Musical Association, which had kept up the work in a creditable manner. The outgrowth of this sentiment was the establishment of the celebrated Boston Symphony Orchestra, which gave its first concerts in the fall of 1881, under the direction of Mr. Georg Henschel. The financial needs of the organization were guaranteed by Mr. Henry L. Higginson. Mr. Henschel was succeeded, in 1884, by Wilhelm Gericke, who was followed five years later by Arthur Nikisch; in 1893, Mr. Emil Paur was made director, to be succeeded in 1898 by Wilhelm Gericke, who is still (1905) at the head of the organization. The work of the orchestras mentioned stimulated music lovers in other cities and at the present time, worthy rivals of the older bodies exist in Philadelphia, Mr. Fritz Scheel, director, the New York Symphony Orchestra, Mr. Walter Damrosch, director, and the Pittsburgh Orchestra, under the direction of Mr. Emil Paur. Baltimore has a good orchestra in connection with the Peabody Conservatory, Cincinnati has a permanent body with a guarantee fund, under the conductorship of Mr. Frank Van der Stucken. The orchestras mentioned give concerts in other cities, so that their work has more than a local significance. Other cities in which efforts are being made to develop orchestral music are New Haven, Buffalo, Washington, Cleveland, Atlanta, St. Louis, Kansas City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Denver.

Other Organized Bodies.—Other means for promoting musical progress in the United States were the societies in different parts of the country, which provided concerts, aided musical education, kept up public interest, the great German singing societies, music festival associations, lecture courses, etc. A prominent example of this kind was the Musical Fund Society of Philadelphia which, among its other activities, opened a music school that remained in existence for six years. The Harvard Musical Association, an organization of alumni who labored particularly for the advancement of music, formed the nucleus of a musical library and conducted orchestral concerts at its own expense or guarantee. In later years Pittsburgh had an active society to promote musical appreciation and the example is being followed by other cities. The greatest growth in this line, that of the formation of music festival associations and the development of the idea, was doubtless stimulated by the great festivals held in Boston in 1869 and 1872. Of these, the most important is the one held in Cincinnati, for a number of years under the direction of Theodore Thomas; after his death, under Mr. Van der Stucken. It is impossible to give here a list of such organizations; they are growing in numbers over all the country and form a hopeful sign of an increasing and healthy interest in music. In addition to the work of these societies must be mentioned the series of chamber-music concerts given by quartet organizations in all the important cities, a kind of music which demands a higher class of musical culture than any other and which is, therefore, a good index of the musical appreciation of a community. The great public libraries have collections of musical literature, as well as the printed works of the great masters. Notable among these is the Brown Collection, in the Boston Public Library; the Newberry Library of Chicago has a very fine collection of musical literature, including many rare works, and the new public library in New York City will also have works of great value to musicians. The Crosby-Brown Collection of musical instruments in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, is one of the most valuable in the world; another collection of note is that which belongs to the University of Michigan.

Folk-Music.—In a study of conditions connected with the development of music in the United States, we will not find the wealth of material in the direction of Folk-music that European countries possess. The American people being a composite one cannot have a true Folk-music as yet. There are but two types of music that can be classed in this category, the music of the Indians and that of the negro in his plantation life. The characteristics of both have been used by American composers in large works (Edward Mac Dowell: “Indian Suite,” for the orchestra; Frederic Burton, in a choral work), yet the Indian race forms no part of the dominant Caucasian people of the United States and can hardly have any claims to being considered American Folk-song. Among the negroes of the South, during the time of slavery, a type of song developed that possesses distinctive qualities, and is thoroughly pervaded with the emotional quality which characterizes the Folk-song of the musical races of Europe. It is not the song of the African in his native land, but the product of his new environment. Particularly is this the case with regard to the songs in which the religious element is the leading one. Many of them have the spontaneous character of the old minstrel poets, the leader improvising the verses, the chorus joining in the refrain. Several composers have used material based on negro musical idioms, notably Antonin Dvořák, in his “From the New World” symphony and G. W. Chadwick, in the scherzo of one of his symphonies, but the most famous examples of the Folk-song of the plantation type are found in the works of Stephen C. Foster (1826-1864), the one most widely-known being “The Old Folks at Home” or “Suwanee River,” incomparable in its sweet melancholy and tender pathos, yet of extreme simplicity in harmonic basis and diatonic progressions.

The Opera.—The development of the opera in the United States is a story of change from the simple style of the English ballad opera to the elaborate music dramas of Richard Wagner, in the North, with New York City as the leading centre, while New Orleans, in the South, with its large French population, furnishes a home for the French and Italian school of opera. The “Beggar’s Opera,” by Gay, which had won extraordinary popularity in England, was given in New York, in 1750, and as early as 1791 New Orleans had a company of French singers. Philadelphia also had performances before the end of the 18th century. It was not until after the wars with England, when the country was growing and becoming prosperous, that foreign managers and singers considered it an inviting field. The first company of real artistic worth was brought here in 1825, headed by Manuel Garcia, which included his daughter, afterward Mme. Malibran. In 1832, the poet Da Ponte, librettist of Mozart’s opera “Don Giovanni,” who was a resident of New York City, brought another strong company of singers to the United States. From that time on, for a number of years, opera was furnished by visiting companies of foreign singers, who gave performances in the leading cities of the country, New Orleans being the first to establish a permanent opera season with a resident company. It was in 1859 that Adelina Patti made her first appearance, in New York City. In 1878, Mapleson, the impresario, commenced the “all star” system that developed a taste for opera by giving the American public the chance to hear the best singers in the world, and set a standard which has made the people dissatisfied with a company well-balanced but lacking in great singers. More real work is done to develop a community by hearing a number of performances well done than one or two in a sensational style. In 1883, the Metropolitan Opera House, in New York City, was opened with a “star” company, managed by Henry E. Abbey. German opera (Wagner music dramas) gained a foothold in this country through the efforts of Dr. Leopold Damrosch, who directed the first artistic performance of Wagner’s Tannhäuser, in 1884, in the Metropolitan Opera House; from this time, operas of the three great schools were given here, Italian, French and German. The following year, Anton Seidl was called to the conductorship and his labors put the performances of Wagner’s operas on a plane equal to any in the world; the company had seasons in the other leading American cities. After Seidl’s death, in 1898, the performances continued along the same lines and with the same high artistic quality, the greatest singers being engaged. In 1903, on Christmas Eve, under the direction of Mr. H. Conried, the first American representation (and the first outside of Bayreuth) of “Parsifal” was given. In assigning credit for work of an educational character in opera, mention must be made of certain traveling companies, such as the “Ideals” and “Bostonians” who gave highly artistic performances of the standard operas, and of the companies under the direction of Mr. Henry W. Savage, who gave grand opera in English during the first decade of the present century.

Questions and Suggestions.

Who contributed the greater influence to American music, the Cavaliers or the Puritans?

What was the influence of the latter?

Who were the early hymn-tune composers? Name some tune by the more prominent. (If any are available, play them over or have them sung for the class.)

Which of the three leading American cities of the 18th century was the most advanced musically?

What were the first societies to organize?

Who was a great factor in musical education in the early part of the 19th century?

What was the state of instrumental music in the Colonial period and in the years following?

Where was the first orchestra formed? What other cities had organized bodies of orchestral players?

Give an account of the work of Theodore Thomas.

Tell about the other great orchestras of the United States.

What other organizations have aided in musical progress in the United States?

What are the sources of Folk-Music in the United States? What use have composers made of this material?

Give a sketch of the Opera in the United States.

We advise that a somewhat detailed study of music in the United States be made, following the outline of this lesson, by the use of the reference works mentioned above. If there is time for this extra work, we advise that two lessons be made of this chapter and that pupils be assigned the duty of collecting additional material on the subject of the separate paragraphs. The work will be divided in this way and each pupil will have a personal interest. Old hymn-tune collections should be examined to find examples of the tunes used by our forefathers. Music representative of the various periods will be found in the books mentioned or indicated in other sources; both vocal and instrumental music should be performed at the recitations.

LESSON LVIII.
American Composers: Works in Large Instrumental Forms.

American Music Still Young.—Musical composition in the United States is still too young in comparison with the work of European composers to have made marked impress on history. American composers owe their training largely to European teachers, the models upon which they have based their work come from European art, and the principles of construction were developed by the European masters. Hence the disposition to view American composition as still in a state of pupilage. Yet the record shows a number of men who have done worthy work, many of them winning far more than a local reputation, and not a few enjoying international fame. And this work, especially such as is cast in the large forms, for orchestra, chamber-music or chorus with orchestra, is the product of the years since the close of the Civil War, a very short period, indeed, when compared with the story of composition in most of the European countries. It speaks volumes for the native capacity and sturdy industry of American composers that they have, in less than a half-century, won a high place in the use of the materials of musical composition and that they have so readily assimilated the work and teachings of European masters.

Paine.—The earliest composer in large instrumental forms was John K. Paine, born, Portland, Me., 1834, died 1906. In 1858, he went to Germany to study and gave particular attention to the organ. He quickly gained rank as the chief American organist, on his return to the United States, several years later. In 1862, he became connected with Harvard University as an instructor in music, a full professorship being created in 1875. His first important works were choral, with orchestral accompaniment. His first symphony was brought out in 1876, his second, called “Spring,” in 1880. Other large works for orchestra are a symphonic fantasy based on Shakespeare’s “Tempest,” a symphonic poem “An Island Fantasy,” the inspiration of which came from several paintings of marine scenes, and an overture to Shakespeare’s “As You Like It.” Prof. Paine’s large choral works are: a Mass in D, an oratorio “St. Peter,” music to “Œdipus Tyrannus,” “Phœbus, Arise,” “Nativity,” drawn from Milton, “Song of Promise,” hymns for the Centennial and Columbus Exhibitions, music to Aristophanes’ “Birds,” an opera “Azara,” besides organ compositions, chamber-music, songs and part-songs.

Gilchrist.—A composer whose training was entirely American is William W. Gilchrist, born in Jersey City, in 1846, a resident of Philadelphia for many years, where his professional activity has included important work as teacher of singing, and chorus conducting. His musical education was received mainly from Dr. H. A. Clarke, of the University of Pennsylvania. His compositions include a symphony, a suite for orchestra and a great deal of chamber-music. He has written a number of works for chorus with orchestra, his most notable being a setting of the Forty-sixth Psalm, to which was awarded a $1000 prize, offered by the Cincinnati Festival Association. His other compositions include choral works in smaller forms, with string or other accompaniment suited to chamber-music, part-songs, church music, and a number of fine songs. He is especially happy in writing for women’s voices.

W. W. Gilcrist.    J. K. Paine.    Horatio Parker.
Arthur Foote.   Edward MacDowell. Mrs. H. H. A. Beach.
G. W. Chadwick.

Chadwick.—A composer who has won appreciation in Europe is George W. Chadwick, born in Lowell, Mass., in 1854. His studies were carried on in the New England Conservatory, at Boston, which institution he entered in 1872. Five years later he went to Leipzig to study, giving special attention to composition. In 1879, he went to Dresden to study with Rheinberger. In 1880, he returned to the United States and settled in Boston. His professional activities included work as organist, conductor, and teacher at the New England Conservatory. In 1897, he was called to the directorship of the Conservatory. His compositions are written in all the various forms, his reputation as a composer of high rank being based upon his large orchestral works, which include three symphonies, four overtures, chamber-music, a comic opera, a sacred opera, “Judith,” two cantatas, popular with choral societies, “Phœnix Expirans” and the “Lily Nymph,” a ballad for chorus and orchestra, “Lovely Rosabelle,” part-songs, church music, and a number of songs of high merit.

MacDowell.—An American composer in thorough accord with the modern musical tendencies in composition is Edward Alexander MacDowell, born in New York, in 1861. His most famous teacher was Mme. Teresa Carreño, the celebrated pianist. He became a pupil of the Paris Conservatoire, in 1876, and after three years under French masters and influences, went to Germany, where he studied under Ehlert, Heymann and Raff, the latter giving him a thorough grounding in the technic of composition. His musical education, therefore, included both French and German ideas. He remained in Germany as pianist, composer and teacher until 1888, when he returned to the United States and settled in Boston. In 1896, he accepted the position of professor of music in Columbia University, New York City, which he held until 1904, when he resigned to devote himself to composition exclusively. MacDowell was trained to a thorough understanding of form, yet his works show that he regards only the spirit of form, that he is its master and not its servant. He has plenty of force, vigor and originality of melody and rhythm and is resourceful in his command of modern harmony. Critics of high authority have unhesitatingly awarded him the highest rank among American-born composers. His compositions include works in the large forms, two concertos, two suites, four poems for orchestra, four piano sonatas of striking romantic content, a number of smaller works for the piano, studies, songs and part-songs, principally for male voices.

Horatio Parker.—It is significant of the advance in music over other sections of the United States that New England should have been the birthplace of a number of composers of reputation. Besides Paine and Chadwick, two others have achieved eminence in the large forms: Horatio Parker and Arthur Foote. Mr. Parker was born near Boston, in 1863; his father was an architect, his mother a woman of fine literary and musical culture. His first lessons in music, piano and organ, were received from his mother, and such was his interest that he made attempts at composition. At sixteen, he was appointed to a position as organist and was thus launched into musical life. He kept up his studies with Boston teachers, in composition with Chadwick, and afterwards with Rheinberger, in Germany, in which country he remained until 1885. His first appointment was director of music at Garden City Cathedral Schools, Long Island, afterwards filling organ positions in New York City, the most notable one being at the Church of the Holy Trinity. He also taught in the National Conservatory. In 1893, he went to Boston as organist and director of music at Trinity Church, and in 1894, to Yale University, as professor of music. In addition to the work in composition and history of music, Mr. Parker conducts a series of orchestral concerts given by an orchestra supported by the University. Mr. Parker’s compositions in large form include a symphony, several overtures, a concerto for organ and orchestra, chamber-music, cantatas for chorus and orchestra, and in smaller forms, piano and organ pieces, songs and many part-songs. His cantata “Hora Novissima” is one of the best works in this style produced by an American composer, and has been given in England with success. The legend of “St. Christopher” furnished material for a work of a secular character that has been taken up by some important choral organizations.

Arthur Foote was born at Salem, Mass., in 1854. His musical education was wholly acquired in Boston, his leading teachers having been Stephen A. Emery and B. J. Lang. Mr. Foote is also a graduate of Harvard University. His home is in Boston, where his professional work is that of an organist, and teacher of piano and composition. His most important work in large form is a suite for orchestra, Op. 36; in addition to this he has written successfully in the domain of chamber-music, works for string orchestra, a quartet, a quintet, a trio and a sonata for piano and violin; he has also written excellent works for chorus with orchestra, “Wreck of the Hesperus,” piano and organ pieces, a number of fine songs and part-songs. He is perhaps at his best in writing for male voices, notable works being “The Skeleton in Armor” and “Farewell to Hiawatha.”

Hadley.—A younger composer than those mentioned, whose work in the large forms has received commendation, is Henry K. Hadley, born at Somerville, Mass., in 1871. His father was a member of the musical profession, and first taught his son, who later went to Boston to study with Emery, Chadwick and Allen (violin). In 1894, he went to Vienna to study and wrote several works for orchestra while there. In 1896, he returned to the United States and taught in St. Paul’s School, at Garden City. He has written several symphonies, suites, an overture, a cantata and a number of songs; two comic operas are also among his works. He has won the Paderewski Prize for composition.

Frank van der Stucken, born in Fredericksburg, Texas, in 1858, of Belgian descent, was educated abroad, mainly under Benoit, at Antwerp, and entered professional life in Europe, yet he is classed with American composers, for he has spent a great part of his active musical life in this country. It was in 1884, that he came to New York City as conductor of a large German singing society, at the same time giving much attention to conducting orchestral works, in which branch he had had considerable experience in Europe. In 1895, he went to Cincinnati as conductor of the Symphony Orchestra of that city and two years later, was dean of the College of Music, from the active management of which he retired in 1903. Although he has written a number of orchestral pieces, his most important work, modern in form and scored for the full modern orchestra is “William Ratcliffe,” a symphonic prologue, which has a very dramatic program. He has also written songs that are in the extreme style of the most advanced composition.

Mrs. Beach.—Few women have won any success in composition in the large musical forms. A most notable exception is Mrs. H. H. A. Beach (Amy Marcy Cheney), who was born at Henniker, N. H., in 1867. She showed marked inclination for music while still a child and was given regular instruction when only six years old. Soon after this her parents moved to Boston and she continued her musical education there under Ernst Perabo and Carl Baermann. Her studies in composition were largely made without teachers, guided principally by the most thorough and extensive study of the scores of the masters. She was married in 1885 to a prominent Boston physician. Mrs. Beach’s most important works are her “Gaelic” symphony, a mass for chorus with organ and small orchestra, a sonata for violin and piano and a piano concerto. In addition to this she has written a number of piano pieces and songs.

Loeffler.—An account of music in the United States would not be complete without reference to the work of Mr. Charles M. Loeffler, one of the most important figures in modern musical composition. Although he was born in Europe (1861) and educated there, he has spent his adult life in this country, having been for many years a violinist in the Boston Symphony Orchestra. His best-known work is the “Death of Tintagiles,” founded upon Maeterlinck. Rollinat and Verlaine have also furnished inspiration to him. A concerted work for violin and orchestra shows his skill both as composer and violinist. Of late years, Mr. Loeffler has turned his attention to song composition.

Other Composers.—In a concise account of the work of American composers, short mention only can be given to a number of men who have worked earnestly in composition, a field in which appreciation seems to be granted freely to the foreigner but grudgingly to the compatriot. Conditions are not favorable to development along the lines of public performance of works in large forms, orchestras are under the control of foreign conductors, most of the players are foreigners, and the concert-going public gives but scant attention to works by an American. Therefore much credit is due to those who have worked quietly and with but little hope of hearing their works, doing their best to produce music in accord with the best canons of the art. Such men are Frederick Grant Gleason, born at Middletown, Conn., 1848 (died in Chicago, 1903), studied at home and abroad; Adolph M. Foerster, born in Pittsburgh, Pa., 1854, who was educated in Germany, and is now a resident of his native city; Ernest R. Kroeger, born at St. Louis, 1862, educated at home, and still a resident of the city of his birth; Henry Schoenefeld, born at Milwaukee, 1857, educated at home and abroad; Henry Holden Huss, born in Newark, N. J., in 1862, studied in New York and at Munich, under Rheinberger, now a resident of New York City; Arthur B. Whiting, born in Cambridge, Mass., 1861, educated in Boston and by Rheinberger, at Munich, a resident of Boston; Louis A. Coerne, professor of music at Smith College, who was educated in Boston and Munich (Rheinberger); and Harry Rowe Shelley, of New York City, who was born at New Haven, Conn., 1858, studied there and in New York (Buck and Dvořák). These composers have by no means confined their work to compositions for orchestra, chamber-music, cantatas, etc., but have also written useful piano and organ pieces, and in a number of cases, songs that have become extremely popular.

LESSON LIX.
American Composers: Vocal Forms; Piano and
Organ.—Musical Literature.

Cantata Composers.—A number of American composers have turned their attention to composition in opera and cantata forms. Some of the composers already mentioned have written works of this character. The first of American composers to work in the field of the cantata was J. C. D. Parker, born in Boston, in 1828, a graduate of Harvard, and a teacher with many years of splendid work to his credit. His musical education was received at Leipzig. In 1854, he located in Boston and took up a varied career as organist, conductor, and teacher of piano and harmony, at the New England Conservatory. His large works include a cantata, “Redemption Hymn,” a secular cantata, “The Blind King,” and two works in oratorio form “St. John” and “The Life of Man,” the latter showing him at his strongest. Dudley Buck, organist, composer and teacher, is also one of the veterans of American music. He was born at Hartford, Conn., in 1839, attended Trinity College several years, began his musical instruction at sixteen years of age, went to Germany several years later, giving his attention principally to the organ and composition. In 1862, he returned to the United States, worked professionally in Hartford, Chicago, and Boston; in 1874, he went to New York, later to one of the leading churches of Brooklyn, which position he retained until 1905. His choral works in large form are “Don Munio,” “The Voyage of Columbus,” “The Golden Legend,” and the “Light of Asia,” his largest and most important work, which has been given in England. He has written many works for church use, much organ music, songs and concerted vocal music, especially for male voices.

Opera.—In opera we note the work of Paine (“Azara”); Chadwick (“Judith,” a sacred opera); Walter Damrosch, composer and conductor, born in Germany, in 1862, but a resident of the United States in childhood, and hence identified with music in this country, who has written a work of serious character to a libretto founded on Hawthorne’s “Scarlet Letter”; Reginald de Koven, born at Middletown, Conn., in 1859, with a list of several successful light operas to his credit, as well as many songs which have had wide appreciation; Edgar Stillman Kelley, born at Sparta, Wisconsin, in 1857, educated in Chicago and Germany, a resident of San Francisco for a number of years, where he brought out several notable works of a popular character for the stage as well as the orchestra, employing in the latter Chinese musical idioms with success in a humorous direction. A composer whose work in light opera has had much success is Victor Herbert, born in Dublin, Ireland. His professional career has been largely spent in this country, his work as conductor of the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra being notable.

Song Composition.—In the field of song composition, American composers have done very good work. The American seems to turn naturally to song and few of the most prominent of the native composers have neglected this field, as will have been noticed in previous paragraphs. Among those who have won high reputation in this line we note George L. Osgood, of Boston, born in 1844, composer, singer and teacher; Frank Lynes, of Boston, born in 1858, who has also written good concerted vocal music and piano pieces; Clayton Johns, born in Delaware, in 1857, but a resident of Boston during the greater part of his professional career, with a long list of part-songs and some piano pieces to his credit; and Ethelbert Nevin, born near Pittsburgh, in 1862, educated in the United States and in Europe, whose songs have a truly poetic character joined to music of a high order; a number of his piano pieces have also been most favorably received. He died in 1901.

Wm. Mason.   L. M. Gottschalk.   Dudley Buck.
H. M. Dunham.   J. C. D. Parker.     B. J. Lang.
Wallace Goodrich.

Piano Composition.—The dean of American teachers of the piano and of composers for that instrument is William Mason, born in Boston, in 1829, a son of Lowell Mason, who studied at home and abroad and spent two years with Liszt at Weimar. It was in 1854 that he came back to the United States and located in New York City. In addition to his works for the piano, some of which have been widely played, he is the author of an important technical work, which stamps him as an educator of originality and strength. A composer who is generally classed as American, although his ancestry, education and environment incline strongly to the French, is Louis Moreau Gottschalk, born in New Orleans, in 1829. He early showed marked inclination for music and was sent to Paris to study. His first reputation was won as pianist. He traveled over Europe, the United States and parts of South America, giving concerts, in which he gave the principal place to his own compositions. He died in Brazil, in 1869. In later years, American composers for the piano have not done such distinctive work as the two writers just mentioned, yet the names of Charles Dennee (1863), Wilson G. Smith (1855), James H. Rogers (1857), and William H. Sherwood (1854), composer, pianist and teacher, whose work in the educational field is most important; Edward Baxter Perry (1855), who has splendidly triumphed over the infirmity of blindness, and through his unique lecture recitals has been a strong factor in musical progress in the United States; and several men of foreign birth who have identified themselves with American musical education: Rafael Joseffy, in New York City, Carl Baermann and Carl Faelten in Boston, Constantin von Sternberg in Philadelphia, and Emil Liebling in Chicago. Two other names should be mentioned here, Henry Schradieck, of New York, whose influence as a violinist and teacher has been great, and F. L. Ritter, who occupied the chair of music in Vassar College, a pioneer in college musical work.

Organ Composition.—Nearly all of the best-known American composers have been organists, yet certain men have made that line of musical work peculiarly their own. Such men are B. J. Lang (1837), of Boston, organist, conductor and teacher; George E. Whiting (1842), who in addition to his high rank as an organist and teacher, has written most acceptably for his instrument, and also for the orchestra and in the large choral forms; George W. Warren (1828), and S. P. Warren (1841), whose sphere of activity is identified with New York City; E. M. Bowman (1848), organist, conductor, pianist and teacher; Samuel B. Whitney (1842), organist, noted for his work in training boy choirs, also his musical compositions for the Episcopal Church service; Clarence Eddy (1851), organ virtuoso with an international reputation; Henry M. Dunham (1853), who has written well for his instrument and has had an active and useful career as a teacher. Among the younger men of prominence as American organists who have put themselves abreast with modern progress, and have studied all schools, may be mentioned Everett E. Truette, Wallace Goodrich, Wm. C. Carl, Gerrit Smith, Charles Galloway, J. Fred Wolle, who organized the Bach Festival at Bethlehem, Pa., H. J. Stewart, a representative California organist.

Musical Criticism.—When indicating the various agencies for the shaping of musical appreciation in the United States, special mention must be made of a group of writers whose contributions to musical magazines, to the daily press in the large music centres, as well as their work in permanent form have influenced the taste of the American public to a degree not paralleled in any other country. These writers have enjoyed unusual opportunities and have used them well. The leading newspapers of the United States give much space to reports of musical events and have called to their aid writers of keen insight into musical matters, thorough equipment on the score of musical knowledge, and gifted with much skill in expression as well as mastery of literary style.

The Older Critics.—The first of these critics to claim our attention is John S. Dwight, born in Boston, in 1813, a graduate of Harvard, and a student of theology as well. Gifted with a sound taste in art matters, his reviews of musical works, concerts, etc., were very useful and helpful and much appreciated by the best circles of the city, for his associations were with the most famous literary and scientific men of his day. In 1852, he established a musical paper, Journal of Music, which lasted nearly thirty years. He died in 1893. Another of the older writers is George P. Upton, born in Boston, in 1834, a graduate of Brown University, who entered journalism at twenty-one, as a member of the staff of the Chicago Journal; after some years of service with that paper, he went to the Tribune, with which he has ever since been associated. Mr. Upton’s critical work covers the period of the growth of Chicago, which has been phenomenal in art as well as in commercial directions, and has been a most valuable factor in musical upbuilding. In recent years his pen was a great aid to Theodore Thomas in his efforts to establish the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. His works in permanent form are “Woman in Music,” a series of books descriptive of the principal oratorios, operas, cantatas, and symphonies, translations from the German of Nohl’s biographies of musicians, and a “Life of Theodore Thomas.” Coincident with Mr. Upton’s work in the West is that of W. S. B. Mathews, born in London, N. H., in 1837. He was educated in Boston; after some years of musical work in the South, he located in Chicago, as organist, teacher, writer on musical matters. His reviews on local musical affairs appeared in several of the leading dailies, he was a contributor to Dwight’s Journal, and to all the musical papers that have come into the field since. Perhaps no contemporary writer on education in music has influenced, and so strongly, as many teachers and students of music as Mr. Mathews. He has written a “Popular History of Music,” “Hundred Years of Music in America,” “How to Understand Music,” “Primer of Musical Forms,” and several works on the great composers, with critical studies of their works.

W. S. B. Mathews.   G. P. Upton.    L. C. Elson.
H. E. Krehbiel.    Philip Hale.   W. F. Apthorp.
James Huneker.

Boston Writers.—The three leading Boston writers of recent years are Louis C. Elson, Wm. F. Apthorp and Philip Hale. Louis C. Elson was born in Boston, in 1848. He was educated for the musical profession, at home and at Leipzig. In 1880, he became connected with the New England Conservatory, and at the present time is head of the theory department of that institution. His journalistic activity covers a period of about thirty years and his writings have appeared in Boston and New York papers, as well as in the leading musical journals. His works in book form are ten in number, the most valuable to the student of history being a large volume on the “History of American Music.” The other works are critical, technical, and biographical. Wm. F. Apthorp was born in Boston, in 1848, graduated at Harvard, and began his critical work in music in 1872, being connected with several Boston papers. Mr. Apthorp’s published works are few in number, “Musicians and Music Lovers” and “The Opera, Past and Present.” In addition to this he supplied program material for the Boston Symphony Concerts for a number of years, educational as well as descriptive and critical. Philip Hale was born at Norwich, Vt., in 1854, graduated from Yale and was admitted to the Bar in New York in 1880. His interest in music and musical work proved too strong for him and he went abroad to Germany and France to study. In 1889, he located in Boston and began work as musical critic on the staff of several of the papers. For a number of years he was Boston correspondent for the Musical Courier of New York. Two other men whose work in musical literature has been significant are Alexander W. Thayer, born at Natick, Mass., in 1817, who wrote the standard biography of Beethoven, and Thomas Tapper, of Boston, who has written a number of valuable educational works in music.

New York Critics.—New York City has four men of the first rank as writers on music, not only for critical acumen and technical knowledge, but also for literary style. Henry T. Finck was born in Missouri, in 1854, graduated from Harvard University, and studied at German universities for three years. When he returned to the United States he joined the editorial staff of the Evening Post and the Nation, which places he still holds. His works in musical literature are “Wagner and His Works,” “Paderewski and His Art,” “Songs and Song Writers,” and “Chopin and Other Essays.” Henry E. Krehbiel was born at Ann Arbor, Mich., in 1854. His first newspaper experience was in Cincinnati; later he went to New York to the Tribune, which place he still holds. His contributions to musical literature are “Studies in the Wagnerian Drama,” “How to Listen to Music,” and “Music and Manners in the Classical Period,” besides contributions to the leading musical papers and general magazines. William J. Henderson was born at Newark, N. J., in 1855, graduated from Princeton University, afterward entering journalism in New York City, being connected with the Times, and later with the Sun. His books are distinctly educational in tone: “The Story of Music,” “How Music Developed,” “What is Good Music,” “The Orchestra and Orchestral Music,” “Richard Wagner: His Life and Dramas,” and “The Art of the Singer.” A writer on music who has made a fine reputation in literary and dramatic criticism as well is James Huneker, a native of Philadelphia, whose active work has been done in New York City. His books of interest to the musician are a “Life of Chopin,” “Mezzotints in Modern Music,” “Melomaniacs,” “Overtones,” “Iconoclasts” and “Visionaries.”

Other Writers in this field whose work deserves mention are Edward Dickinson, of Oberlin, O., with two works, “History of Music in the Western Church” and “The Study of the History of Music”; Philip Goepp, of Philadelphia, “Symphonies and their Meanings”; Daniel Gregory Mason, of Boston, “From Grieg to Brahms”; Lawrence Gilman, of New York, “Phases of Modern Music”; Professor Hugh A. Clarke, of the University of Pennsylvania, “Music and the Comrade Arts,” “Highways and By-ways of Music,” and several excellent theoretical works; O. B. Boise, Peabody Conservatory of Baltimore, with a work of a historical and critical nature, “Music and Its Masters,” and some theoretical works; Rupert Hughes, “Contemporary American Composers.

LESSON LX.
Musical Education.

Early Musical Education.—The training of students in music has been the special care of the greatest men connected with the art, a subject close to the heart of men of rank and of means, and the object of Governmental and municipal subvention. In most of the countries and many of the larger cities of Europe, Art is considered a legitimate object for public aid and fostering, and music receives a fair share of funds set aside for that purpose. In the period before the Christian Era, musical education was carried on to prepare singers and players either for the religious service, and in the hands of the priests, or for entertainment and by slaves. Pope Sylvester founded a school for singers, at Rome, in the 4th century, and the Church all through its history has laid stress on means for training executants for its musical services. Guido of Arezzo, credited with a number of reforms in the teaching of vocal music, is said to have had a school for training singers to read musical notation. Like him, many of his successors in prominence were in charge of classes of pupils, yet this method by no means accords with our ideas of systematic, logical education in music. It was largely the personal power and eminence of the master that attracted and retained pupils.

Musical Education in Italy.—The first examples of the founding of schools of music or conservatories take us to Italy. The noted theorist Tinctor or Tinctoris started a school at Naples, in 1496, but this did not last very long. In the early part of the 16th century, several institutions were founded by private contribution for the purpose of affording homes and instruction to orphaned children. Ecclesiastical music was at first the special object of these schools. The pupils sang in choirs, various religious offices, processions, etc. There were four of these institutions: Santa Maria di Loreto, founded in 1535, which had on its roster such eminent musicians as Alessandro Scarlatti, Durante, Porpora, Sacchini and Guglielmi; San Onofrio, founded in 1576, some famous pupils being Gizzi, Jommelli, Piccini and Paisiello; De Poveri di Gesù Cristo, established in 1589, numbering among its pupils, Greco, Vinci, and Pergolesi; Della Pietà de’ Turchini, started in 1584, having among its pupils, Leo, Cafara, and Feo. In 1797, the first two named were united, the third was changed into a seminary for priests in 1744, and in 1808, the last was closed, and a school of music was established to take the place of the remaining institutions. This school, which received the title Reale Collegio di Musica, still exists.

Venice rivaled Naples in devotion to music, and early took measures to give musical instruction to the wards of charitable institutions. These schools were not named Conservatorio, as at Naples, but Ospedale (hospital), since they were a part of the foundation for institutions to receive the poor and infirm, their work as conservatories developing gradually. Such masters as Lotti, Galuppi, Scarlatti, Cimarosa presided over the four schools best known. When the Republic fell, these institutions collapsed in the financial crisis that followed. The principal music school in Venice at the present time is the Liceo Benedetto Marcello, which is subsidized by the city. An Italian conservatory of ancient date is the one at Palermo, which was established in 1615. At the present time it is a State institution. The Academy of St. Cecilia, at Rome, dates its original foundation to a society of musicians formed in 1566, a charter being granted by Pope Gregory XIII, in 1584. The Academy possesses the largest and most important musical library in Italy. Milan had a school of music as early as 1483. The celebrated theoretician, Gafurio, was the first great teacher. It was not permanent, however, and though there were schools for singers there from time to time, it was not until 1807 that the municipality established a regular school of music. The first school of music at Bologna was established in 1482, but it did not become permanent. In later years, musical affairs were in the hands of academies for the promotion of arts and sciences. In 1864, a school was opened on modern lines. Genoa has a school which was founded in 1829; it is subsidized by the city. The school at Florence was opened in 1862, and is richly endowed. A school was heavily endowed by Rossini and located at Pesaro, his birthplace.

The Paris Conservatoire.—To France belongs the honor of following closely in the footsteps of the Italian authorities. In 1784, a Royal School of Singing was opened in Paris, under the direction of Gossec, the composer; in 1793 it was enlarged in scope and was called the National Institute of Music; in 1795 the name was changed to the Conservatoire de Musique, which it still bears. In 1800 the organization was further modified by Bonaparte. The institution receives an annual subvention from the Government. This school is justly considered as one of the greatest in existence and has been the centre of musical training for practically all the prominent French musicians. A great incentive is the celebrated Prix de Rome (Roman Prize), which enables the winner to spend three years in study in Italy and Germany. The library is one of the most important in France, and dates from the foundation of the school. The Museum, which has one of the finest collections in Europe, was established in 1864. Affiliated schools have been established in the principal French cities, such as: Marseilles, Toulouse, Nantes, Dijon, Lyons and Rouen.

Musical Education in Germany.—Among the German conservatories, that at Prague is the oldest. It was founded in 1811. Besides music, the course of study provides for instruction in general branches. The violin department of this school is one of its strongest features. The conservatory at Vienna was opened in 1817, under the direction of Salieri, as a vocal school; other branches were added and by 1821 the foundation was that of a true conservatory. The course of study is comprehensive and the school has graduated a number of eminent musicians. It is under the patronage of the Society of the Friends of Music. Probably the German conservatory best known to American readers is that founded at Leipzig, in 1843, by Mendelssohn, and of which he was the first director. The fund used in starting the school was one of 20,000 thalers bequeathed by a Government official “for the purposes of art and science.” Such masters as Schumann, Moscheles, Ferdinand David, Plaidy, Richter and Reinecke were members of the faculty at different periods in the history of the school. This conservatory has had a larger number of American pupils than any other German institution. The oldest conservatory in Berlin was a private institution. The most important school is the Royal High School for Music, which is a branch of the Royal Academy of Arts, and is under the patronage of the Prussian Government. This school has three sections, the one for church music was opened in 1822, for musical composition in 1833, that for executive art in 1869. The violin school, under the direction of Joseph Joachim, attracts pupils from all parts of the world. Cologne has a conservatory which is aided financially by the municipality. This school was established in 1850, Ferdinand Hiller being the first director. The Royal Conservatory at Dresden was organized in 1856, and has paid considerable attention to its department for opera. Munich has a school which receives State aid. It was founded in 1867. Rheinberger, who was teacher of composition here, drew a number of Americans to the school. Other schools receiving State or municipal subventions are those at Wuerzburg, Weimar, Frankfort and Wiesbaden.

Other European Music Schools.—The other European countries have also promoted the organization of schools for teaching music. The strongest schools in Switzerland are those at Zurich, Geneva, Basle and Berne. In Belgium are several fine schools: at Brussels, founded in 1813, which is now a Government institution, at Liége (1827), at Ghent (1833), and at Antwerp, the latter founded in 1867, by the noted Belgian composer, Peter Benoit. These four schools receive State aid. Holland has three conservatories in her three large cities, Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague. Scandinavian musical education is cared for by the conservatories at Copenhagen, Christiania and Stockholm, the last being under Government patronage. Spain has conservatories at Madrid, Saragossa and Valencia, and Portugal, one at Lisbon. Greece sustains a school at Athens.

St. Petersburg Conservatory.—A conservatory of great importance is that founded at St. Petersburg through the exertions of the famous composer, Anton Rubinstein. In 1859, he organized the Russian Musical Society, the first object of which was to give amateurs an opportunity to practice orchestral playing. Changes in the policy of the Society were gradually introduced, branches were founded in several other cities, among them Moscow, and serious efforts were inaugurated to organize a music school in the Capital. The first instruction was given gratuitously, money was raised in private circles and a floor was rented in a private house in 1862 for the use of the school. The Emperor Alexander II gave to the school an annuity of 5000 rubles and a building which was the property of the Crown. In 1866 the name was officially designated as Conservatory, and from that time on several members of the Royal family became patrons of the school, socially as well as financially. Rubinstein was the first director. The building at present occupied by the school was formerly the Grand Theatre and is very completely furnished for the purposes of the Conservatory, having two concert halls, museums, library, class rooms, chapel, etc. Among the graduates of the institution are Tchaikovsky, Glazounoff, Balakireff, Arensky, Liadow, Gabrilowitsch, Sapellnikoff and Felix Blumenfeld.

Musical Education in England is well cared for, principally by the strong schools in London, of which there are four that call for particular notice. The Royal Academy of Music is the oldest; it was founded in 1822. This institution has had royal patronage from the beginning. The British public has generously replied with subscriptions to appeals made for funds at different periods in the history of the school, the Government grant being revoked on several occasions. At the present time the revenues are a Government grant, subscriptions, donations, and students’ fees. Such eminent musicians as Dr. Crotch, Sterndale Bennett and Sir George Macfarren have filled the position of principal of the school. Sir A. C. Mackensie is the present head. A strong rival to the Royal Academy is the Royal College of Music, which is the outgrowth of the National Training School for Music, founded by the Society of Arts in 1876, Sir Arthur Sullivan, first principal. It was in 1883 that the institution passed into the hands of the newly-organized Royal College of Music. The funds of the college come from fees, subscriptions and endowments. Sir George Grove was director for a number of years and was succeeded by Sir C. H. Hubert Parry, the eminent composer and theorist. Trinity College is the outgrowth of the activity of a musical society formed to promote church music and singing. In 1881 it was incorporated under the name it now bears and the scope of its instruction extended. The Guildhall School of Music is under the patronage of the authorities of the City of London. This institution was founded in 1880, and has a very large attendance. The present director is Mr. W. H. Cummings. The leading English universities, Cambridge, Oxford, London, Durham, and that at Edinburgh and Dublin have courses in the theory of music, leading to degrees.

Musical Education in the United States: Boston.—The United States has no schools of music under Governmental or municipal direction, and none which receive subventions, and but one, established in 1905, in New York City, which is endowed. The spread of musical education has been due to the energies and in many cases the sacrifices of musicians and music lovers in the larger cities. In Lesson LVII reference was made to societies in the three large American cities, Boston, New York and Philadelphia, to further musical education. The oldest true music school in the United States is the New England Conservatory of Music, in Boston, founded by Dr. Tourjée, in 1867. A notable feature was the dormitory for female students. Eminent instructors were engaged, both foreigners and Americans, and the school quickly established a reputation as the leading institution for musical education. Dr. Tourjée was succeeded in the directorship by Mr. Carl Faelten, who resigned after several years of service and was followed in the office by Mr. George W. Chadwick, the present director, in 1897. In 1902 a new building was erected largely through the benefactions of several public-spirited citizens of Boston. Among the teachers who exerted a strong influence on American pupils may be mentioned Stephen A. Emery, A. D. Turner, Lyman W. Wheeler, Carlyle Petersilea, Otto Bendix and George E. Whiting. A school in Boston, with special strength in the violin department, was the Boston Conservatory, founded by Julius Eichberg.

The West.—In 1878, several music-loving citizens of Cincinnati established the Cincinnati College of Music, with Theodore Thomas as the first director. After him came various members of the faculty, and in 1897, Mr. Frank Van der Stucken accepted the post of dean of the faculty. In connection with the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra and the Festival Association, the College of Music has been a powerful factor in the musical life of the city. As an educational force it has done much for music in the West and the Southwest, and its pupils have carried into all sections of the tributary States sound musical precepts. Chicago has, at the present day, several schools, organized and conducted by private enterprise, which are doing splendid work and have made the city the musical centre of the West. Musicians of the highest rank have been brought to the United States by several of these conservatories, to the benefit of musical art in Chicago and the Western States.

Oberlin Conservatory of Music, a department of Oberlin College, may be taken as a type of the American idea of musical work in an institution of learning. The school has a strong faculty and a large number of pupils, whose work receives credit for graduation in the college courses; the students in music have all the privileges of those entered in the regular colleges. Oberlin has been a great factor for musical progress in the Middle West.

The East.—New York City has two schools that deserve mention: the National Conservatory of Music, founded by Mrs. Jeannette Thurber, a school which has offered as teachers to the American pupils such musicians as Rafael Joseffy and Antonin Dvořák; the Institute of Musical Art, opened in 1905, with Frank Damrosch as director, with a faculty of high repute, both Europeans and Americans. This school started with an endowment of $500,000 given by Mr. James Loeb, a New York banker. A school of music managed on conservative lines has existed for a number of years in Baltimore, in connection with the Peabody Institute, which was endowed by the banker, George Peabody. At the present time nearly every city of importance in the United States contains one or more conservatories, managed on a strictly business basis, and furnishing to the people of their communities thorough instruction at reasonable cost.

In the Colleges.—The important American institutions for higher education, both for men and for women, have recognized the claim of music to a place in the curriculum, and have provision for instructions in the theory, history and esthetics of music, many also having facilities for instructions in the practical side of music. Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Pennsylvania, Michigan, California and Northwestern Universities have established professorships of music, and have called eminent musicians to the posts. The work done in hundreds of schools of less reputation is a great factor in spreading musical culture throughout the country.