FOOTNOTES
[1] Johnson on the Epic Poem (Life of Milton).
[2] Il. xii. 328.
[3] Il. xi. 462.
[4] Od. viii. 165.
[5] Il. xix. 420.
[6] Ομηρος δε αλλα τε πολλα αξιος επαινεισθαι και δη και οτι μονος των ποιητων ουκ αγνοει ο δει ποιειν αυτον. αυτον γαρ δει τον ποιητην ελαχιστα λεγειν: ου γαρ εστι κατα ταυτα μιμητης. οι μεν ουν αλλοι αυτοι μεν δι' ολου αγωνιζονται, μιμουνται δε ολιγα και ολιγακις: ο δε ολιγα φροιμιασαμενος ευθυς εισαγει ανδρα η γυναικα η αλλο τι ηθος και ουδεν' αηθη αλλ' εχοντα ηθη.—Arist. Poet. 1460 a 5.
[Transliteration: Homêros de alla te polla axios epaineisthai kai dê kai hoti monos tôn poiêtôn ouk agnoei ho dei poiein auton. auton gar dei ton poiêtên elachista legein: ou gar esti kata tauta mimêtês. hoi men oun alloi autoi men di' holou agônizontai, mimountai de oliga kai oligakis: ho de oliga phroimiasamenos euthys eisagei andra ê gynaika ê allo ti êthos kai ouden' aêthê all' echonta êthê.]
[7] Traité du Poëme Épique, par le R.P. Le Bossu, Chanoine Régulier de Sainte Geneviève; MDCLXXV (t. ii. p. 166).
αυταρ' Οδυσσευς
θυμωι μεν γοοωσαν εην ελεαιρε γυναικα,
οφθαλμοι δ' ως ει κερα εστασαν ηε σιδηρος
ατρεμας εν βλεφαροισι; δολωι δ' ο γε δακρυα κευθεν.
Od. xix. 209.
[Transliteration:
autar' Odysseus
thymôi men gooôsan heên eleaire gynaika,
ophthalmoi d' hôs ei kera hestasan êe sidêros
atremas en blepharoisi; dolôi d' ho ge dakrya keuthen.]
νυν δε τοις αλλοις αγαθοις αφανιζει ηδυνων το ατοπον.
Aristot. Poet. 1460 b.
[10] "In the events of this history may be proved the great long-suffering of God Almighty towards us every day; and the freedom of will which He has given to every man, that each may do what he will, good or evil."—Hrafns Saga, Prologue (Sturlunga Saga Oxford, 1878, II. p. 275).
"As all good things are the work of God, so valour is made by Him and placed in the heart of stout champions, and freedom therewithal to use it as they will, for good or evil."—Fóstbræðra Saga (1852), p. 12: one of the sophistical additions to the story: see below [p. 275].
The moral is different in the following passage:—
"And inasmuch as the Providence of God hath ordained, and it is His pleasure, that the seven planets should have influence on the world, and bear dominion over man's nature, giving him divers inclinations to sin and naughtiness of life: nevertheless the Universal Creator has not taken from him the free will, which, as it is well governed, may subdue and abolish these temptations by virtuous living, if men will use discretion."—Tirant lo Blanch (1460), c. i.
[11] Il. xii. 241.
[12] Il. xvii. 227.
[13] The censure is not wanting:—
"L'on doit considérer que ce n'est ni le Poëte, ni son Héros, ni un honnête homme qui fait ce récit: mais que les Phéaques, peuples mols et effeminez, se le font chanter pendant leur festin."—Bossu, op. cit. p. 152.
[14] Od. vi. 151.
Lor autres mors ont toz en terre mis:
Crois font sor aus, qu'il erent droit martir:
Por lor seignor orent esté ocis.
Garin le Loherain, tom. ii. p. 88.
[16] C.P.B., Introduction, p. lii.
[17] This poem has been followed by M. Leconte de Lisle in L'Épée d'Angantyr (Poèmes Barbares). It was among the first of the Northern poems to be translated into English, in Hickes's Thesaurus (1705), i. p. 193. It is also included in Percy's Five Pieces of Runic Poetry (1763).
[18] Cf. G. Vigfusson, Prolegomena to Sturlunga (Oxford, 1878); (Corpus Poeticum Boreale (ibid. 1883); Grimm Centenary Papers 1886); Sophus Bugge, Helgedigtene (1896; trans. Schofield, 1899).
[19] Compare Cynewulf and Cyneheard in the Chronicle (a.d. 755); also the outbreak of enmity, through recollection of old wrongs, in the stories of Alboin, and of the vengeance for Froda (supra, pp. [68]-70).
[20] Hildegyth, her English name, is unfortunately not preserved in either of the fragmentary leaves. It is found (Hildigið) in the Liber Vitae (Sweet, Oldest English Texts, p. 155).
[21] The resemblance to Hildebrand, l. 58, is pointed out by Sophus Bugge: "Doh maht du nu aodlihho, ibu dir din ellen taoc, In sus heremo man hrusti giwinnan." (Hildebrand speaks): "Easily now mayest thou win the spoils of so old a man, if thy strength avail thee." It is remarkable as evidence of the strong conventional character of the Teutonic poetry, and of the community of the different nations in the poetical convention, that two short passages like Hildebrand and Waldere should present so many points of likeness to other poems, in details of style. Thus the two lines quoted from Hildebrand as a parallel to Waldere contain also the equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon phrase, Þonne his ellen deah, a familiar part of the Teutonic Gradus.
[22] Cf. C.P.B., i. p. 375, for double versions of part of Hamðismál, and of the Lay of Helgi. On pp. 377-379, parts of the two texts of Volospá—R and H—are printed side by side for comparison.
[23] Cf. Maldon, l. 45 sq., "Hearest thou what this people answer? They will pay you, for tribute, spears, the deadly point, the old swords, the weapons of war that profit you not," etc.
[24] C.P.B., i. p. 130.
[25] C.P.B., Introduction, p. lxxviii.
[26] The "Long Lay of Sigurd" has disappeared. Cf. Heusler, Die Lieder der Lücke im Codex Regius der Edda, 1902.
[27] From C.P.B., i. pp. 293, 294, with some modifications.
[28] From C.P.B., i. p. 307, with some changes.
[30] Grundtvig, Danmarks gamle Folkeviser, No. 70. See above, [p. 114].
[31] Compare the warning of Angantyr to Hervor when he gives her the sword Tyrfing—"Keep the sword sheathed, the slayer of Hialmar; touch not the edges, there is venom upon them"—and the magic sword Skofnung in Kormaks Saga.
[32] Examples in [Appendix], [Note A].
[33] Compare the index to Sievers's edition of the Hêliand for illustrations of this community of poetical diction in old Saxon, English, Norse, and High German; and J. Grimm, Andreas und Elene (1840), pp. xxv.-xliv.
[34] See Bidrag til den ældste Skaldedigtnings Historie, by Dr. Sophus Bugge (1894).
[35] Compare C.P.B., ii. 447, Excursus on the Figures and Metaphors of old Northern Poetry.
[36] These may be found in the second volume of the Corpus Poeticum Boreale.
[37] C.P.B., ii. 339.
[38] Translated in Percy's Runic Poetry (1763), p. 27, and often since.
[39] There is a natural affinity to Gray's poetry in the Icelandic poetry that he translated—compressed, emphatic, incapable of laxity.
[40] Poet. 1451 a.
[41] τοιγαρουν εκ μεν Ιλιαδος και Οδυσσειας μια τραγωιδια ποιειται εκατερας η δυο μοναι, εκ δε Κυπριων πολλαι και της μικρας Ιλιαδος πλεον οκτω, οιον οπλων κρισις, Φιλοκτητης, Νεοπτολεμος, Ευρυπυλος, πτωχεια, Λακαιναι, Ιλιου περσις, και αποπλους και Σινων και Τρωιαδες (1459 b).
[Transliteration: toigaroun ek men Iliados kai Odysseias mia tragôidia poieitai hekateras ê duo monai, ek de Kypriôn pollai kai tês mikras Iliados pleon oktô, hoion hoplôn krisis, Philoktêtês, Neoptolemos, Eurypylos, ptôcheia, Lakainai, Iliou persis, kai apoplous kai Sinôn kai Trôiades.]
[42] It has been shown recently by Dr. Edward Sievers that Beowulf's dragon corresponds in many points to the dragon killed by Frotho, father of Haldanus, in Saxo, Book II. The dragon is not wholly commonplace, but has some particular distinctive traits. See Berichte der Königl. Sächs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 6 Juli 1895.
[43] Asbjörnsen, Norske Huldre-Eventyr og Folkesagn. At renske Huset is the phrase—"to cleanse the house." Cf. Heorot is gefælsod, "Heorot is cleansed," in Beowulf.
[44] J.F. Campbell, Tales of the West Highlands, ii. p. 99. The reference to this story in Catriona (p. 174) will be remembered.
[45] Biskupa Sögur, i. p. 604.
[46] Ed. Robson, Chetham Society, 1855, from the Lyme MS.; ed. Furnivall and Hales, Percy Folio Manuscript, 1867.
[48] "Is it true, Thorgils, that you have entertained those three men this winter, that are held to be the most regardless and overbearing, and all of them outlaws, and you have handled them so that none has hurt another?" Yes, it was true, said Thorgils. Skapti said: "That is something for a man to be proud of; but what do you think of the three, and how are they each of them in courage?" Thorgils said: "They are all three bold men to the full; yet two of them, I think, may tell what fear is like. It is not in the same way with both; for Thormod fears God, and Grettir is so afraid of the dark that after dark he would never stir, if he had his own way; but I do not know that Thorgeir, my kinsman, is afraid of anything."—"You have read them well," says Skapti; and so their talk ended (Grettis Saga, c. 51).
[49] See below, [pp. 229] sqq.
[51] Skapraun, lit. test of condition.
[52] Translated in [Appendix], [Note B].
[53] "Tell me what faith you are of," said the earl. "I believe in my own strength," said Sigmund (Færeyinga Saga).
[54] It is summarised in Dasent's Njal, i. p. xx., and translated in Sephton's Olaf Tryggvason (1895), pp. 339-341.
[55] Harðar Saga, c. xi.
[56] The pathos of Asdis, Grettir's mother, comes nearest to the tone of the old English laments, or of the Northern elegiac poetry, and may be taken as a contrast to the demeanour of Bjargey in Hávarðar Saga, and an exception to the general rule of the Sagas in this respect.
[57] Vide supra, [p. 140], and infra, [p. 295].
[59] Then Brynhild laughed till the walls rang again: "Good luck to your hands and swords that have felled the goodly prince" (Brot Sgkv. 10; cf. [p. 103] above).
[60] Vide supra, [p. 193] (the want of tragedy in Víga-Glúms Saga).
[61] Translated in [Appendix], [Note C].
[62] Arni Beiskr (the Bitter) in company with Gizur murdered Snorri Sturluson the historian at his house of Reykholt, 22nd September 1241.
[63] Fóstbr. (1852) p. 8: "Því at ekki var hjarta hans seen fóarn í fugli: ekki var þat blóðfullt svá at þat skylfi af hræzlu, heldr var þat herdt af enum hæsta höfuðsmið í öllum hvatleik." ("His heart was not fashioned like the crop in a fowl: it was not gorged with blood that it should flutter with fear, but was tempered by the High Headsmith in all alacrity.")
[64] "The first romantic Sagas"—i.e. Sagas derived from French romance—"date from the reign of King Hakon Hakonsson (1217-1263), when the longest and best were composed, and they appear to cease at the death of King Hakon the Fifth (1319), who, we are expressly told, commanded many translations to be made" (G. Vigfusson, Prol. § 25).
[65] The Mythical Sagas are described and discussed by Vigfusson, Prol. § 34.
[66] Ibid. § 11, "Spurious Icelandic Sagas" (Skrök-Sögur). For Frithiof, see § 34.
[67] Translated by Mr. William Morris and Mr. E. Magnússon, in the same volume as Gunnlaug, Frithiof, and Viglund (Three Northern Love Stories, etc., 1875).
[68] Vigfusson, Prol. p. cxxxviii. C.P.B., ii. 392. The forms of verse used in the Rímur are analysed in the preface to Riddara Rímur, by Theodor Wisén (1881).
[69] G. Paris, Preface to Histoire de la littérature française, edited by L. Petit de Julleville.
[70] See the preface to Raoul de Cambrai, ed. Paul Meyer (Anc. Textes), for examples of such chevilles; and also Aimeri de Narbonne, p. civ.
[71] Historia Verdadera de Carlo Magno y los doce Pares de Francia: Madrid, 4to (1891), a chap-book of thirty-two pages.
[72] Glum, like Raoul, is a widow's son deprived of his rights.
[73] Garin le Loherain, ed. Paulin Paris (1833-35), vol. ii. pp. 217-272.
[74] One of the frequent morals of French epic (repeated also by French romance) is the vanity of overmuch sorrow for the dead.
αλλα χρη τον μεν καταθαπτειν ος κε θανησιν
νηλεα θυμον εχοντας, επ' ηματι δακρυσαντας.
(Odysseus speaking) Il. xix. 228.
[Transliteration:
alla chrê ton men katathaptein hos ke thanêsin
nêlea thymon echontas, ep' êmati dakrysantas.]
"Laissiez ester," li quens Guillaumes dit;
"Tout avenra ce que doit avenir;
Li mort as mors, li vif voissent as vis;
Duel sor dolor et joie sor joïr
Ja nus frans hons nel devroit maintenir."
Les cors enportent, les out en terre mis.
Garin, i. p. 262.
Respont li reis: "N'iés pas bien enseigniez,
Qui devant mei oses de Deu plaidier;
C'est l'om el mont qui plus m'a fait irier:
Mon pere ocist une foldre del ciel:
Tot i fu ars, ne li pot l'en aidier.
Quant Deus l'ot mort, si fist que enseigniez;
El ciel monta, ça ne voit repairier;
Ge nel poeie sivre ne enchalcier,
Mais de ses omes me sui ge puis vengiez;
De cels qui furent levé et baptisié
Ai fait destruire plus de trente miliers,
Ardeir en feu et en eve neier;
Quant ge la sus ne puis Deu guerreier,
Nul de ses omes ne vueil ça jus laissier,
Et mei et Deu n'avons mais que plaidier:
Meie est la terre et siens sera li ciels."
l.c., l. 522.
The last verse expresses the same sentiment as the answer of the Emperor Henry when he was told to beware of God's vengeance: "Celum celi Domino, terram autem dedit filiis hominum" (Otton. Frising. Gesta Frid. i. 11).
Li cuens Guillaumes li comença à dire:
—Diva, vilain, par la loi dont tu vives
Fus-tu a Nymes, la fort cité garnie?
—Oïl, voir, sire, le paaige me quistrent;
Ge fui trop poures, si nel poi baillier mie.
Il me lessèrent por mes enfanz qu'il virent.
—Di moi, vilain, des estres de la vile.
Et cil respont:—Ce vos sai-ge bien dire
Por un denier .ii. granz pains i véismes;
La denerée vaut .iii. en autre vile:
Moult par est bone, se puis n'est empirie.
—Fox, dist Guillaume, ce ne demant-je mie,
Mès des paiens chevaliers de la vile,
Del rei Otrant et de sa compaignie.
l.c., ll. 903-916.
[77] Cf. Auguste Longnon, "L'élément historique de Huon de Bordeaux," Romania, viii.
[78] "Pos de chantar m'es pres talens:"—Raynouard, Choix des poésies des Troubadours, iv. p. 83; Bartsch, Chrestomathie provençale.
[79] See the account of the custom in the Saga of Harald Hardrada, c. 16. "Harald entrusted to Jarizleif all the gold that he had sent from Micklegarth, and all sorts of precious things: so much wealth all together, as no man of the North Lands had ever seen before in one man's hands. Harald had thrice come in for the palace-sweeping (Polotasvarf) while he was in Micklegarth. It is the law there that when the Greek king dies, the Varangians shall have a sweep of the palace; they go over all the king's palaces where his treasures are, and every man shall have for his own what falls to his hand" (Fornmanna Sögur, vi. p. 171).
Il ot o lui un saietaire
Qui molt fu fels et deputaire:
Des le nombril tot contreval
Ot cors en forme de cheval:
Il n'est riens nule s'il volsist
Que d'isnelece n'ateinsist:
Cors, chiere, braz, a noz semblanz
Avoit, mes n'ert pas avenanz.
l. 12,207.
[81] Chaucer, who often yields to the temptations of "Hyperbole" in this sense of the word, lays down the law against impertinent decorations, in the rhetorical instruction of Pandarus to Troilus, about Troilus's letter to Cressida (B. ii. l. 1037):—
Ne jompre eek no discordaunt thing yfere
As thus, to usen termes of phisyk;
In loves termes hold of thy matere
The forme alwey, and do that it be lyk;
For if a peyntour wolde peynte a pyk
With asses feet, and hede it as an ape,
It cordeth naught; so nere it but a jape.
[82] Not included in the editions of her works (Roquefort, Warnke); edited by M. Gaston Paris in the eighth volume of Romania along with the lays of Doon, Tidorel, and Tiolet.
[83] Britomart in the House of Busirane has some resemblance to the conclusion of Libius Disconius.
[84] Fr. Michel: Tristan. London, 1835. Le Roman de Tristan (Thomas) ed. Bédier; (Béroul) ed. Muret, Anc. Textes, 1902-1905. Cf. Gaston Paris, Poëmes et Légendes.
[85] A fine passage is quoted from the romance of Ider in the essay cited above, where Guenloïe the queen finds Ider near death and thinks of killing herself, like Phyllis and other ladies of the old time, who will welcome her. It is the "Saints' Legend of Cupid," many generations before Chaucer, in the form of an invocation to Love, the tyrant:—
Bel semblant ço quit me feront
Les cheitives qui a toi sont
Qui s'ocistrent par druerie
D'amor; mout voil lor compainie:
D'amor me recomfortera
La lasse Deïanira,
Qui s'encroast, et Canacé,
Eco, Scilla, Fillis, Pronné,
Ero, Biblis, Dido, Mirra,
Tisbé, la bele Hypermnestra,
Et des autres mil et cinc cenz.
Amor! por quoi ne te repenz
De ces simples lasses destruire?
Trop cruelment te voi deduire:
Pechié feiz que n'en as pitié;
Nuls deus fors toi ne fait pechié!
De ço est Tisbé al dessus,
Que por lié s'ocist Piramus;
Amors, de ço te puet loer
Car a ta cort siet o son per;
Ero i est o Leander:
Si jo i fusse avec Ider,
Aise fusse, ço m'est avis,
Com alme qu'est en paraïs.
[86] Blethericus, or Bréri, is the Welsh authority cited by Thomas in his Tristan. Cf. Gaston Paris, Romania, viii. p. 427.
[87] The Welsh version has the advantage here in noting more fully than Chrestien the beauty of age in Enid's mother: "And he thought that there could be no woman fairer than she must have been in the prime of her youth." Chrestien says merely (at the end of his story, l. 6621):—
Bele est Enide et bele doit
Estre par reison et par droit,
Que bele dame est mout sa mere
Bel chevalier a an son pere.
[88] Ed. Paul Meyer, 1865, and, again, 1901.
[89] Ed. G. Raynaud, Romania, xxi. p. 145.
[90] i.e. Diomede.
[91] In a somewhat similar list of romances, in the Italian poem of L'Intelligenza, ascribed to Dino Compagni (st. 75), Luneta is named Analida; possibly the origin of Chaucer's Anelida, a name which has not been clearly traced.