§ 4. MARBLE MASONRY.
After more than a thousand years of working marble through one complete development, Greek builders, by considering afresh the prime necessities of material, and a rational system of craftsmanship, opened the great quarry of ideas in constructive art which is exhaustless. In a hundred years architecture became truly organic, features that had become mere “vestiges” dropped away, and a new style was complete; one, not perhaps so completely winning as some forms of Gothic, but the supremely logical building art that has been.
If anywhere this vitalising had not been completed, it would have been in the more decorative forms; but here we find no mere exercise in applying architectural orders, everything is as real and fresh as in the structure. Having the Corinthian and Ionic capitals before their eyes and without forgetting or rejecting them, the Byzantine builders invented and developed an entirely fresh group of capitals fitted in the most perfect way for arched brick construction. As Mr. Freeman has said (Hist. Essays, iii. p. 61) of the new architecture: “The problem was to bring the arch and column into union—in other words to teach the column to support the arch.” This was done by shaping the block of marble which formed the capital so that a simple transition from the square block to the circle of the column was formed. When they were sculptured, and most of them are most elaborately sculptured, the general form is not altered but the carving enriches the surface only. The new “Impost capital” is found throughout the great cistern generally known as that of Philoxenus which is usually referred to the time of Constantine. In their study of the vaulted cisterns of Constantinople Forchheimer and Strzygowski have contributed much that is new to our knowledge of the architecture of the city and show that the evidence is entirely against this theory, which was propounded by Gyllius, whom more recent writers have been content to copy. This cistern, known to the Turks as Bin Bir direk (thousand and one columns), they identify with a great cistern which the Paschal Chronicle says was built by Justinian in 528. We believe with them that the architecture of the cistern agrees entirely with what we might expect as an outcome of the special circumstances in the time of the great building era. “Bin Bir direk exhibits the highest development of the art of cistern building, and it thus in its particular sphere resembles S. Sophia; like it the boldness of its construction was never again equalled by the Byzantines. It would be an explanation of the bold achievement if it might be assumed that Anthemius proved his capability in this subterranean work before he made his supreme effort in S. Sophia. Technical features, however, make it seem probable that the builder was an Alexandrine.”
Fig. 50.—Columns of Great Order.
Fig. 51.—Capital now Outside Porch at S. Sophia.
“It is of the widest significance for the history of Byzantine art that here throughout the new ‘impost capital’ is employed in its plainest constructive form. It seems not improbable that the daring builder of the cistern was the first to make use of this form of capital which completely broke with classical tradition and is in such perfect accord with the exigencies of arch-architecture.” This is to go too far; for if the cistern is rightly referred to 528 it is probable, as we shall show, that the impost capital had at that time been for many years in use.
At S. Sophia the four main varieties of the new capital are all found. In the cistern the change of form is made by rounding away the angles at the bottom without reference apparently to any geometrical idea; but in other capitals which belong essentially to this type the method seems to have been that explained in [Fig. 53] which represents the form of the caps of the lamp pillars on the front of the western gynaeceum. They are most delicately carved with a network of ornament, but the general form is undisturbed as we have explained. The plain capitals of the west window and the isolated sculptured capital Salzenberg found in the north aisle are also of this form, which we shall call the Impost Capital type I. The profile can be made convex or inflected, we are only speaking of the simplest method of changing the form from a circle to a square.
Fig. 52.—Columns in Gallery.
Two capitals now used as mounting blocks outside the east porch, which we illustrate ([Fig. 51]), furnish us with a sculptured example of a similar capital in two stages of development, one of them never having been completed. We give here an outline of the blocked out capital, in which the method of workmanship may be plainly seen. First, the block was cut away below convexly to meet the circular shaft. In this state it exactly resembles the capitals of the cistern. Secondly, on this was marked a border all round the top; also centre lines running down each of the faces, about the centre point of each of which a circle of about seven inches diameter was drawn; and at the bottom the width for the necking was marked off. Thirdly, the intermediate spaces were sunk about two inches; the hollow of the abacus was formed; the necking, and edge of the circular discs were rounded. This brings the capital to the stage shown in the diagram, the point to be observed being that the abacus, boss, and necking lie in one surface, first obtained, and the rest in another face, sunk some two inches below the former. It cannot be doubted that the style of these capitals is contemporary with the work at S. Sophia, and the finished one bears a monogram which appears to read ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟΥ; it is, however, almost identical with that of Theodora, which occurs on the capitals of the interior. MM. Curtis and Aristarches,[358] who have written on these monograms, think it belonged to a portico, restored in 409 by an eparch called Theodoros. Work of this style was not done at that time, and these capitals possibly belonged to some of the outer courts of the church mentioned by Procopius. They resemble the great capitals so closely that they might almost be preliminary studies. The strips which are left down two sides of the capitals were customary in the capitals of a Byzantine colonnade, especially where screens were inserted between.
Fig. 53.—Rudimentary Form of Capital. Type I.
Fig. 54.—Rudimentary Form of Capital. Type II.
Fig. 55.—Rudimentary Form of Capital.
The two capitals in the loggia by the baptistery furnish a well-defined variety of the impost capital. The square at the top is here wrought into curves recalling the antique abacus. These are gathered together into the circle of the necking in a beautiful convex form which may be called the Melon type II., see [Fig. 54].
We give in [Fig. 50] an outline of the whole column of the great order in the interior of the church, and in [Fig. 56] a diagram of the blocking out of the capital. The columns here and throughout the great church being monoliths of fine material, the supporting area is very small compared to the area of the arch imposts, which are of brick sheeted with marble. It will be seen that the projection is just that required by the impost, which springs directly from the outside edge.
Fig. 56.—Rudimentary Form of Capital. Type III.
The great capitals of S. Sophia are remarkable examples of the evolution of beautiful forms on the mason’s banker; the workman finding form in the stone block by the application of practical methods. The lower half of the capital is circular like the shaft, rising in a slightly swelling curve of a bowl; the upper part is square like the impost. The basis of form is that of a bowl with a tile placed above it, and is thus that of the Greek Doric. This type III. in which the circle does not pass by transition into the square impost, but changes abruptly, we may call the bowl and tile capital.
At S. Sophia the surface of the form obtained as shown in the figure is wrought into crisp acanthus and palm foliage; and is in many places, especially at the tips of the leafage and behind the monograms, entirely undercut. The cutting being so sharp, and the shadows so deep, while at the same time the general form with its broad gradation of light and shade is so little modified by surface modelling, the effect is almost that of inlaying black on white. The capitals of the columns standing in the aisles, and those of the first floor ranged against the central area, are similar to the great order, but simplified and reduced.
The columns of the aisles on the first floor have block capitals, with small volutes below; [Fig. 57] will make the elementary form clear. This type IV. is really a Byzantine Ionic. The dual columns of west gallery have a capital in common, which is a variation of these, and the capitals of atrium were also similar. One capital of the north gallery is entirely different from all the rest, the block, not being carved all over continuously, is broken up into several horizontal lines of ornament.
For the capitals of the square pillars of ground floor, and others to the windows, we must refer to Salzenberg; they are all of the simple block form delicately sculptured.
Salzenberg also figures two capitals, now on the porphyry columns at the east porch. These are comparatively small, and may possibly have belonged to some position in the interior of the church, such as Justinian’s first ambo. The form is that of a basket with four doves perched on the rim, and crosses between. Doves associated with crosses symbolized the Church. Now in St. Clemente at Rome there are two capitals of this kind which belonged to the ciborium, set up as the inscription shows while Hormisdas was pope (514-523), they are figured by Cattaneo, Fig. 7, who says they obviously were sculptured by Greek chisels. It is thus extremely possible that ours may have been late additions to the pre-Justinian church, where they also may have belonged to the ciborium. Rohault de Fleury believed that this form of capital was intended to represent an offerings basket.
Fig. 57.—Rudimentary Form of Capital in Gynaeceum. Type IV.
To these Bird and Basket capitals, type V., may be added varieties of the great class of derivatives from the Corinthian of which this is in fact one. These were in general use before the block type of capital was developed. We will here only mention two of these acanthus capitals. Those in which the leaves are set upright on the stem of the shaft we will call Byzantine Corinthian and type VI. Those in which the leaves turn over and bend round the capital we will, with Mr. Ruskin, call “Wind-blown acanthus,” and type VII.
Distribution and Dates of Capitals.—We have referred before to our belief that Constantinople was a marble working centre from which sculptured marbles were dispersed to all parts of the Roman world. Having the chief types of Byzantine capitals before us it will be convenient to consider this more fully. We suppose that as white marble had to be bought in any case, the custom grew up of obtaining the capitals fully wrought. Importation was, of course, a general antique practice in regard to figure sculpture, columns, and other objects of marble. Proconnesian marble seems to have been the common stone of Constantinople so that it is used for the columns and capitals of the cisterns. We believe that careful examination of the capitals at Ravenna, Parenzo, and other Byzantine centres will show that they are in the main of this material. As to design the capitals lying neglected about the city, together with those in situ in the churches and cisterns, furnish a perfect museum of the types with which others dispersed through the whole area of the empire agree in the minutest particulars of design and workmanship.
To take the types we have mentioned:
Impost Capital, I.—This capital is found with the surface richly sculptured at S. Sergius. Capitals identical in form and decoration with the isolated capital of S. Sophia (Salz. Pl. xx., fig. 8) are found at Parenzo and in Jerusalem. The splendid examples of this type at S. Vitale, Ravenna, are well known; here the fretwork of sculpture is almost entirely relieved from the ground. We found an example absolutely similar at Constantinople. Mr. Ruskin’s “Lily Capital” which belongs to this group is found at S. Mark’s, at S. Vitale, at Parenzo, and at Alexandria. Another variety is covered all over with horizontal bands of zigzag fillets; an example rests in the Tchenli-Kiosk Museum, others are found at Athens, at Mistra, and a third now at S. Mark’s is figured in the Stones of Venice. The capitals at S. Sophia, Salonica, figured by Texier are probably the earliest of type I. to which an approximate date can be given; it was certainly in general use at the end of the fifth century.
Melon Form, II.—These magnificent eight-lobed capitals form the great order at S. Sergius, and are found at the church usually called Agia Theotokos. Similar capitals belong to the upper order at S. Vitale, and others are found at S. Mark’s. Some of the nave columns of S. Demetrius at Salonica have fine capitals of this type which although evidently derived from the last probably also originated in the fifth century.
Bowl Type, III.—These, the great capitals of S. Sophia, seem to have been especially designed for the metropolitan church: the beautiful palm foliage, however, with which they are sculptured is found again at Parenzo and on a capital in the Ravenna museum said to have been brought from Pomposa. The church at Parenzo was begun in 535.
Byzantine Ionic, IV.—These occur in their perfected form of block capital fully sculptured in S. Sergius and at the palace of Hormisdas in Constantinople, also in the upper order at S. Sophia, Salonica. Examples are also found at Venice.
In their earlier form of transition from the “Ionic with a plain dosseret” an immense number are found in the subterranean structures of Constantinople. An example has been found in Chalcis.[359]
Bird and Basket, V.—S. Sophia furnishes two examples, but there is no proof that they originally belonged to the building. Another example is in Cairo. That at S. Clemente, Rome, is signed with the name of John Mercurius; Piranesi figures a capital of this kind from the Palazzo Mattei, bearing a monogram which is indecipherable in his plate. Period, end of fifth century and beginning of sixth.
Byzantine Corinthian Type, VI.—These are of great variety; we will only mention one. In the portico of John Studius the acanthus leaves are doubled, one leaf lying over and within another, so that a double row of serrations is shown around the margins (see figure in Salz.). Similar capitals are found in S. Demetrius, Salonica, and at S. Mark’s, Venice. This particular form is probably nearly concurrent with the last, possibly a little earlier.
Wind-blown Acanthus, VII., is represented at Constantinople by two examples forming bases for the posts of a wooden porch to a house near Gûl Jami, and another is found in the cistern usually called after Arcadius or Pulcheria. Absolutely similar capitals are found in S. Sophia, Salonica (circa 490) and one occurs at S. Demetrius. At Ravenna fine examples are dated by bearing the monogram of Theodoric. Others at S. Apollinare in Classe resemble the last so closely that we doubt their having been made specially for the church built in 534-549. An example was found in Chalcis with the Ionic capital just referred to and De Vogüé figures one from Syria. Period, say 425 to 525.
The seven most typical Byzantine orders were thus being wrought concurrently at the end of the fifth century, and it seems that the three last did not long outlast this century. The others in their central types probably did not continue in use much beyond the sixth century. After this time somewhat coarse varieties of Byzantine Corinthian, or Type I., were mostly used.
Fig. 58.—Bronze Annulets of Columns.
The evidence of the original block in the fully sculptured finished work which we find in the most characteristic examples of the Byzantine capitals is of primary importance in all marble sculpture, and differentiates the work of the chisel from being a mere stone model of a clay model which is practically what most modern sculpture has become. In many of these capitals the vertical strip shown in [Fig. 55] left in the finished work furnishes a further suggestion of the block from whence they were hewn.
Shafts and Bases.—The usual theory that the Byzantines wrought but few new marble shafts does not bear scrutiny. Byzantine shafts have neckings of very slight projection, thus obviating the waste of labour and material of Roman work.[360] The shafts of the baptistery loggia at S. Sophia, figured by Salzenberg, furnish good examples; sometimes the necking, as to the square marble pillars, is a simple broad fillet of about a quarter of an inch projection. The hundred round shafts of S. Sophia exhibit a remarkable and beautiful structural expedient by which the necking is entirely suppressed, and bronze annulets surround the shaft under the capital and above the base; which prevent the shafts from sliding or splitting, and retain the lead beds from being forced out by the weight (see Choisy, p. 15). Large monolithic shafts were the more apt to split, as they had to be set up contrary to the direction of the quarry strata.
Fig. 59.—Marble Pedestals and Skirting Slabs.
[Fig. 58] represents these bronze zones in association with the great capitals and bases. The pedestals of the exedra columns A a, next figure, are worked together with the bases in one stone. In these profiles we again see how little the mouldings disturb the original form.
Fig. 60.—Cornice Profiles.
Responds.—A very remarkable feature in the interior, is the way in which the colour of the marble columns of the arcade is reflected as it were on the responds, where the arches fall on the great square piers. A strip of porphyry or verde antique, the width and height of the free shafts, is inlaid into the marble casing of the piers absolutely flush, the edge being only defined by a line of the notched fillet. A flat sculptured slab at the top echoes the capital, and a base slab of mouldings worked in a vertical plane ranges with the bases of the columns. Salzenberg’s plate does not render this feature properly, the “capital” is flat and has straight sides and instead of the “base” he shows a portion of the wall skirting. [Fig. 59] shows this base in elevation (B), and section (C), ranging with the pedestals of the exedra, Columns (A). The way in which the sculptured and inlaid spandrils of the arcades stop against the plain veneering of the great piers is also most noteworthy.
Cornices and Skirtings.—We give here ([Fig. 59], D and E) two profiles of the skirtings where the principle of working out of thin veneering-slabs is applied to moulded work. The parapet slabs of first floor are worked in a very similar way; Salzenberg shows design of front, and they bear flat lozenges between two crosses at the back. See [Fig. 61].
The cornices of the interior, which really formed walks for the lamplighters, are made up of no regular combination of curves; they project steeply forward, the general slanting plane being little disturbed (A, [Fig. 60]); they are decorated with rows of acanthus, the curved tips of which catch the light in bright points. The cornice of aisle is given at B. We also give a profile of the door-head, which shows how the mouldings conform to a plane of least labour (C). By the jambs and heads being mitred together, the difficulty of working stop ends was also obviated. The mouldings are not sharp and accurate, as is suggested by Salzenberg’s engravings.
Fig. 61.—Closures between Pillars, Front of Gynaeceum.
We may mention here that all the doors entering the church from the narthex have raised marble thresholds, that of the Royal Door being a magnificent piece of verde antique which rises some seven inches above the level of the floor; the others are of white marble.
Windows, &c.—The pierced lattices of the windows also furnish examples of another beautiful method of marble slab construction. The large windows are subdivided by marble posts, between which the pierced lattices make a mere screen. Salzenberg, who found a store-room full of broken fragments, gives a section of a bar. Windows over the western entrances, and another at the foot of the south-west stair, which are similarly pierced out of sheet marble, have a simple meander carved on the bars ([Fig. 62]); this we suppose to be of the ninth or tenth century. The lower part of the window openings going down to the floors are filled with marble closures, some of which bear flat sculptured devices, such as a fish in a lozenge, and on the outside a cross; above this came a second tier of slabs pierced with square openings, which were possibly covered by marble slabs as opening casements.
Fig. 62.—Marble Window Lattice.
Some of these closures are translucent; one in the West Gallery over narthex is the well-known “Shining Window” which is mentioned by Grelot. These transparent slabs of “Phengites” were much used in Byzantine architecture. The transparent marble slab windows of S. Miniato are well known. At Ravenna there is a sculptured slab altarfront, through which shone the light of candles placed behind.
Fig. 63.—Cipollino Slabs with Cross.
Placed against the east side of the marble screen now in south gynaeceum are slabs of cipollino, which bear large crosses standing on circles; the relief being very slight and the edges softened these show in the faintest way; each cross extends over two slabs, the joint being down the middle. A similar slab with a cross is now placed in the opening on south side of bema. These cross slabs some seven feet high are beautiful examples of the proper use of marble. ([Fig. 63].)
Fig. 64.—Forms on Carved Impost Moulding.
Carving.—Of the carved ornament we can only stay to remark on the large use made of the drill in obtaining points and chains of sharp shadow: and that in the design new motives and old—the acanthus and the vine are found side by side, both equally alive. The acanthus has been redrawn from the leaves which tracery the stones along the shore; and even the archaic lotus, for centuries degraded into “egg and tongue,” buds once again into leaf.