| CHAPTER I. |
| Progress of the United States of America—Their resources—Discriminating
duties levied by France, 1820, against American ships—Rapid
rise of New Orleans, and of New York—Boston ships extend
their trade to India and China—Stephen Girard, the rich and eccentric
American shipowner, note—Mercantile marine laws of the
United States—Duties of master and mate—Provision for Seamen—Special
Acts relating to them—Power given to American consuls
to deal with seamen on their ships—Superiority of native American
seamen, owing to their education—Excellent schools and early
training for them—Spirit and character of the “Shipping Articles”
as affecting the seamen—the owners—and the master or consignee—Conditions
of wages, and remedies for their non-payment; and
other securities for seamen—Power of Appeal by them to the
Admiralty Courts—Laws with reference to pilots—Character of
American seamen, and especially of the New Englanders. |
| Pages [1]-[26] |
| CHAPTER II. |
| Necessity of proper education for merchant seamen—Practice in Denmark—In
Norway and Sweden—Russia and Prussia—France—Remarkable
care of seamen in Venice, Scuola di San Nicolo—Character
of this institution, and general working—Variously
modified since first creation—State since 1814—Qualifications of
Venetian shipmasters—Present regulations of Austria—Great
Britain—Need of a public institution for merchant seamen—The
“Belvidere” or Royal Alfred Aged Seaman’s Institution, note—Mr.
Williams, observations by, on the advantage of a general Seaman’s
Fund, note—Institution in Norway—Foreign Office circular of July 1,
1843—Its value, though unfair and one-sided—Replies to circular—Mr.
Consul Booker—Mr. Consul Baker—Mr. Consul Yeames—The
Consul at Dantzig—The Consuls of Genoa, Ancona, and Naples—Mr.
Consul Sherrard—Mr. Consul MacTavish—Mr. Consul Hesketh—Reports
from the Consuls in South America—General conclusions
of Mr. Murray, Nov. 22, 1847, and suggestions for remedies—Board
of Trade Commission, May 17, 1847—Its results—Shipowners condemned
for the character of their ships and officers—Views of
Government—Necessity of a competent Marine Department. |
| [27]-[52] |
| CHAPTER III. |
| High estimate abroad of English Navigation Laws—Change necessary,
owing to the Independence of America—Other nations at first Protectionist—Mr.
Pitt’s proposals with reference to trade with America—Mr.
Pitt resigns, and a temporary Act ensues—Shipowners and
loyalists in America successfully resist his scheme—Congress the
first to retaliate—Restrictions injurious, alike, to England and
her Colonies—Commercial treaties with America between 1794 and
1817—Acts of 1822 and 1823, and further irritation in America—Order
in Council, July 1826—Conciliatory steps of the Americans in
1830—Foreigners look with suspicion on any change in the Navigation
Laws—Reciprocity treaties of 1824-6—Value of treaties in
early times, but inadequate for the regulation of commercial intercourse,
and liable to unfair diplomacy—Reciprocity treaties only,
partially, of value, and do not check the anomalies of Protection—Committee
of 1844-5 promoted by the Shipowners, who seek protection
against Colonial shipping—Reciprocity must lead to free navigation—New
class of Statesmen, well supported by the People—Exertions
of Lord John Russell, who leads the way against Protection—Richard
Cobden and the Anti-Corn-Law League—John
Bright—Effect of the Irish famine, 1845-6—Sir Robert Peel carries
the Repeal of the Corn Laws, and resigns. |
| [53]-[80] |
| CHAPTER IV. |
| Lord John Russell’s first steps as Prime Minister: the Equalization of
the Sugar Duties—He suspends the Navigation Laws, January 1847—Mr.
Ricardo’s motion, February 1847—Reply of Mr. Liddell—Mr.
Ricardo’s motion carried—Committee appointed, February 1847—Meeting
of the shipowners, August 12, 1847—Their arguments—What
constitutes “British ships”—State of Navigation Laws in
1847—Rules in force in the Plantation Trade—Their rigorous
character—Their history from 1660 to 1847—First infringement of
the principle of confining the American trade to British vessels—Absurdity
and impotency of these laws—State of the law before the
Declaration of American Independence—Trade with Europe—Modifications
of the law—East India Trade and Shipping—Trade with
India in foreign and in United States ships even from English
ports—Coasting trade—Summary of the Navigation Laws. |
| [81]-[109] |
| CHAPTER V. |
| Progress of the changes in the Navigation Laws—Reciprocity Treaties—Austria,
July 1838—Zollverein States, August 1841—Russia, 1843—Various
anomalies, &c., then in existence—Curious effects of Registry
Laws, as regarded individuals or corporate bodies—Ship
Equador—Decision of the Queen’s Bench, December 1846—Further
details: owner to reside in the United Kingdom—Naturalisation of
goods brought to Europe—Waste of capital caused thereby; and
obstructions to trade—Story of the cochineal—But the Navigation
Laws not always to blame—Special views of the Canadians—Montreal,
its shipping and trade—Navigation of the St. Lawrence—Free-trade
with the United States desired by the farmers of Canada—Negotiations
proposed—Canadians urge the abolition of Protection—Views
of Western Canada—Canadians, really, only for partial Free-trade—Improvements
of their internal navigation—Welland Canal—Cost
of freight the real question—Loss to Canada by New York
line—General summary of results as to Canada—West Indians for
Free-trade as well as Canadians—Divergent views of capitalists at
home—Liverpool and Manchester opposed. |
| [110]-[135] |
| CHAPTER VI. |
| Witnesses examined by Mr. Ricardo’s Committee: Mr. J. S. Lefevre,
Mr. Macgregor, Mr. G. R. Porter—Their extreme views not conclusive
to the Committee—Evidence adduced by the Shipowners—Ships
built more cheaply abroad—Evidence of Mr. G. F. Young, and his
general conclusions—Mr. Richmond’s evidence—Asserts that shipping
is a losing trade—Replies to the charges against Shipowners—Views
as to captains of merchant ships—Praises their nautical skill and
capacity—His character of common seamen—Attacks Mr. Porter—Offers
valuable details of ship-building—Is prepared to go all lengths
in favour of Protection—His jealousy of the Northern Powers—Evidence
of Mr. Braysher, Collector of Customs in London—General
effect of the Navigation Laws on the Customs—With the Northern
Ports and America—Difficulty about “manufactured” articles—Anomalies
of the coasting and internal trade—Committee’s last
meeting, July 17—General dissatisfaction with the results of the
inquiry—Commercial panic and distress of 1847—Suspension of
Bank Charter Act. |
| [136]-[160] |
| CHAPTER VII. |
| New Parliament, November 18, 1847—Speech from Throne—Mr.
Robinson and Shipowners deceived—Conversation between Mr.
Bancroft and Lord Palmerston—Mr. Bancroft’s declaration—Official
letter from Mr. Bancroft to Lord Palmerston, November 3, 1847—Lord
Palmerston’s reply, November 17, practically giving prior
information to the Americans—Lord Clarendon tells the Shipowners’
Society that the laws will not be altered, December 26, 1846; and
repeats this assurance, March 15, 1847—Interview between Lord
Palmerston and Mr. Bancroft, published in ‘Washington Union’—Excites
great indignation when known in England, January 1848—Parliament
re-assembles, February 3, 1848—Lord Palmerston admits
the correspondence with America—The Earl of Hardwicke’s proposal,
February 25, 1848—Earl Grey grants a Committee—Evidence
of the Shipowners before the Lords’ Committee—Mr. Young proposes
some modifications, the first concessions of the Anti-Repeal Party—Claim
in favour of direct voyages—Government insists on Total
Repeal—Detailed views of Admiral Sir George Byam Martin—Importance
of keeping up the merchant navy—Arguments from his
personal experience as to its value as a nursery for seamen—Working
of the system of apprenticeship, and of impressment—Evidence
of Admiral Berkeley, and of Mr. R. B. Minturn—Details
about American ships—Reciprocity treaties so far as they affect
Americans—Their whale fishery. |
| [161]-[190] |
| CHAPTER VIII. |
| Motion of Mr. Herries, 1848—Protectionist principles stated—Extent
of shipping trade—National defences endangered—Mr. Labouchere’s
reply—Alderman Thompson—Mr. Gladstone’s views—Mr. Hudson—Lord
George Bentinck—Mr. Hume—Mr. Cobden—Mr. Disraeli—Sir
Robert Peel—The resolution carried by 117, but abandoned for
a time—Temper of the Shipowners—Efforts of Ministers to obtain
reciprocity by a circular from the Foreign Office—Reply thereto of
America—Mr. Buchanan’s letter—Reply of other Powers—Progress
of Free-trade views—Parliament of 1849—Death of Lord George
Bentinck, September 21, 1848—Mr. Labouchere’s new resolution,
February 14, 1849—Proposed change in coasting trade—Mr. Bancroft
recalcitrates—Hence, withdrawal of the coasting clauses—The debate—Alderman
Thompson, &c.—Mr. Ricardo—Meeting of Shipowners’
Society—Their report—The manning-clause grievance—Policy proposed—Agitation
in the country. |
| [191]-[229] |
| CHAPTER IX. |
| The debate, March 1849—Speech of Mr. Herries—Mr. J. Wilson—Question
of reciprocity—Doubtful even in the case of shipping—Difficulty
of the “Favoured-nation” clause—Marquess of Granby—Mr.
Cardwell—Mr. Henley—Mr. Gladstone—Burdens to be removed
from Shipowners—Conditional legislation recommended—Views
on the subject of the coasting trade—Americans not Free-traders—Smuggling
in the coasting trade—Mr. Robinson—Mr. Clay—Mr.
T. A. Mitchell—Mr. Hildyard—Mr. Ricardo—Mr. H. Drummond—Mr.
Labouchere’s reply—Majority of 56 for Bill—Committee
on the Bill—Coasting clauses withdrawn—Mr. Bouverie’s amendment
opposed by Shipowners’ Committee—Mr. Gladstone’s scheme
also opposed by the Shipowners—Questions of reciprocity, conditional
legislation, and retaliation—Details of American Law—Mr.
Bouverie’s plan rejected—Mr. Disraeli’s speech—Third reading of
Bill—Mr. Herries’ speech—Mr. Robinson—Mr. Walpole—Sir James
Graham—Mr. T. Baring—Lord J. Russell—Mr. Disraeli—Majority
for Bill, 61. |
| [230]-[263] |
| CHAPTER X. |
| Debate in the Lords, May 7, 1849, on second reading—Speech of the
Marquess of Lansdowne—Lord Brougham—Condemnation of Mr.
Porter’s statistics—Protected and unprotected Trade—Voyages to
the Continent—Napoleon’s desire for ships, colonies, and commerce—Earl
Granville—Earl of Ellenborough—Increase of foreign peace
establishments—Earl of Harrowby—Earl Grey—Lord Stanley—Admits
need of modifications—Canada not our only colony—Majority
for the Bill, 10—Duke of Wellington votes for it—Proceedings and
debate in Committee—Lord Stanley’s amendment—Rejected by 13—Earl
of Ellenborough’s amendment—Claims of Shipowners, and
fear of competition—Amendment rejected by a majority of 12—Bill
read a third time—Timber duties, &c., admitted to be grievances—Lord
Stanley’s protest—Royal assent given, June 26—Coasting trade
thrown open, 1854—Americans, October 1849, throw open all
except their coasting trade. |
| [264]-[286] |
| CHAPTER XI. |
| Despondency of many shipowners after the repeal of the Navigation
Laws—Advantage naturally taken by foreigners, and especially by
the Americans—Jardine and Co. build vessels to compete with the
Americans—Aberdeen “clippers”—Shipowners demand the enforcement
on foreign nations of reciprocity—Return of prosperity to the
Shipowners—Act of 1850 for the improvement of the condition of
seamen—Valuable services of Mr. T. H. Farrer—Chief conditions of
the Act of 1850—Certificates of examination—Appointment of local
marine boards, and their duties—Further provisions of the Act of
1850—Institution of Naval Courts abroad—Special inspectors to be
appointed by the Board of Trade, if need be—Act of 1851, regulating
Merchant Seaman’s Fund, &c.—Merchant Shipping Act, 1854—New
measurement of ships—Registration of ships—The “Rule of the Sea”—Pilots
and pilotage—Existing Mercantile Marine Fund—Wrecks—Limitation
of the liability of Shipowners—Various miscellaneous
provisions—Act of 1855. |
| [287]-[321] |
| CHAPTER XII. |
| Parliamentary inquiry, 1854-5, on Passenger ships—Heavy losses at
sea previously, and especially in 1854—Emigration system—Frauds
practised on emigrants—Runners and crimps—Remedies proposed—Average
price, then, of passages—Emigration officer—Medical inspection—American
emigration law—Dietary, then, required—Disgraceful
state of emigrant ships at that time—Act of 1852—Resolution of
New York Legislature, 1854—Evidence as to iron cargoes—Various
attempts at improvement—Legislation in the United States, 1855—Uniformity
of action impossible—English Passenger Act, 1855—Attempt
to check issue of fraudulent tickets—General improvements—Merchant
Shipping Act discussed—Extent of owner’s liability—Unnecessary
outcry of the Shipowners—Question of limited liability—Value
of life—Powers given to the Board of Trade—Mode of procedure
in inquiries about loss of life—Further complaints of the
Shipowners, who think too much discretion has been given to the
Emigration officer—Though slightly modified since, the principle of
the Passenger Act remains the same—the “Rule of the road at sea”—Examination
now required for engineers as well as masters of
steam vessels—Injurious action of the crimps—Savings-banks for seamen
instituted, and, somewhat later, money-order offices. |
| [322]-[351] |
| CHAPTER XIII. |
| Scarcity of shipping at the commencement of the Crimean War—Repeal
of the manning clause—Government refuses to issue letters
of marque—Great increase of ship-building and high freights—Reaction—Transport
service (notes)—Depression in the United
States—The Great Republic—Disastrous years of 1857 and 1858—Many
banks stop payment—Shipowners’ Society still attribute their
disasters to the repeal of the Navigation Laws—Meeting of Shipowners,
December 15th, 1858—Their proposal—Resolution moved
by Mr. G. F. Young—Mr. Lindsay moves for Committee of Inquiry—Well-drawn
petition of the Shipowners—Foreign governments and
the amount of their reciprocity—French trade—Spanish trade—Portuguese
trade—Belgian trade—British ships in French and
Spanish ports—Coasting trade—Non-reciprocating countries—Presumed
advantage of the Panama route—Question discussed—Was
the depression due to the withdrawal of Protection?—Board of
Trade report and returns—English and foreign tonnage—Sailing
vessels and steamers in home and foreign trades—Shipping accounts,
1858—Foreign and Colonial trades—Probable causes of the depression
in England and America—American jealousy and competition—Inconclusive
reasoning of Board of Trade—Government proposes
to remove burdens on British shipping—Compulsory reciprocity
no longer obtainable—Real value of the Coasting trade of the United
States—Magnanimity of England in throwing open her Coasting
trade unconditionally not appreciated by the Americans. |
| [352]-[385] |
| CHAPTER XIV. |
| Further returns of the Board of Trade, and address of the Shipowners’
Society to the electors, 13th April, 1859—Shipowners’ meeting in
London—Character of the speeches at it—Mr. Lindsay proposes an
amendment—Effect of the war between France and Austria—Mr.
Lindsay moves for an inquiry into the burdens on the Shipping
Interest, 31st January, 1860—Report of the Committee thereon—Views
with regard to foreign countries—The Netherlands—The
United States—Generally unsatisfactory state of the intercourse with
foreign nations—The present depression beyond the influence of
Government—General results of Steamers versus Sailing Vessels—The
Committee resists the plan of re-imposing restrictions on the
Colonial Trade—Difficulty of enforcing reciprocity—Want of energy
on the part of the English Foreign Office—Rights of belligerents—Privateering
abolished in Europe; America, however, declining to
accept this proposal—Views of the Committee thereon, and on the
liability of Merchant Shipping—Burden of light dues—Pilotage Charges
made by local authorities now, generally, abolished, as well
as those of the Stade dues—The report of 1860, generally, accepted
by the Mercantile Marine—Magnificent English Merchant Sailing
vessels, 1859-1872—The Thermopylæ—Sir Lancelot and others—Americans
completely outstripped—Equal increase in the number as
well as the excellence of English shipping—Results of the Free-trade
policy. |
| [386]-[421] |
| CHAPTER XV. |
| First Navigation Law in France, A.D. 1560—Law of Louis XIV., 1643,
revised by Colbert, 1661—Its chief conditions—Regulations for the
French Colonial trade—Slightly modified by the Treaties of Utrecht,
1713, and of 1763, in favour of England—Provisions of 1791 and
1793—Amount of charges enforced—French and English Navigation
Laws equally worthless—“Surtaxes de Pavillon” and “d’Entrepôt”—“Droits
de Tonnage”—Special exemption of Marseilles—French
Colonial system preserved under all its Governments, but greatly to
the injury of her people—English Exhibition of 1851—Messrs. Cobden
and Chevalier meet first there, and ultimately, in 1860, carry the
Commercial Treaty—The French, heavy losers by maintaining their
Navigation Laws—Decline of French shipping—Mr. Lindsay visits
France, and has various interviews with the Emperor, Messrs. Rouher
and Chevalier on this subject—Commission of Inquiry appointed,
and Law ultimately passed May 1866—Its conditions—Repeal Act
unsatisfactory to the French Shipowners—Another Commission of
Inquiry appointed, 1870—Views of rival parties—M. de Coninck—M.
Bergasse—M. Siegfried—M. Thiers and Protection carry the day,
and reverse, in 1872, much of the law of 1866—Just views of the
Duke Decazes—Abolition for the second time of the “Surtaxes de
Pavillon,” July 1873. |
| [422]-[462] |
| CHAPTER XVI. |
| Recent legislation relating to the loss of life and property at sea in
British vessels—Committee on shipwrecks, 1836—Estimated loss of
life at sea between 1818 and 1836—Recommendations of the Committee—Committee
of 1843, loss of lives and ships at that period—First
official return of wrecks, 1856—Loss of lives and ships, 1862
and 1873—Further recommendations—Various laws for the protection
of seamen, 1846 to 1854—Agitation about “unseaworthy ships,”
1855—Further provisions for the benefit of seamen, 1867-69-70—Mr.
Samuel Plimsoll, M.P.—His first resolution, 1870—Introduces a
Bill, 1871—Government measure of that year—Mr. Plimsoll publishes
a book, ‘Our Seamen,’ 1873—An extension of the principle applied
to testing chain-cables strongly urged—Mr. Plimsoll moves an
Address for a Commission of Inquiry, which was unanimously
granted—Royal Commission on unseaworthy ships 1873-74—Its
members—Their order of reference—And mode of thorough investigation—Their
reports—Load-line—Deck loads—Government survey—Its
extension undesirable—Shipowners already harassed by over-legislation—Mode
of inquiry into losses at sea, examined and condemned—Recommendations—Examination
of masters and mates,
and shipping officers approved—Power of masters—Scheme for
training boys for sea—Marine Insurances—Report as a whole most
valuable. |
| [463]-[501] |
| CHAPTER XVII. |
| Loose statements with regard to the loss of life at sea, and other
matters—“Coffin ships”—Great improvement of our ships and
officers in recent years—Duties of the Board of Trade with regard to
wrecks—Return of lives lost and saved between 1855 and 1873, note—Wreck
chart; but the extent of loss not sufficiently examined—Danger
of too much Government interference—Loss of life in proportion
to vessels afloat—Causes of loss—More details required—Improvement
in lighthouses, buoys, and beacons—Harbours of
Refuge—Extraordinary scene in the House of Commons on the withdrawal
of the Merchant Shipping Bill, 1875—Another Bill introduced
by Government—Its conditions—Unusual personal power granted
to Surveyors—Propriety or not, of further legislation considered—Compulsory
load-line—Mr. J. W. A. Harper’s evidence—Mr. W. J.
Lamport and others—Opinion of the Commissioners—Voluntary
load-line—Its value questionable—All ships should be certified as
seaworthy—How can this be accomplished?—Opinion of Mr. Charles
McIver, note—Registration Associations—Lloyd’s Register, its great
importance—Improvement of seamen by better education—Evil
effects of advance notes, confirmed by the opinion of the Commissioners—Over-insurance—Views
of Mr. T. H. Farrer—Evidence of
other witnesses—Opinion of the Commissioners—Too much legislation
already—The necessity of a Mercantile Marine Code, and more
prompt punishment in criminal cases—Concluding remarks on the
extraordinary progress of British shipping, and the dangers of over-legislation. |
| [502]-[559]
|