Japan

by Walter G. Dickson

THE KOONGAY

After the Emperor and royal families, the first in rank in the state are the Koongays. Until further light be thrown upon Japanese history, the remote origin of this class will be somewhat obscure, some tracing their pedigree back upward of 1,500 years. Many of the Koongays are descendants of younger sons and cadets of the imperial family branching off at former periods, while the surnames of some of the other families are as old as historic records. In all probability their forefathers came over to Japan at the time of its invasion and conquest by Zinmu, and being the assistants, brothers in arms, and mainstays of his throne and power, the soil about the center of the empire was divided among them, and they thenceforward became the nobility of the court of the Emperor. So long as the empire was under one emperor who ruled vigorously, this aristocracy seems to have existed in the central provinces as feudal lords, much in the same way as the Daimios of the present day. But when the vigor of rule relaxed, and power fell into the hands of a commander-in-chief, or mayor of the palace, with uncertainty in the rulers, there followed division in the aristocracy. Previous to the beginning of the fifteenth century, the western part of the empire was all that was known to any who could throw light upon its position by writing. The large tract of country to the north and northeast of Yedo, called the obscure or unpenetrated way, was comparatively unknown and uninhabited, and was divided into four or five large territories, under princes who seldom heard of, and more rarely visited, the court at Miako. The dissensions and struggles for power between the two powerful families of Heji and Genji gave rise to a nearly continual state of civil war for upward of 200 years. During the Onin war families were destroyed, territories were lost, might was everywhere right, and though several of the oldest and noblest families among the Koongays retained their honors and titles and places about the court, they lost their property, and many have ever since remained at the lowest ebb of poverty.

Those few noble families which had previously to this period of civil war divided among themselves the places and titles of the court, were denuded of their splendor; but their representatives continued to struggle on with poverty, proud in the possession of an ancient lineage, and of their names being enrolled as nobles in the Great Book of the empire. These are the Koongays of the present day. They are not all in this state of poverty, many of them being well off, and some very wealthy; but others are very poor, and eke out the scanty subsistence given them by the Emperor by painting, basket-making, and other manual employments, affording, in their persons, their poverty, and their pretensions, ample scope for the pen of the native caricaturist. The names, history, and pedigree of the Koongays are enrolled in the Great Book of the empire, the equivalent to the Heralds’ Office or Patent Office of England. A book, the “Koongay no Kayzu,” or Pedigree of the Koongays, is printed in Japan, giving all these particulars, and is generally by the natives considered authentic. The names of Daimios (as such) are not so enrolled; they have no patents of nobility from the Emperor, and the “Hang campu,” giving the pedigree and history of the families of Daimios, is regarded as anything but authentic, and is looked upon as in many cases made up by individuals to conceal the origin of the family.

The Koongay class includes all the illustrious families of Japan. In common estimation the Daimios are far below this class; and even the Shiogoon, though he is feared as the head of the executive, is looked upon as comparatively a parvenu.

The class is divided into two, an older or higher, the “Koongio,” and a lower, or more recently created, “Ten jio bito” (Tien shang jin). “Koongio” (Kung hiang) is a name which includes all the officers of the first, second and third ranks. All of the fourth rank and below are called “So shing,” in which are included “Ten jio bito,” “Sho diabu,” and “Samurai.” The appellation “Mayka” (ming kia) seems to denote that the bearer is a civilian. All the higher offices in the state are filled by Koongays, but only five families are eligible to fill the highest. These five families are known as the “Go sek kay” (Wu ship kia), or “Shippay kay,” or “Sessio no eeyay,” helper of emperor—lit., to take the handle—“the five assisting families.” They are: 1, Konoyay; 2, Koojio; 3, Nijio; 4, Itchijio; 5, Takatskasa. If the highest offices under the Emperor (as those of “Dai jio dai jin,” “Kwanbakku,” or “Sessio”) be vacant, no one who is not of one of these five families is eligible to fill such office.

In regard to rank at court, the Koongays generally stand in the lower class of the first, or in the second or third rank. They are known at Miako by their dress. For a long time past they have had little power, and were of little importance; but since the commencement of foreign relations the political tide has rather flowed toward Miako, and from Yedo, and they have increased in political power as well as in wealth, as the Daimios and office-seekers of Yedo endeavor to obtain the objects of their ambition through the influence of their poorer brethren in Miako. The poverty of most of the class prevents their entering upon an enervating life of dissipation, which too often saps the vigor of the constitution of the Daimios, and they are able to take a part in the discussion of political subjects. Many of them fill the more or less nominal offices of government in one of the eight great boards of the empire; and this amount of occupation, together with writing imaginative pieces, keeps their minds in a sufficient state of activity.

In addition to the distinctions of rank in Japan, there is also the distinction into families or clans, great importance being attached to a family name. The feuds between rival families have in past times rent the empire to pieces. The Emperor is said to have no name; but some of the cadets, offshoots from the imperial line, have founded lines of their own, taking root and flourishing as distinct families. In this way have been derived the lines known as the “Say wa Genji,” the “Ooda Genji,” and the “Murakami Genji.” These are descendants of younger sons of emperors of these names. But among all the families of Japan, the first place is held by that of Fusiwara, in length of pedigree, in the honors held in past ages, and in the present position of the family. During every period in the annals of the empire, members of this family have filled the highest offices, civil and military, of the state. But it has, perhaps, shone more in civil employment than in military. The “five families” of the Sekkay mentioned above belong to the clan Fusiwara. Other families have risen at different times to the highest pinnacle attainable by subjects, but after a time they have gradually fallen back into comparative obscurity. Ninety-five of the Koongays call themselves of the clan Fusiwara. In very remote periods the family of Nakatomi seems to have held the highest rank, absorbing by its members, at one time, all the offices of religion. Only one Koongay family, Fusinami, now represents this old clan. In point of antiquity, if not of luster of name, the Sungawara family, commonly called Kwang kay, ranks second only to Fusiwara. The members of this family are rarely found in military employment, generally filling the offices of teachers or lecturers on history or religion.

The “Gen kay,” otherwise called “Minnamoto,” are more illustrious as military men. Seventeen families of the Koongays belong to this clan. All the Minnamoto Koongays are descended from younger sons of former emperors. One of these, the “Say wa” Minnamoto, assert that their line is the same as that of the present imperial dynasty of China, who are descendants of the Emperor Say wa, or “Tsing wa,” whence the “Tsing” or “Ta Tsing” family, which emigrated from the north of Japan several centuries ago.

The Taira, or He kay, the great opponent of the Gen kay (otherwise known as Heji and Genji) during many years of civil war, includes five families.

Nishika koji, of the Tanba clan, is said to represent one of the emperors of China of the Eastern Han dynasty, who was driven from China and took refuge in Japan.

A new creation of Koongays is very rare. About 1830, Kitta koji (of the clan Oway), whose family for three generations had filled the office of Kurodo, was elevated to the rank.

The names of Koongays are, in many cases, derived from the street or place where they originally lived, as Itchi jio, No. 1 Street.

There are in all 137 Koongays.

There is assigned to each Koongay an annual revenue calculated in koku of rice. This, in most cases, implies so much ground held of the Emperor. The total sum divided among these noble families does not amount to that allowed to a third-rate Daimio. But though several of these nobles are miserably poor, and have probably little to live upon besides the rice which is given them by the Emperor, there are some among them who have other sources of wealth. In old times the Koongays possessed large landed property; but in the wars of the He kay and Gen kay, Kiomori, the leader of the former, despoiled them, and the divided portions of these lands were seized by whoever had the power. Some still retain extensive landed property, but the majority have fixed salaries, which they receive at the Emperor’s hands. Residing near the court, and often connected with the Emperor and high officers by marriage, the poorest may possess some influence, and this frequently contributes to swell their incomes. This influence is courted by the Daimios at a distance, who, aspiring to rank or titles, purchase the assistance and influence of the Koongays, such as it may be, by solid presents. The higher class, who really have much power, in this way become very rich. The little land which belongs to them may, by taxes, duties, or customs, produce much more than the exact number of koku of the original calculation. Thus the seaport town of Itami stands on the ground of Konoyay dono, and he levies a tax upon the exports and imports; and, in addition to the customs, he receives the duties upon all the saki or spirit distilled between the towns of Hiogo and Osaka, and this is the great distilling district for the whole country. Having acquired money, he lends it out at Oriental rates of interest to the Daimios, who are too often in need of ready money, so that he is a very wealthy man. The Koongays have not the large expenses which drain the purses of the Daimios; having comparatively few retainers, they are not obliged to make the ostentatious display which brings the Daimios to poverty; nor have they the same number of establishments to keep up at different places. All this contributes to make the upper class of Koongays, already powerful by rank, position and influence, substantial in their independence. The poorer class eke out their existence in a variety of ways, honorable enough, but not contributing much in the way of worldly wealth. Assukayee teaches playing at “mari,” a sort of football, which is a fashionable game at court, and which is probably derived from the Chinese shuttlecock, varied according to the difference in the style of boots and shoes. In playing at this game in Miako, the court turns out in gorgeous dresses. Jimio-in and others teach writing. Sono dono teaches the science of dwarfing trees and the art of arranging flowers in flower-holders. At both of these the Japanese excel. In the former they display a wonderful power over nature, and in the latter a highly cultivated taste. A fir-tree has been seen in perfect vigor, bearing a cone, and eight years old, and only an inch in height. Rayzay teaches poetry and composition. Sijio dono teaches the art of dressing dinners and cookery, which is considered in Japan the occupation of a gentleman. When an artist has prepared a dinner, and laid it out, it is common for the public to go to see it as a work of art. Yamashima and Takakura superintend and teach the art of dressing and of etiquette. Tsutchi Mikado teaches and explains what is known in China as the “Ta kih,” the ultimate cause of things, the immaterial principle of the Chinese philosophers, as contained in and exemplified by a series of diagrams; and, as an astrologer, divines into futurity. Others paint, and sell their works of art, or teach painting. The poorer individuals who receive rice also get the Emperor’s cast-off outer garments. Their daughters are in the habit of going to the families of the Daimios as governesses (and are commonly known by the name of “jorosama”), to teach the young ladies and gentlemen the customs and language of the court. Of these ladies there are generally one or more at the residence of the Shiogoon in Yedo. They sometimes act in the capacity of spies as well as of governesses; and, having much influence, they are sometimes feared as censores morum.

Under the five Go sekkay nearly all the Koongays are classed into five divisions; and in his relation to his head, each Koongay is known as “Monrio” or “Sorio”—one division under each of the five.

If any of those in a position of Monrio have any business with the court, such must be dispatched through his head, who then communicates with the Emperor.

It has been shown that the Sin wo and sons of the imperial families are provided for by absorption into the higher offices of the priesthood, and to fill the seats in, and receive the revenues of, the richer abbeys and monasteries. In a similar way the sons of the Go sekkay and higher Koongays (known as Kindatchi) are provided for. There are six richly-endowed temples whose revenues are respectively enjoyed by a member of one of these families. These men are known by the name of “Sekkay Monzekke.”

If a Daimio happens to meet the norimono or sedan-chair of a Koongay upon the highroad, he must wait with all his retinue till the latter shall have passed. Koongays usually blacken their teeth and shave the eyebrows, and do not follow the usual custom in shaving the head. Civilians do not carry a sword; military carry one called “tatchi.” In ordinary times a Koongay is not likely to be put to death, however great may be his crimes; but he may be ordered to shave his head and enter a monastery, or may be confined to a room in his own house.

It is not easy to ascertain what was the exact position of the Koongays in the times before the great civil wars of the thirteenth and following centuries. The empire seems to have been divided at that time very much as it is now, into one large central court at the metropolis, with a number of smaller courts in the provinces, each ruled by its lord, king, Daimio, or dynasta, as they have been called. The court of the Emperor always remained at Miako. There he was surrounded by the members of the old families, among whom he distributed honors. There was to be seen a supposed prefect form of government, the history of which is written in the “Annals.” Probably in each of the lesser courts—such, for instance, as that of Satsuma, Mowori, and other wealthy lords—the same form of government was carried on in a miniature scale; and, so far as can be gathered from history and native historical maps, the extensive territories belonging to these lords were always under the entire rule each of its own master, and acknowledging no right in the central court (so long as that master did not in any way come into collision with the general good of the empire) to interfere in any way with what passed within these territories. The imperial court, in its executive form, was confined to the provinces around Miako—the Gokinai. The annals of the Emperors are devoted in the main to the occurrences which took place within these provinces, detailing the names and families, the titles, ranks, and history of the men who in that court were looked upon as great and eminent. Of these, the more prominent were brought forward and advanced by the Emperor in hereditary rank and title above their fellows—these were the Koongays; while the territorial lords were only known by their family names, or the name of the provinces over which they ruled, and were only expected to come once a year to Miako, in order to pay their respects to the Emperor. It is not to be expected but that differences would arise among these territorial lords, some more or less powerful; ambition and lust of wealth or power would soon find a cause for a quarrel, and this would light up a civil war. In such cases, the Emperor and the officers of the imperial court were looked to as the arbiters or umpires, and acquired and retained so firm a position in the machinery of the State and in the minds of the people as to withstand all the shocks which have at different times so frequently and rudely put one down and set up another of these provincial powers.

CHAPTER II
THE EIGHT BOARDS OF GOVERNMENT

Having given above a sketch of the ranks eligible in old times to fill the offices of government, a step will be gained by obtaining some insight into the means by which that government was carried on. The arrangements are of very ancient date, and seem to have been more or less in actual use until the separation of the empire into two at the end of the sixteenth century. At that time the executive department of the empire was entirely removed to Yedo, but the shadow or the skeleton of the defunct body was allowed to remain in Miako. The offices which had of old conferred power, and demanded exertion in fulfilling the duties, were now only empty names—honorific appellations; the power of conferring these nominal offices being all that remained to the Emperor of his former greatness. Still the retention of the power has not been without its use. Though the actual power has been in the hands of the Shiogoon, the hopes of the people and of the Emperor have ever turned toward its ultimate re-establishment at Miako, in a machinery all ready at any moment to take up the duties of government.

At the period when the government of Japan was settled, many of the institutions of China seem to have been copied or transferred by the founders of the empire. This must have occurred at a very early period in its history. While the original model has been followed, modifications have from time to time been introduced to meet the varying exigencies of the country. But perhaps nothing points more strongly to a Chinese origin for the ruling ranks of Japan than the early adoption of this form of government. As in China six boards are found at Pekin, so in Japan eight boards are found at Miako. The names of these boards or departments, the titles of the officials, the ranks of the subordinate officers, are all found under Chinese names.

Klaproth has given in his “Annals of the Emperors” a sketch of these eight boards, with the offices under each. It is probably taken from the “Shoku gen sho,” a little work written in the year 1340 by Kitta Batake Chikafusa, and in use at the present day as a concise account of the government of Japan.

The study of such a subject is rather dry and uninteresting, but it is necessary for any one who wishes to make himself acquainted with Japanese history, either of the past or of the present day, to read and understand this book. What here follows is only a rough sketch with a little further filling in. In what may be called the preface to the “Shoku gen sho”—a slight historical introduction—the author says: “We gather from old records, that in the time of Sui ko (the first Empress), in the twelfth year of her reign, A.D. 605, Sho toku, being prime minister, settled twelve grades of officers. Afterward, the Emperor Kwo toku, in the fifth year of his reign (A.D. 650), divided the country into eight provinces (or divided the government into eight departments), and definitely fixed the offices. Subsequently, in the first year of the Emperor Mun moo (A.D. 697), Fusiwara no tan kaiko Kamatariko (canonized as Kassunga dia mio jin) was appointed great minister, and by him laws were made and the officers and nobles were appointed. At one time the numbers were greatly diminished, and again they were increased, and fresh officers, ‘uncommissioned,’ got employment. But the ministers, the ‘Nai dai jin’ and the ‘Chiu nagoon,’ existed before the first year of Mun moo. But authentic records of that period do not remain in existence at the present time. In old times there was a separate office of religion known as the ‘Jin ngi kwang’ or ‘Kami no tskasa,’ answering to the ‘Ta chang sz’ in China. The two officers who superintended the rites in worship of the gods were above all other officers. This was the pristine custom in the kingdom of spirits (Japan), arising from the reverence paid to the gods of heaven and the spirits of earth.

“In the earliest times the Emperor Zinmu established the capital within the bounds of the province of Yamato, at Kashiwarra. At that time, in the beginning, Ten shio dai shin (the heaven-illuminating spirit) came down and placed three things—a ball or seal, an eight-cubit mirror, and a grass-shaving sword—in the palace, on the throne of the Emperor, which received homage such as was offered in early times. The efficacy of the spirit was great, so that the Emperor dwelling with the spirit was, as it were, equal to a god. Within the palace these three emblems were placed in safety, that it might be said that where these are there is divine power. At this time two high officers, ‘Ama no koya ne no mikoto’ and ‘Ama no tane ko mikoto,’ regulated the sacrificial rites and court ceremonies, until the time of the Emperor Soui-zin (97-30 B.C.), who, fearing the majesty of the divinity, took away these three efficacious symbols, the sword and the seal and the mirror, and put them elsewhere (i.e., in a palace he built at Miako); which was the origin of the idea of the Emperor’s sitting like a god in the place of a god.

“In the reign of Swee nin (A.D. 29-70) the great spirit Tenshio, or Ten shio dai jin, descended upon the province of Isse (when the Emperor measured and divided that province), and that Emperor built and endowed the temple or yashiro of Isse. This is the most sacred temple in the empire.

“At that time the O nakatomi family were hereditary officers of religion, and of rites of worship.

“After the officers of state had been appointed, the officers of the Jin ngi kwang, or spiritual department, were settled. Originally the Jin ngi kwang was the highest department of all. The temple built by the Emperor at Isse had separate officers of worship, and as to duties, both regulated worship; the offices were similar in their origin and character, but the department of religion was of the highest importance. Therefore, in the kingdom of spirits (i.e., Japan) these officers of religion ranked above all other officers. At that time a man of the fourth rank could be an officer of religion, but now it is confined to the second and third ranks. Formerly, any one was considered capable of filling the office, Nakatomi or other; but in the middle ages, since the time of the Emperor Kwa sann, it became hereditary in the family of his son, and no other family could fill the office; and it has since been filled by the members of the royal family.

“Originally the name Nakatomi designated an office. When one of the holders was made Oodai jin, he added O (great) to his title; but his descendants did not use the title, therefore they are simply called Nakatomi.”

Such is the introduction to the “Book of the Government of the Empire.” What follows is the names of the different offices, and ranks of officers, whether civil or military, stating what rank is eligible to hold each office, what offices can be held in conjunction by the same person, together with the Chinese equivalent of each title wherever it can be given.

Every office in Japan is divided into four—a head and three subordinates. The head is called by various titles, Kio, Kami, Tayu, Daiboo, etc. The highest subordinate is called Skay or Ske—in Chinese, Tsu—to assist or help; or Kai, to attend upon; also Tso, to assist: all three characters are used. The next is Jo—Chinese, Shing, to assist—deputy. The clerks are called Sakkan—Chinese, Shuh—attached to as a tail, dependent on. Each of these may be subdivided into great and small, Dai and Sho; and further, frequently into sa and oo—i.e., left and right. Besides these official grades, the title of Gong, or Gonno, is found. This seems to be an honorific title, and is generally conferred by the Emperor upon Koongays and persons about his own court. It seems to mean honorary substitute or deputy, and is added or prefixed to another title. This is the word K’ün in Chinese, with the meaning of power, balance, temporary substitute.

With these explanations it may be possible to understand the titles and descriptions of offices and officers given in the Shoku gen sho.

The first or highest office was that of religion, or board of rites, the Jin ngi kwang (shin k’i kwan), the office of the worship of spirits. This office, at first entirely for regulation of the Sinto religion, was rendered unnecessary by the introduction of Buddhism, and has been practically done away with—the higher titles and larger emoluments being absorbed by the younger sons of royal families, while the working part of the board has been joined with the highest board, Dai jo gwang.

The Dai jo gwang, or Matsuri koto tskasa, is the great office of government. This is the “cabinet,” and is over and superintends the eight boards and the affairs of the whole empire. The chief of the department is the Dai jo dai jin—the great minister of the whole government. He is also called Sho koku. This office is not always filled up. The holder is in settled times nearly invariably one of the “five families.” This is the highest office in the state, and was commenced by the Emperor Ten shi, who conferred it on his son. When this office is vacant, the next in rank, the Sa dai jin (left great minister) is highest official in point of rank. The highest subject generally receives at the Emperor’s hands the title of Kwanbakku, first given A.D. 880. The Kwanbakku is always near the Emperor’s person, and not engaged so much as others on public business. If the sovereign be a minor or a female, a regent is appointed, who is naturally the most powerful subject in the empire. He is named Sessio, or Setz jio, helper of the government. When such a regent is appointed for a young Empress, it is generally intended that he is to marry her, and become Emperor. The Kwanbakku was, in old times, called Omurazi. He is frequently spoken of as Denga sama. The Dai jo dai jin is commonly known as Sho koku, the Sa dai jin as Sa foo sama, Oo dai jin as Eoo foo sama, Nai dai dai jin as Nai or Dai foo sama. There may be only one of the three titles, Dai jio dai jin, Kwanbakku, or Sessio, conferred at a time; but whoever holds it is known to be the highest official, and he may have all three titles at the same time. The office of Dai jio dai jin has frequently remained vacant for lengthened periods.

In the Dai jio gwang there are four ministers. Dai jin means great minister, and the prefix of Sa is left, of Oo is right. In Japan the left generally takes precedence. And these four stand in this relation to one another. The first three are known as the “Sanko,” or three exalted ones. There is another officer, that of Nai dai jin, inner or middle great minister. This office is filled up if there be no Dai jio dai jin; but if otherwise it remains in abeyance.

Since 1780 the Shiogoon has generally been elevated to be Oodai jin or Sadai jin.

The next officer below the Oodai jin is the Dai na goon. There are ten of them. They act with the Sanko in the Dai jo gwang office. They seem to be the mouthpieces to and from the board, and in consultation with the board. They are generally Koongays. But some of the highest Daimios are competent for the office, Owarri, Kishiu, and Mito.

The Chiu (or middle) na goon—ten officers of much lower rank than the last—never deliberate with the board, but are consulted after or before. They are generally Koongays.

The Sangi (Ts’an i), also called Sei sho and Gisso (I tsau), is a very important office—eight officers. They are of high rank (above the last), and are chosen for their talent for the office. This seems to be to report upon the proceedings and conclusions of the other officers of the board; to watch and also advise, and sometimes to act as judges. They are both civil and military. If a man has shown himself qualified for this office he may rise to it, though not originally of high rank.

The Sho (or lesser) nagoon are much below the above officers in rank. They are said to help the memories of the principal officers, to put seals to deeds, and carry communications to other boards: they are both military and civil.

Gayki or Kwanmu—five officers who act as secretaries to one of the three officers of the Dai jo ngwang. Divided into great and small, Dai and Sho, gayki; the head man is called Kioo ku mu. The duties consist in writing out the patents and titles conferred by the Mikado. In cases of dispute between high officers, they seem to write out a statement of the case on both sides for the decision of the board. They look after any newly-introduced business, such as introduction of foreigners to the country.

Ben-gwang, seven officers, all Koongay—a higher office than the preceding. Two head men, left and right, Sa and Oo dai ben. This is a very responsible office; all the business of the board passes through the hands of the officers. They superintend and set apart to each of the minor offices their business.

Sa chiu ben and Oo chiu ben, two men.

Sa sho ben and Oo sho ben, two men.

These are subordinates in the office, but men of rank.

Gonno ben. This is an honorific title, giving high rank, but having no business or duties to perform.

The Ben-gwang officers are always in their handsome official dress, and are at once recognizable on the street.

Shi, eight men. Their business is to act as bookkeepers or registrars of the transactions of the board; they take charge of the books, and are referred to for information of past transactions.

Sa and Oo dai shi, four men.

Si sho, twenty men, attendants of the three high officers.

Kwa jo, four men, attendants of the Ben-gwang. Though low, the office is an important one.