CONTENTS
| CHAPTER | PAGE | |
|---|---|---|
| I. | Introduction | [1] |
| II. | Protozoans | [10] |
| III. | Sponges | [17] |
| IV. | Polyps | [22] |
| V. | Echinoderms | [34] |
| VI. | Worms | [42] |
| VII. | Crustaceans | [51] |
| VIII. | Insects | [63] |
| IX. | Molluscs | [97] |
| X. | Fishes | [109] |
| XI. | Batrachians | [126] |
| XII. | Reptiles | [139] |
| XIII. | Birds | [150] |
| XIV. | Mammals | [184] |
BEGINNERS’ ZOOLOGY
CHAPTER I
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY
Biology (Greek, bios, life; logos, discourse) means the science of life. It treats of animals and plants. That branch of biology which treats of animals is called zoology (Gr. zoon, animal; logos, discourse). The biological science of botany (Gr. botane, plant or herb) treats of plants.
Living things are distinguished from the not living by a series of processes, or changes (feeding, growth, development, multiplication, etc.), which together constitute what is called life. These processes are called functions. Both plants and animals have certain parts called organs which have each a definite work, or function; hence animals and plants are said to be organized. For example, men and most other animals have a certain organ (the mouth) for taking in nourishment; another (the food tube), for its digestion.
Because of its organization, each animal or plant is said to be an organism. Living things constitute the organic kingdom. Things without life and not formed by life constitute the inorganic, or mineral, kingdom. Mark I for inorganic and O for organic after the proper words in this list: granite, sugar, lumber, gold, shellac, sand, coal, paper, glass, starch, copper, gelatine, cloth, air, potatoes, alcohol, oil, clay. Which of these things are used for food by animals? Conclusion?
Energy in the Organic World.—We see animals exerting energy; that is, we see them moving about and doing work. Plants are never seen acting that way; yet they need energy in order to form their tissues, grow, and raise themselves in the air.
Source of Plant Energy.—We notice that green plants thrive only in the light, while animal growth is largely independent of light. In fact, in the salt mines of Poland there are churches and villages below the ground, and children are born, become adults, and live all their lives below ground, without seeing the sun. (That these people are not very strong is doubtless due more to want of fresh air and other causes than to want of sunlight.)
Fig. 1.—Surfaces of a Leaf, magnified.
Fig. 2.—A Leaf storing Energy in Sunlight.
The need of plants for sunlight shows that they must obtain something from the sun. This has been found to be energy. This enables them to lift their stems in growth, and form the various structures called tissues which make up their stems and leaves. It is noticed that they take in food and water from the soil through their roots. Experiments also show that green plants take in through pores (Fig. [1]), on the surface of their leaves, a gas composed of carbon and oxygen, and called carbon dioxide. The energy in the sunlight enables the plant to separate out the carbon, of the carbon dioxide and to build mineral and water and carbon into organic substances. The oxygen of the carbon dioxide is set free and returns to the air (Fig. [2]). Starch, sugar, oil, and woody fibre are examples of substances thus formed. Can you think of any fuel not due to plants?
How Animals obtain Energy.—You have noticed that starch, oil, etc., will burn, or oxidize, that is, unite with the oxygen of the air; thus the sun’s energy, stored in these substances, is changed back to heat and motion. The oxidation of oil or sugar may occur in a furnace; it may also occur in the living substance of the active animal.
| Fig. 3.—Colourless plants, as Mushrooms, give off no oxygen. | A green leaf, even after it is cut, gives off oxygen (O) if kept in the sun. |
Fortunately for the animals, the plants oxidize very little of the substances built up by them, since they do not move about nor need to keep themselves warm. We notice that animals are constantly using plant substances for food, and constantly drawing the air into their bodies. If the sunlight had not enabled the green plant to store up these substances and to set free the oxygen (Fig. [3]), animals would have no food to eat nor air to breathe; hence we may say that the sunlight is indirectly the source of the life and energy of animals. Mushrooms and other plants without green matter cannot set oxygen free (Fig. [3]).
Experiment to show the Cause of Burning, or Oxidation.—Obtain a large glass bottle (a pickle jar), a short candle, and some matches. Light the candle and put it on a table near the edge, and cover it with the glass jar. The flame slowly smothers and goes out. Why is this? Is the air now in the jar different from that which was in it before the candle was lighted? Some change must have taken place or the candle would continue to burn. To try whether the candle will burn again under the jar without changing the air, slide the jar to the edge of the table and let the candle drop out. Light the candle and slip it up into the jar again, the jar being held with its mouth a little over the edge of the table to receive the candle (Fig. [5]). The flame goes out at once. Evidently the air in the jar is not the same as the air outside. Take up the jar and wave it to and fro a few times, so as to remove the old air and admit fresh air. The candle now burns in it with as bright a flame as at first. So we conclude that the candle will not continue to burn unless there is a constant supply of fresh air. The gas formed by the burning is carbon dioxide. It is the gas from which plants extract carbon. (Beginners’ Botany, Chap. XIII.) One test for the presence of this gas is that it forms a white, chalky cloud in lime water; another is that it smothers a fire.
Experiment to show that Animals give off Carbon Dioxide.—Place a cardboard over the mouth of a bottle containing pure air. Take a long straw, the hollow stem of a weed, a glass tube, or a sheet of stiff paper rolled into a tube, and pass the tube into the bottle through a hole in the cardboard. Without drawing in a deep breath, send one long breath into the bottle through the tube, emptying the lungs by the breath as nearly as possible (Fig. [4]). Next, invert the bottle on the table as in the former experiment, afterward withdrawing the cardboard. Move the bottle to the edge of the table and pass the lighted candle up into it (Fig. [5]). Does the flame go out as quickly as in the former experiment?
If you breathe through a tube into clear lime water, the water turns milky. The effect of the breath on the candle and on the lime water shows that carbon dioxide is continually leaving our bodies in the breath.
Fig. 4.—Breathing into a bottle.
Fig. 5.—Testing the air in the bottle.
Oxidation and Deoxidation.—The union of oxygen with carbon and other substances, which occurs in fires and in the bodies of animals, is called oxidation. The separation of the oxygen from carbon such as occurs in the leaves of plants is called deoxidation. The first process sets energy free, the other process stores it up. Animals give off carbon dioxide from their lungs or gills, and plants give off oxygen from their leaves. But plants need some energy in growing, so oxidation also occurs in plants, but to a far less extent than in animals. At night, because of the absence of sunlight, no deoxidation is taking place in the plant, but oxidation and growth continue; so at night the plant actually breathes out some carbon dioxide. The deepest part of the lungs contains the most carbon dioxide. Why was it necessary to empty the lungs as nearly as possible in the experiment with the candle? Why would first drawing a deep breath interfere with the experiment? Why does closing the draught of a stove, thus shutting off part of the air, lessen the burning? Why does a “firefly” shine brighter at each breath? Why is the pulse and breathing faster in a fever? Very slow in a trance?
The key for understanding any animal is to find how it gets food and oxygen, and how it uses the energy thus obtained to grow, move, avoid its enemies, and get more food. Because it moves, it needs senses to guide it.
The key for understanding a plant is to find how it gets food and sunlight for its growth. It makes little provision against enemies; its food is in reach, so it needs no senses to guide it. The plant is built on the plan of having the nutritive activities near the surface (e.g. absorption by roots; gas exchange in leaves). The animal is built on the plan of having its nutritive activities on the inside (e.g. digestion; breathing).
Cell and Protoplasm.—Both plants and animals are composed of small parts called cells. Cells are usually microscopic in size. They have various shapes, as spherical, flat, cylindrical, fibre-like, star-shaped. The living substance of cells is called protoplasm. It is a stiff, gluey fluid, albuminous in its nature. Every cell has a denser spot or kernel called a nucleus, and in the nucleus is a still smaller speck called a nucleolus. Most cells are denser and tougher on the outside, and are said to have a cell wall, but many cells are naked, or without a wall. Hence the indispensable part of a cell is not the wall but the nucleus, and a cell may be defined as a bit of protoplasm containing a nucleus. This definition includes naked cells as well as cells with walls.
One-celled Animals.—There are countless millions of animals and plants the existence of which was not suspected until the invention of the microscope several centuries ago. They are one-celled, and hence microscopic in size. It is believed that the large animals and plants are descended from one-celled animals and plants. In fact, each individual plant or animal begins life as a single cell, called an egg cell, and forms its organs by the subdivision of the egg cell into many cells. An egg cell is shown in Fig. [6], and the first stages in the development of an egg cell are shown in Fig. [7].
Fig. 6.—Egg cell of mammal with yolk.
Fig. 7.—Egg cell subdivides into many cells forming a sphere (morula) containing a liquid. A dimple forms and deepens to form the next stage (gastrula).
The animals to be studied in the first chapter are one-celled animals. To understand them we must learn how they eat, breathe, feel, and move. They are called Protozoans (Greek protos, first, and zoon). All other animals are composed of many cells and are called Metazoans (Greek meta, beyond or after). The cells composing the mucous membrane in man are shown in Fig. [8]. The cellular structure of the leaf of a many-celled plant is illustrated in Fig. [1].
Method of Classifying Animals.—The various animals display differences more or less marked. The question arises, are not some of them more closely related than others? We conclude that they are, since the difference between some animals is very slight, while the difference between others is quite marked.
Fig. 8.—Mucous Membrane formed of one layer of cells. A few cells secrete mucus.
To show the different steps in classifying an animal, we will take an example,—the cow. Even little children learn to recognize a cow, although individual cows differ somewhat in form, size, colour, etc. The varieties of cows, such as short-horn, Jersey, etc., all form one species of animals, having the scientific name taurus. Let us include in a larger group the animals closest akin to a cow. We see a cat, a bison, and a dog; rejecting the cat and the dog, we see that the bison has horns, hoofs, and other similarities. We include it with the cow in a genus called Bos, calling the cow Bos taurus, and the bison, Bos bison. The sacred cow of India (Bos indicus) is so like the cow and the buffalo as also to belong to the genus Bos. Why is not the camel, which, like Bos bison, has a hump, placed in the genus Bos?
The Old World buffaloes,—most abundant in Africa and India,—the antelopes, sheep, goats, and several other genera are placed with the genus Bos in a family called the hollow-horned animals.
This family, because of its even number of toes and the habit of chewing the cud, resembles the camel family, the deer family, and several other families. These are all placed together in the next higher systematic unit called an order, in this case, the order of ruminants.
The ruminants, because they are covered with hair and nourish the young with milk, are in every essential respect related to the one-toed horses, the beasts of prey, the apes, etc. Hence they are all placed in a more inclusive division of animals, the class called mammals.
All mammals have the skeleton, or support of the body, on the inside, the axis of which is called the vertebral column. This feature also belongs to the classes of reptiles, amphibians, and fishes. It is therefore consistent to unite these classes by a general idea or conception into a great branch of animals called the vertebrates.
Returning from the general to the particular by successive steps, state the branch, class, order, family, genus, and species to which the cow belongs.
The Eight Branches or Sub-kingdoms.—The simplest classification divides the whole animal kingdom into eight branches, named and characterized as follows, beginning with the lowest: I. Protozoans. One-celled. II. Sponges. Many openings. III. Polyps. Circular; cuplike; having only one opening which is both mouth and vent. IV. Echinoderms. Circular; rough-skinned; two openings. V. Molluscs. No skeleton; usually with external shell. VI. Vermes. Elongate body, no jointed legs. VII. Arthropods. External jointed skeleton; jointed legs. VIII. Vertebrates. Internal jointed skeleton with axis or backbone.[[1]]
[1]. This is the briefest classification. Animals have also been divided into twelve branches. The naming of animals is somewhat chaotic at present, but an attempt to come to an agreement is now being made by zoologists of all nations.