CHAPTER XXII. THE APACHES, PAPAGO AND PUEBLO. THE DESERT INDIANS
Arizona, New Mexico and southern California, together with portions of Nevada and Texas, were inhabited by the Yuman, Piman and Athapascan stocks. I have devoted an entire chapter to the Navaho, and shall confine this to the Pima, Papago, Pueblo and Apache.
The past fifty years the population of these Indians has not varied to any appreciable extent. The enumeration of 1906 indicates that there are about as many Pimas and Apaches as at the present time, although the Papago have increased.
These tribes are desert Indians, pure and simple. The Pima and the Papago present many characteristics in common, and remain long in the same locality; the chief difference being that they belong to totally distinct linguistic stocks. The Apaches, however, are far more nomadic in character, not given to agriculture, and were never known to construct irrigation ditches to any extent, and beyond raising a few vegetables and a little corn on restricted tracts, were not given to labor.
The chapter of our dealings with the Apaches is one of the bloodiest, considering the small number of persons engaged on each side, in American history. Notwithstanding much said against them, they were not beyond the pale of civilizing influences. Many of the outbreaks could have been prevented, but our policy toward these Indians was vacillating and short-sighted.
Doctor F. W. Hodge of the Smithsonian Institution, long a student of Indians in the Southwest, presented a sketch of the Apaches in the Handbook of American Indians.[[42]] This covers their complete history. I here insert portions relating to Apache history the past sixty years. It will be observed that the Apaches were frequently located on reservations, but because of change in management, or friction, or incompetency on our part, they were compelled to flee, and such flights were merely to better their condition.
“No group of tribes has caused greater confusion to writers, from the fact that the popular names of the tribes are derived from some local or temporary habitat, owing to their shifting propensities, or were given by the Spaniards on account of some tribal characteristic; hence, some of the common names of apparently different Apache tribes or bands are synonymous, or practically so; again, as employed by some writers, a name may include much more or much less than when employed by others. Although most of the Apache have been hostile since they have been known to history, the most serious modern outbreaks have been attributed to mismanagement on the part of civil authorities. The most important recent hostilities were those of the Chiricahua under Cochise, and later Victorio, who, together with 500 Mimbrenos, Mogollones, and Mescaleros, were assigned, about 1870, to the Ojo Caliente reserve in W. N. Mex. Cochise, who had repeatedly refused to be confined within reservation limits, fled with his band, but returned in 1871, at which time 1,200 to 1,900 Apache were on the reservation. Complaints from neighboring settlers caused their removal to Tularosa, 60 m. to the N.W., but 1,000 fled to the Mescalero reserve on Pecos r., while Cochise went on another raid. Efforts of the military agent in 1873 to compel the restoration of some stolen cattle caused the rest, numbering 700, again to decamp, but they were soon captured. In compliance with the wishes of the Indians, they were returned to Ojo Caliente in 1874. Soon afterward Cochise died, and the Indians began to show such interest in agriculture that by 1875 there were 1,700 Apache at Ojo Caliente, and no depredations were reported. In the following year the Chiricahua reserve in Arizona was abolished, and 325 of the Indians were removed to the San Carlos agency; others joined their kindred at Ojo Caliente, while some either remained on the mountains of their old reservation or fled across the Mexican border. This removal of Indians from their ancestral homes was in pursuance of a policy of concentration, which was tested in the Chiricahua removal in Arizona. In April, 1877, Geronimo and other chiefs, with the remnant of the band left on the old reservation, and evidently the Mexican refugees, began depredations in S. Arizona and N. Chihuahua, but in May 433 were captured and returned to San Carlos. At the same time the policy was applied to the Ojo Caliente Apache of New Mexico, who were making good progress in civilized pursuits; but when the plan was put in action only 450 of 2,000 Indians were found, the remainder forming into predatory bands under Victorio. In September 300 Chiricahua mainly of the Ojo Caliente band, escaped from San Carlos, but surrendered after many engagements. These were returned to Ojo Caliente, but they soon ran off again. In February, 1878, Victorio surrendered in the hope that he and his people might remain on their former reservation, but another attempt was made to force the Indians to go to San Carlos, with the same result. In June the fugitives again appeared at the Mescalero agency, and arrangements were at last made for them to settle there; but, as the local authorities found indictments against Victorio and others, charging them with murder and robbery, this chief, with his few immediate followers and some Mescaleros, fled from the reservation and resumed marauding. A call was made for an increased force of military, but in the skirmishes in which they were engaged the Chiricahua met with remarkable success, while 70 settlers were murdered during a single raid. Victorio was joined before April, 1880, by 350 Mescaleros and Chiricahua refugees from Mexico, and the repeated raids which followed struck terror to the inhabitants of New Mexico, Arizona, and Chihuahua. On April 13, 1,000 troops arrived, and their number was later greatly augmented. Victorio’s band was frequently encountered by superior forces, and although supported during most of the time by only 250 or 300 fighting men, this warrior usually inflicted severer punishment than he suffered. In these raids 200 citizens of New Mexico, and as many more in Mexico, were killed. At one time the band was virtually surrounded by a force of more than 2,000 cavalry and several hundred Indian scouts, but Victorio eluded capture and fled across the Mexican border, where he continued his bloody campaign. Pressed on both sides of the international boundary, and at times harassed by United States and Mexican troops combined, Victorio finally suffered severe losses and his band became divided. In October, 1880, Mexican troops encountered Victorio’s party, comprising 100 warriors, with 400 women and children, at Tres Castillos; the Indians were surrounded and attacked in the evening, the fight continuing throughout the night; in the morning the ammunition of the Indians became exhausted, but although rapidly losing strength, the remnant refused to surrender until Victorio, who had been wounded several times, finally fell dead. This disaster to the Indians did not quell their hostility. Victorio was succeeded by Nana, who collected the divided force, received reinforcements from the Mescaleros and the San Carlos Chiricahua, and between July, 1881, and April, 1882, continued the raids across the border until he was again driven back in Chihuahua. While these hostilities were in progress in New Mexico and Chihuahua, the Chiricahua of San Carlos were striking terror to the settlements of Arizona. In 1880 Juh and Geronimo with 108 followers were captured and returned to San Carlos. In 1881 trouble arose among the White Mountain Coyoteros on Cibicu cr., owing to a medicine-man named Nakaidoklini, who pretended power to revive the dead. After paying him liberally for his services, his adherents awaited the resurrection until August, when Nakaidoklini avowed that his incantations failed because of the presence of Whites. Since affairs were assuming a serious aspect, the arrest of the prophet was ordered; he surrendered quietly, but as the troops were making camp the scouts and other Indians opened fire on them. After a sharp fight Nakaidoklini was killed and his adherents were repulsed. Skirmishes continued the next day, but the troops were reinforced, and the Indians soon surrendered in small bands. * * * *
“In March, 1883, Chato with twenty-six followers made a dash into New Mexico, murdering a dozen persons. Meanwhile the white settlers on the upper Gila consumed so much of the water of that stream as to threaten the Indian crops; then coal was discovered on the reservation, which brought an influx of miners, and an investigation by the Federal grand jury of Arizona on Oct. 24, 1882, charged the mismanagement of Indian affairs on San Carlos res. to local civil authorities.
PIMA HOME, ARIZONA
Aboriginal house type.
“Gen. G. H. Crook having been reassigned to the command, in 1882 induced about 1,500 of the hostiles to return to the reservation and subsist by their own exertions. The others, about three-fourths of the tribe, refused to settle down to reservation life and repeatedly went on the warpath; when promptly followed by Crook they would surrender and agree to peace, but would soon break their promises. To this officer had been assigned the task of bringing the raiding Apache to terms in cooperating with the Mexican troops of Sonora and Chihuahua. In May, 1883, Crook crossed the boundary to the headwaters of the Rio Vaqui with 50 troops and 163 Apache scouts; on the 13th the camp of Chato and Bonito was discovered and attacked with some loss to the Indians. Through two captives employed as emissaries, communication was soon had with the others, and by May 29, 354 Chiricahua had surrendered. On July 7 the War Department assumed police control of the San Carlos res., and on Sept. 1 the Apache were placed under the sole charge of Crook, who began to train them in the ways of civilization, with such success that in 1884 over 4,000 tons of grain, vegetables, and fruits were harvested. In Feb., 1885, Crook’s powers were curtailed, an act that led to conflict of authority between the civil and military officers, and before matters could be adjusted half the Chiricahua left the reservation in May and fled to their favorite haunts. Troops and Apache scouts were again sent forward, and many skirmishes took place, but the Indians were wary and again Arizona and New Mexico were thrown into a state of excitement and dread by raids across the American border, resulting in the murder of 73 white people and many friendly Apache. In Jan., 1886, the American camp under Capt. Crawford was attacked through misunderstanding by Mexican irregular Indian troops, resulting in Crawford’s death. By the following March the Apache became tired of the war and asked for a parley, which Crook granted as formerly, but before the time for the actual surrender of the entire force arrived the wily Geronimo changed his mind and with his immediate band again fled beyond reach. * * * *
“Being a nomadic people, the Apache practised agriculture only to a limited extent before their permanent establishment on reservations. They subsisted chiefly on the products of the chase and on roots (especially that of the maguey) and berries. Although fish and bear were found in abundance in their country they were not eaten, being tabooed as food. They had few arts, but the women attained high skill in making baskets. Their dwellings were shelters of brush, which were easily erected by the women and were well adapted to their arid environment and constant shifting. In physical appearance the Apache vary greatly, but are rather above the medium height. They are good talkers, are not readily deceived, and are honest in protecting property placed in their care, although they formerly obtained their chief support from plunder seized in their forays.”
Of the other Indians in the southwest there are some 3800 Yuma, 4,000 Pima and nearly 6,000 Papago.
These three bands occupy the lower Colorado basin. At one time they constructed extensive irrigation ditches and raised large crops. The history of the Pimas has been set forth at length by Mrs. Jackson and Mr. Humphrey.
As the country settled up, white settlers appropriated the water from the Gila, Salt and other streams and these Indians were much reduced. Many of them became paupers. The larger portion of the Papago left their ancient homes and located on the public domain, seeking only to be removed from white persons.
As in the case of all other Indians, the Government has established schools, and Agents, Superintendents, physicians, and employees may be found wherever there are a considerable number of Indians congregated together.
It became known that the very existence of the Pima and the Papago, as well as the Yuma, was threatened because of the changed conditions, the influx of Whites, and the haste on our part to make of these Indians citizens in the full sense of the word. Water is the very life of all desert Indians. With white people appropriating the bulk of it, very little was left for the Indians. Hence various irrigation schemes were set on foot. It would be very interesting to discuss how that we have improved their condition and made available a large acreage in some places, yet in others we carelessly sank wells deep into alkali-bearing ground and thus ruined unnumbered acres; but space forbids discussion of this subject.
The Board of Indian Commissioners late last year, through its Chairman, Honorable George Vaux, Jr., commissioned Rev. William H. Ketcham, Director of Catholic Missions, and Rev. Samuel A. Eliot, President of the Unitarian Association, and both members of our Board, to visit these various Indians and recommend what should be done for them. Their findings were published in pamphlet form, but merit wider circulation. I herewith append their remarks on the Papago.
“Land. Approximately 5,000 Papago Indians are living, as they have lived since they were first known to history, on the public domain in Pima and Pinal Counties. They are an industrious and self-supporting people and maintain the habits of life that have been theirs for many generations. They know no other home than the desert and are able to sustain life under conditions which would be difficult, if not impossible, for white people. These Indians on the public domain are more or less nomadic, moving from two to four times each year from their farms in the valleys to the ranges on the foothills. They are scattered in some fifty or sixty small villages over a vast tract of desert and mountain country. On their farms, which they break out of the desert wherever water can be obtained, they raise two crops a year, in summer raising beans, peas, squashes, melons and corn, and in winter wheat and a little barley. Each family or village owns some cattle, horses and mules. Their tribal customs are good and the habits of family life, while exceedingly primitive, are excellent. The Franciscan Fathers have for some time maintained missions and a few schools among these nomadic Papagoes and the Presbyterian Board of Missions has also several chapels and schools in the chief villages.
“These Papagoes on the public domain have no title whatsoever to the lands where they have made their homes from time immemorial The desert nature of their country is such that thus far they have had little contact with white settlers. The time is, however, fast approaching when the better parts of the land which they occupy will be desired by white settlers or prospectors. A railroad project, the Tucson-Ajo Railroad, has already put a survey through the Santa Rosa Valley for the purpose of transporting the output of the Ajo Mines in Southern Arizona to market and opening the country to settlement. If this project is completed it will mean the coming of Whites into this territory and inevitably imperil the continued occupation by the Indians of the irrigable lands. In order to preserve the rights of these people it is our judgment that a number of Executive Order Reservations drawn upon lines to be recommended by the Department of the Interior should at once be made. The reservations should contain the lands adjacent to the villages which are needed for farming and grazing purposes and sufficient sources of water supply for irrigation, stock and domestic use. The village sites and the water sources should be held in common. The allotments heretofore made to Indians upon the public domain should then be cancelled where actual residence has not been established. Any delay will greatly imperil the character and prospects of these self-sustaining Indians, who have never had any trouble with white men, and who deserve the sympathy and protection of the Government.
“An almost equally urgent situation exists on the Papago Reservation itself. The Indian population on the reservation is mostly centered about the Agency at San Xavier. This is the only part of the reservation where there is water. The remainder is arid and uninhabitable. These Indians are also self-supporting and well governed by their own tribal laws and chiefs. Their farms are productive, wherever water can be secured, and they have good habits, so long as they remain beyond the evil influences of the neighboring city. Their continued welfare is obviously dependent upon the supply of water. The Tucson Farms Company has acquired practically all the land between the Agency and the City of Tucson, and is opening this land for cultivation. The Farms Company also owns the land bordering the reservation on the east and a considerable tract to the south of the reservation. There is naturally some conflict as to the water rights between the Farms Company and the Indians. The welfare of the City of Tucson can evidently be promoted by increasing the agricultural productiveness of the land held by the Farms Company and the plans by which the Farms Company hopes to encourage settlement are well-devised, but it must be borne in mind that the Indians, who have lived at San Xavier for many generations, have the prior claim upon the water supply. It is hoped and expected that there is in the Santa Cruz Valley enough water for both the Indians and the incoming white settlers, but the utmost vigilance will be necessary to protect the rights of the Indians to the water which is absolutely essential to their well-being.
“The trust patents under which most of the Indians near the Agency hold their allotments will expire in the course of the next two or three years. The officers of the Farms Company evidently expect at that time to acquire title to the Indian lands together with any improvements which the Indians or the Indian Service may have made. It is much to be feared that the Indians will too readily yield to this temptation to sell their lands. We earnestly recommend that these trust patents be extended and the Indians thus protected. It appears that the lines of the original allotments were badly surveyed, and the present fences or boundaries of the Indian allotments do not conform to the survey. If, therefore, an Indian should sell his allotment, he will very probably be selling the land occupied by the homestead of another Indian. We recommend, therefore, that new allotments be made to the Papago Indians living at San Xavier, and that trust patents be dated from the time of the new allotment. By the adoption of this plan not only the lines of the allotments will be correctly adjusted, but also the Indians will be protected in the possession of their lands.
“We understand there is litigation pending between the Government and the Tucson Farms Company in regard to the title to the Berger Ranch at San Xavier. The Agency offices and residence have always been located in the buildings of this ranch and it is obvious that the Government must own and control the property. The suit should be pressed to settlement and title established.
“Irrigation. The plans for the irrigating of the Indian land at San Xavier have been well studied and the report of the Superintendent of Irrigation is on file at the Indian Bureau (Senate Document No. 973, 62d Congress, 3rd Session). We recommend the adoption of the plan there suggested, but only if the trust patents can first be extended. In other words, it is obviously undesirable for the Government to expend a considerable sum of money for irrigating Indian lands which in the course of two years may become the property of the Tucson Farms Company. It is true that better irrigation will increase the value of the Indian lands and the Indians will secure more for their property than they otherwise would, but it is to be feared that this increase in price will simply accrue to the benefit of the saloon keepers at Tucson and other persons eager to prey upon the Indians. In order to save these self-respecting, industrious and peaceful Indians from demoralization and vagabondage, we earnestly recommend: (1) The extension of the trust patents under which they now hold their lands, and (2) the prompt adoption and carrying out of the plans by which they will obtain an adequate and reliable supply of water.
“Schools. The Government maintains only two small day schools for the Papagoes, whether living on the reservation or upon the public domain. A few elementary schools are also maintained by the Catholic and Presbyterian Missions. It is not necessary for the Government to duplicate these schools. They cannot, however, reach more than a small proportion of the school population. Without further and more careful survey of the best centers of population, we do not wish to recommend the establishment of any considerable number of Government day schools. They will naturally be established where permanent water supplies can be developed. We believe, however, that provisions should at once be made for the opening of day schools at the villages known as Indian Oasis and Coyote, which are natural centers of population within the proposed new Executive Order Reservations. We understand that plans have already been formed for the establishment of the first of these schools.
“Health. The health conditions among the Papagoes are not different from those on other Indian reservations. There is a great deal of tuberculosis and trachoma, and there are no hospital provisions whatever. We earnestly recommend the establishment of field hospitals at San Xavier and at Indian Oasis. These hospitals should be of slight construction, but they are greatly needed for the welfare of the Indians.
“Liquor. The Indians living on the Papago Reservation and on the public domain seem to be well protected because of their remoteness from white settlements, their own good habits, the vigilance of the Agency officers, and the influence of the missionaries. The Indians living near Tucson, Casa Grande or Maricopa are much more exposed to temptation and are too often demoralized and vicious.
“Native Industries. It is highly desirable that the Papagoes should be encouraged both in the industries by which they have always sustained themselves and also in the arts which they practice. They are remarkably successful desert cultivators. They have more to teach Whites about desert farming than the Whites can teach them. Nevertheless, there are certain methods of farming which can be brought to their attention by skilful and tactful Government farmers, and we commend the present activity of these officers. In particular the Indians can be helped in the use and conservation of water, and in the securing of water for domestic purposes apart from its use for stock. The Superintendent of Irrigation has now at his disposal a small appropriation which he is using to discover and develop new sources of water supply and in teaching the Indians to separate their own drinking-water from the water used for the stock.
INDIAN BUILDINGS OF RECENT CONSTRUCTION
On an allotment near Wewoka, Okla.
“The Papago Indians are at present a primitive, but self-supporting people. The Government does very little for them. Their livelihood is now seriously threatened. A failure on the part of the Government to protect them in their land and water rights, will be most disastrous. The Indians will become homeless outcasts and a menace to all southern Arizona. There is abundant evidence to justify the conviction that neglect of the Papagoes at this time will result in the corruption and degradation of these worthy Indians, and write another chapter of disgrace in the history of our dealings with our Indian wards. Now, before irreparable harm is done, is the time to act. An ounce of prevention now, will be worth pounds of cure later. To prevent the threatening abuse, to protect these deserving Indians and to promote their permanent welfare, it is necessary; 1st, To establish Executive Order Reservations on that part of the public domain where some 5000 Papagoes have always made their homes, and provide for their efficient administration. 2nd, To extend the trust patents of the Indians holding allotments at San Xavier and provide for the adequate irrigation of their lands. 3rd, To establish schools at Indian Oasis and Coyote, and hospitals at San Xavier and Indian Oasis.”
The Pueblos present a very interesting spectacle. Living as they do in a number of stone and adobe villages, carrying on a highly developed communistic life, practicing ceremonies the like of which does not exist elsewhere in America, if anywhere in the world—they have been the subject of numerous ethnological investigations. Mrs. Matilda Stevenson published a volume through the Bureau of American Ethnology relating to the ethnology of these strange folk. The late Frank Hamilton Cushing lived for years in Zuni Pueblo, was adopted, mastered the language, joined the secret society, and presented us with a great deal of valuable and technical information. After Cushing’s death, Doctor J. Walter Fewkes spent years in studying the various Pueblos. Mr. Charles L. Owen of the Field Museum, Chicago, and other investigators have approached the subject from various angles. We have, all told, a score of books relating to the life and beliefs of the Pueblos; their famous snake dance has been repeatedly described until it would seem that not a single detail has escaped publication. Others have concerned themselves with Pueblo arts, the origin of the Pueblo and the relation between the Pueblo and the Cliff Dweller. Few tribes in America have been more thoroughly studied, and it is safe to say that the various departments of the Smithsonian Institution, the past thirty years, have published 5,000 or more pages relating to these people. As the peculiar customs are handed down from antiquity, we shall study them in detail at some future time and adhere to our rule of confining this book to the modern Pueblo. The following report submitted by Messrs. Eliot and Ketcham is self-explanatory and covers their activities, their needs, and warns us against the dangers with which they are threatened.
“Land. The primary need of all the Pueblos is for a determination of the boundaries of their grants. The encroachment of squatters on the Indian lands is constantly increasing and producing friction and litigation. These trespassers are not always blameworthy because the limits of the Indian lands are so indistinct. There is urgent need of surveys and of definite marks or bounds with indestructible monuments. When these have been established, vigorous action should be taken for the eviction of trespassers who have not established a legal right to occupancy. We earnestly recommend an appropriation for the immediate survey of all the Pueblo grants.
“We recommend an Act of Congress prohibiting any Pueblo Indian from selling land. Such an Act will prevent endless misunderstandings and litigation. All the land problems of the Pueblos would be settled by accepting the proposal of the Indians to place all their lands in trust with the Department of the Interior. We believe this proposed course of action to be wise and just.
“The liquor question is at the front in nearly every pueblo. Illegal selling and bootlegging are very prevalent and as a rule public opinion among the Indians does not condemn the use of liquor. In spite of the vigilance of the officers of the Government bad whiskey is demoralizing many of these Indians. The efforts of the Superintendents and their policemen for the suppression of this traffic should be heartily supported by the Indian Office and the superintendents should be authorized to employ additional policemen.
“The prosecution and punishment of land thieves and liquor sellers put a very heavy burden upon the attorney for the Indians. We particularly commend the able, alert and disinterested service of Mr. Francis C. Wilson, who with very small resources has been remarkably successful in protecting the Indians and punishing those who would rob or degrade them. We earnestly recommend that his salary be put at $3,000 and that at least $1,000 be allowed him for the prosecution of the suits now pending.
“We commend the good sense, vigor and assiduity of Superintendents Perry, Lonergan, Coggeshall and Mr. Snyder. They understand these Indians and without pampering or pauperizing them have their real interests at heart.
“Irrigation. Owing to the sandy nature of the soil of the Rio Grande Valley the seepage from the irrigation canals is excessive. We recommend that the canals at Isleta and Laguna, where conditions are particularly bad, be concreted. A reservoir is urgently needed at Taos.
“Health. In spite of pernicious inbreeding and unsanitary conditions the health of the Pueblos is comparatively good. Instruction is needed in elementary sanitation.
SOUTHERN UTE, COLORADO
Modern Indian pictographs in the rear. 1902. Photograph by E. R. Forrest.
“Education. While heartily commending the work and efficiency of the boarding schools at Albuquerque and Santa Fe, we are clearly of the opinion that the best education for these Indians can be obtained in the day schools. Boarding schools are well adapted to nomadic Indians, but the Pueblos have always lived in permanent villages and the best schools for them are the day schools in or immediately adjoining the villages. The new day schools are well planned, but there is urgent need of more of them. The school accommodations at Isleta are a disgrace to the Government. They are unsafe and unsanitary and there is not room for half the children of school age. New school buildings should also be provided at Acoma, Acomita and Encinal. A farmer is greatly needed to give agricultural instruction at Isleta and Laguna. The needs of the boarding schools have been sufficiently set forth in the recommendations of the superintendents. We especially commend the application for appropriations to buy additional land at Albuquerque and to build a dairy barn at Santa Fe.
“We recommend the applications of Superintendents Lonergan and Coggeshall for additional policemen, and for authority to hire laborers when needed. It is absurd to have to request a physician to milk the cow or for a superintendent to personally have to carry the chain for his surveyors.
“The training of the Pueblo Indians for life in a civilized environment must be slow. Their inherited habits and customs are exceedingly rigid and their prejudices are stubborn. The educated or progressive Indians among them have now a very hard road to travel. They need not only moral support, but sometimes actual physical protection. The superintendents should be encouraged tactfully but firmly to break up the personal despotism which often rules the villages, to protect the right of the individual to personal liberty, to insist upon the gradual adaptation of the pueblo life to its new environment. The Pueblos are now in a transition stage. They cannot pass through it without some bitter feelings and some hard experiences. They need the consistent, sympathetic, courageous leadership of their guardians, in whose good intentions they are beginning to trust.”
In closing the chapter on the desert Indians I desire to suggest that the older Pueblos be permitted to continue their weaving and pottery-making in their own way. It is perfectly proper to train the young in our arts, but the superb native arts of the old Indians should be encouraged. With the death of these old people, the art will deteriorate and disappear. I mention this particularly for the reason that several well-meaning, but misguided persons sent one or two representatives to Zuni and attempted to instruct the women in the manufacture of pottery. They even persuaded them to glaze the pottery and to make tiles. The movement, if continued on a large scale, would result in ruining an art which is fast disappearing.
The population is about stationary. The ceremonies of the antelope and snake societies are becoming more and more public. Recent photographs of them show hundreds of white persons, teams and automobiles, and admission is now charged, for the dances and attendant ceremonies are fast becoming commercialized. They have persisted because of the curious life of these people—a people who live, as it were, in a different world. With the extension of education, the allotment system, and the continual effort of Government employees to break down the old and insert the new, the real life of the Pueblos will soon pass away forever.