PREFACE.
The present work is based on a life study of the voice, and has grown out of the conviction that all teaching and learning in voice-culture, whether for the purposes of singing or speaking, should as far as possible rest on a scientific foundation.
The author, believing that practice and principles have been too much separated, has endeavored to combine them in this book. His purpose has not been to write an exhaustive work on vocal physiology, with references at every step to the views of various authors; rather has he tried always to keep in mind the real needs of the practical voice-user, and to give him a sure foundation for the principles that must underlie sound practice. A perusal of the first chapter of the work will give the reader a clearer idea of the author's purpose as briefly expressed above.
The writer bespeaks an unprejudiced hearing, being convinced that in art as in all else there is but one ultimate court of appeal: to the scientific, the demonstrable—to what lies at the very foundations of human nature.
In conclusion, the author desires to thank those publishers and authors who have kindly permitted the use of their illustrations.
The Author.
McGill University, Montreal, October, 1906.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
[CHAPTER I.]
THE CLAIMS AND IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY.
Science and art—The engineer, architect, physician, nurse, and others, compared with the vocal teacher and learner—Unfavorable tendencies—The old masters—The great elocutionists—Causes of failure—The lack of an adequate technique—Correct methods are physiological—Summary of the advantages of teaching and learning based on scientific principles—Illustrations of the application of physiological principles to actual cases—The evils from which speakers and singers suffer owing to wrong methods—Speaking and singing based on the same principles—Relation of hygiene to physiology [17]
[CHAPTER II.]
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES.
Relations of animals to each other—Common properties of living matter—Explanation of these—The mammal and man—The stimulus and its results—The one-celled animal—Various "systems"necessary—Complexity of structure and function—Harmony through the nervous system—The rule of nervous centres—Means by which they are influenced, and by which they influence—Reflex action—Muscular mechanisms and neuro-muscular mechanisms—Work of the singer and speaker largely reflex in character—Summary [34]
[CHAPTER III.]
BREATHING CONSIDERED THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY.
Breathing the great essential—Misconceptions—Purpose of breathing as a vital process—The respiratory organs—Their nature—Relations of the lungs to the chest-wall—Expansion of the chest—Its diameters—The muscles of respiration—Personal observation—The diaphragm—Varying quantities of air breathed—Breathing when properly carried out by the singer or speaker is healthful [44]
[CHAPTER IV.]
BREATHING FURTHER CONSIDERED THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY.
Relations of the nervous system to breathing—The respiratory centre—Reflex action in breathing—Methods of preventing nervousness—Tones produced by the outgoing breath—Waste of breath—The happy combination for good singing or speaking [57]
[CHAPTER V.]
BREATHING WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
The well-developed chest—The voice-user a kind of athlete—The tremolo—Exercises recommended for the development of the chest—Forms of dress that hamper breathing—Weighing and measuring, re-measurement, etc.—Specific directions for methods to develop the chest—Warnings—Additional exercises—Breathing through the nose and through the mouth—Exercises for the development of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles—Relation of the diaphragm to the staccato effect—Forms of general exercise for the voice-user—Summary [62]
[CHAPTER VI.]
THE SPECIAL VOICE-PRODUCING MECHANISM, THE LARYNX.
Not the only voice-producing apparatus—Specific structures of the larynx in use when the subject phonates—Muscles and their attachments—The cartilages of the larynx—The lining mucous membrane—Changes in it when one has a "cold"—The vocal bands—Functions of the epiglottis—The "middle line" and relative position of parts—Adam's apple—Ventricle of the larynx—The importance of the arytenoid cartilages—Muscles of the larynx in detail—Sphincter action—Straining—Position of the larynx—Practical considerations—Dissection of a "pluck" and especially of the larynx—Hygiene—How disorder of one part may affect another—Summary [74]
[CHAPTER VII.]
SOUND—THE LARYNGOSCOPE—THE LARYNX RECONSIDERED.
Some study of physics desirable—Sound and vibrations—The sounding body—Experiments to illustrate the principles of sound—Qualities of sound—Animals and perception of sound—The range of hearing in man—The larynx as a musical instrument—Experiments of Johannes Müller—Discovery of the laryngoscope by Garcia—Description of the instrument—Method of using the laryngoscope—The difficulties—Auto-laryngoscopy—The importance of both laryngoscopy and auto-laryngoscopy—Change in size of the larynx due to use—Delicate changes in the laryngeal mechanism—Changes in the larynx during adolescence—Warnings—The "breaking" of the voice—Analogies with fatigue, etc.—When should singing be begun?—Singing with others—Choral singing [97]
[CHAPTER VIII.]
FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF BREATHING, LARYNGEAL ADJUSTMENT, ETC.
Various kinds of breathing, as "abdominal," "clavicular," etc., discussed—Control of the whole of the breathing mechanism urged—Correct breathing as a habit—Breathing in the most vigorous speaking and singing—Different views expressed by a diagram—Economy of energy in art—Reserve energy in breathing—"Pumping"—Coup de glotte—"Attack"—Breath-adjustment—Quality of sound the prime consideration in tone-production—Tremolo and other faults—Tests of good breathing—Mouth-breathing—Exercises—Singing of a single tone—Its relation to scale-singing—Summary and review [118]
[CHAPTER IX.]
THE RESONANCE-CHAMBERS.
Vocal bands and resonance-chambers compared—Improvised mechanism to illustrate resonance—Musical instruments as resonance-bodies—A vowel in relation to the resonance-chambers—Description of the resonance-chambers—How the quality of tones may be made to vary—New views as to the sounding-chambers—Summary [140]
[CHAPTER X.]
THE REGISTERS OF THE SINGING VOICE.
A controverted subject—Definitions of a register—Qualifications for dealing with this subject—Madame Seiler—Tabular statement of her views—Garcia's and Behnke's divisions of registers—Sir Morell Mackenzie's views in detail—The author's earlier investigations—Madame Marchesi's views and practice [151]
[CHAPTER XI.]
FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF THE REGISTERS OF THE SINGING VOICE.
Auto-laryngoscopy and photography of the larynx—Dogmatism and science—Confusion and controversy—The break—Ignoring registers—Modification of tones, or "covering"—Points of agreement between different writers on the subject—The falsetto for males—Madame Seiler's special qualifications—Behnke's and Mackenzie's views—The author's conclusions—Rule for the extension of a register—Why certain artists deteriorate while others do not—-Males and females compared as to registers—The division of the registers for female voices recommended by the author—Teacher and pupil as regards registers—Objection to registers answered—The manner of using the breath and registers—How to distinguish registers—The teacher's part—Hearing singers of eminence is recommended—Madame Melba—Guiding sensations—Summary [161]
[CHAPTER XII.]
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING VOICE-PRODUCTION.
Artistic expression only through movements—Emotions and technique—Relation of ideas to movements—Memories and movements—Guiding sensations essential for movements—The principles underlying all movements the same—Associated reflexes and habits—How habits are formed—inhibitions and their importance—Early practices only before the teacher—Careful practice with concentration of energy the best—Queries as to practice—Fatigue a warning—Practice in the early hours of the day, and short of fatigue—Quality to be aimed at rather than quantity—The total amount of time to be devoted to practice—"Hasten slowly;" "Little and often"—The treatment of the voice ruined by wrong methods—Summary [179]
[CHAPTER XIII.]
CHIEFLY AN APPLICATION TO VOICE-PRODUCTION OF FACTS AND PRINCIPLES PREVIOUSLY CONSIDERED.
Vowels, consonants, noise—Consonants and pauses—Voice-production and vowels—Certain vowel sounds common to most languages—Why German and English are relatively unmusical—The needs of the musical artist—The mechanism required for the production of a vowel sound—Reconsideration of the resonance-chambers—The larynx to be steadied but not held rigidly immovable—The principal modifiers of the shape of the mouth-cavity—Breath to be taken through the mouth—The lips—Tongue and lip practice before a mirror—Importance of the connection between the ear and the mouth parts, etc—"Open mouth"—The mouth in singing a descending scale—Undue opening of the mouth—Proper method of opening the mouth—Causes of compression and the consequences [195]
[CHAPTER XIV.]
SOME SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES IN TONE-PRODUCTION.
Principles and their expression in a few exercises—Analysis of the methods of tone-production—The sustained tone—Smoothly linked tones—The legato—The staccato and kindred effects—The mechanisms concerned—Perfection requires years of careful practice—The bel canto and the swell—The same exercises for singer and speaker—"Forward," "backward," etc., production—Escape of breath—The action of the soft palate—When to use "forward" and when "backward" production—Voice-placement—Nasal resonance, not nasal twang—Summary [207]
[CHAPTER XV.]
THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH AND SONG.
The subject may be made dry or the reverse—Vowels, consonants, noise—The position of the lips and the shape of the mouth-cavity in sounding the various vowels—How to demonstrate that the mouth-cavity is a resonance-chamber—Practical considerations growing out of the above—Speaker, vocalist, and composer—Bearing of these facts on the learning of languages—Consonants as musical nuisances—Their great variation in pitch—Brücke's division of consonants—Tabulation of the same [218]
[CHAPTER XVI.]
FURTHER THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS.
The best vowel to use in practice—Necessary to practise all—The guttural r and the lingual r—Consonants that favor nasality of tone—Overtones and fundamental tones—Relation of intensity and quality—The carrying power of a tone—Unusual distinctness in practice as related to ease—The registers of the speaking voice according to Madame Seiler—The range in speaking—Summary [230]
[CHAPTER XVII.]
THE HEARING APPARATUS AND HEARING IN MUSIC.
Why this chapter is introduced—The essential mechanism of hearing—The part played by waves and vibrations—Divisions of the ear—The external ear in lower animals—The drum-head or tympanic membrane—The middle ear and its connections—Relation of the throat and the ear—The inner ear or labyrinth—The end-organ and its relations—The connection of the ear and various parts of the brain—The musician's ear—Relation of music and hearing—Lack of ear and inattention—The artist and the musician—The ear and the speaking voice—General musical training in relation to intonation, etc—The appreciation of music, and training to that end—The art of listening with close attention—Summary [236]
[CHAPTER XVIII.]
CONSIDERATION OF GENERAL AND SPECIAL HYGIENE AND RELATED SUBJECTS.
Hygienic as related to physiological principles—Hygiene in the widest sense—Unfavorable conditions in the public life of an artist—Qualifications for success—Technique and a public career—The isolation of the artist and its dangers—The need for greater preparation now than ever—Choral singing and its possible dangers—The tendencies of the Wagner music-drama—Special faults, as the "scoop," "vibrato," "tremolo," "pumping"—Desirability of consultations by teachers of the use of the voice—Things the voice-user should avoid—Mouth-toilets—Lozenges—The sipping of water—What one should and should not eat—Tea and Coffee—The whole subject of congestion from compression, straining, etc., of the utmost importance—A sore throat when frequent should give rise to inquiry as to methods—Constipation—Exercise—Bathing [251]
[CHAPTER XIX.]
FURTHER TREATMENT OF PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HYGIENE.
Stammering and stuttering—Those who have broken down—The increase of the range of a voice—The part the student plays in settling such questions—Selections to be avoided—Conservation of energy—Change and contrast—The voice as related to the building in which it is produced—The listener and pauses—Nervousness, and how to ward it off—General conclusion [268]
[CHAPTER XX.]
REVIEW AND REVISION.
The object of the speaker or singer—The idea of co-ordination—The study of vocalization may be considered a study of movements—The psychic condition—The instrument which is played upon—How is this instrument played upon?—Vibration of the air—Breathing—The aim of all training—The whole subject of breathing—Breathing exercises—The resonance chambers—The formation of vowels—Muscular efforts for the production of consonants—The pronunciation of words—General health of great importance [276]
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
| FIG. | PAGE |
| Appearance of the larynx during phonation in two special cases (in colors) | [Frontispiece] |
| 1. Muscle-fibres from the heart, much magnified | [34] |
| 2. Small portion of muscle, moderately magnified | [34] |
| 3. Muscle-cells from coats of intestine | [35] |
| 4. Body of a nerve-cell of the spinal cord | [38] |
| 5. Large nerve-cell from spinal cord of an ox | [38] |
| 6. Cell from the cortex cerebri | [38]-39 |
| 7. Nerve terminating in a muscle | [38]-39 |
| 8. Muscle-fibres with capillaries around and between them | [39] |
| 9. Parts of the respiratory apparatus | [44] |
| 10. Trachea and bronchial tubes | [45] |
| 11. Heart, lungs, and diaphragm | [45] |
| 12. Diagram showing changes in shape of chest during inspiration | [49] |
| 13. Diagram showing depression of the diaphragm during inspiration | [50] |
| 14. Position of diaphragm, abdominal walls, etc., during expiration | [56] |
| 15. Diagram illustrating reflex action | [58] |
| 16. A well-developed, healthy chest | [62] |
| 17. A chest deformed by corsets | [62] |
| 18. Normal position of diaphragm and vital organs | [63] |
| 19. Vital organs misplaced by compression of the chest | [63] |
| 20. Thyroid and cricoid cartilages, side view | [76] |
| 21. Thyroid and cricoid cartilages, front view | [ 76] |
| 22. Back surface of cricoid cartilage | [77] |
| 23. Cricoid cartilage, side view. | [77] |
| 24. Arytenoid cartilages | [77] |
| 25. A view of the larynx from behind | [78] |
| 26. Epiglottis, thyroid and cricoid cartilages, etc. | [78]-79 |
| 27. Hyoid bone, crico-thyroid muscle, etc. | [78]-79 |
| 28. Posterior view of the larynx | [79] |
| 29. Diagram showing relation of parts to the thyroid cartilage | [80] |
| 30. Diagram showing the action of crico-thyroid muscle | [82] |
| 31. View of larynx from above | [83] |
| 32. Transverse section of larynx | [83] |
| 33. False and true vocal bands, etc. | [86] |
| 34. Inner surface of the larynx | [87] |
| 35. Diagram to show the action of the laryngeal muscles | [96] |
| 36. Registering the vibrations of a tuning-fork | [100] |
| 37. Illustrating the transmission of vibrations | [101] |
| 38. Illustrating the theory and practice of laryngoscopic examination | [105] |
| 39. Illustrating the practice of laryngoscopic examination | [106] |
| 40. Laryngoscopic picture of male larynx | [112] |
| 41. Laryngoscopic picture of female larynx | [112] |
| 42. Larynx during an attack of a common "cold" | [113] |
| 43. The vocal bands as seen with laryngoscope during deep inspiration | [113] |
| 44. Diagram showing form of chest and abdomen in forced abdominal breathing | [122] |
| 45. The vocal bands during the production of a high-pitched tone | [138] |
| 46. Water being poured into a tube until the remaining air-space becomes a resonator of a tuning-fork | [142] |
| 47. Soft palate, fauces, and tonsils | [142]-143 |
| 48. Nares and soft palate, from behind | [142]-143 |
| 49. Turbinated bones of the nose | [143] |
| 50. Madame Seiler's division of the registers | [155] |
| 51. Appearance of the vocal bands when sounding first E and then F sharp | [165] |
| 52. Diagram to show the nature of registers and breaks | [166] |
| 53. Diagram of the processes involved in singing | [186] |
| 54. Highly magnified diagramatic representation of a section through the superficial part of the great brain | [188] |
| 55. Nerve-cell from the outer rind of the great brain, much magnified | [189] |
| 56. Position of parts in sounding the vowel A | [219] |
| 57. Position of the parts in sounding I | [220] |
| 58. Position of the parts in sounding OU | [223] |
| 59. Position of the parts in sounding T, K, F, R, N, and P | [227] |
| 60. Vertical section of the auditory apparatus | [237] |
| 61. Diagram of the auditory apparatus | [238] |
| 62. Two of the ear-bones (malleus and incus), enlarged | [240] |
| 63. The complete chain of auditory ossicles | [240] |