CHAP. VI. PARTICLS.

1. ADVERBS.

§ [210]. Adverbs of Manner ar formd from adjectivs. (a) The commonest adverbial suff. is -ba which is added to the stem of the adjectiv.

Thus, from a-stems ([§§ 123]. [124]); e. g., ubilaba, evilly; baírhtaba, brightly; from a ja-stem ([§ 125] et seq.): sunjaba, truly.—The original i- and u-stems ([§§ 129]-131) also show here their real stem-endings; e. g., analaugniba, secretly; anasiuniba, visibly; arniba, surely; gatêmiba, fitly; —harduba, hard, severely; manwuba, redily; glaggwuba, accurately.

Note. a for u is found onse each in hardaba; II. Cor. XIII, 10 (in Cod. A, harduba in B); glaggwaba; Lu. XV, 8.—Cp. brôþra-lubô (in A), [§ 88^a], n. 2.

§ [211]. (b) Another class of adverbs formd from adjectivs hav the suffix -ô which contains the final vowel of the adjectival stem; e. g., galeikô, similarly; ûhteigô, seasonably; þiubjô, secretly; glaggwô (beside glaggwuba, accurately).

Note. The same adverbial ending also in auftô, perhaps; sprautô, quickly; missô, reciprocally; sundrô, especially; unwêniggô, unexpectedly; ufarô, abuv; undarô, below; aftarô, behind, from behind.

§ [212]. From comparativ adjectivs an adverbial form has developt which ends in the bare comparativ suffix (-iz), -is; e. g., háuhis, higher; áiris, erlier; mais, more; haldis, rather, more; framis, further; nêƕis, nearer.

Note 1. Without the i of the suffix ar formd: mins ([§ 78], n. 1), less; waírs, wurse; þana-seiþs, further, more.

Note 2. With the comparativ suffix -ôs appear sniumundôs, more speedily; aljaleikôs, otherwise.

Note 3. As superlativ adverbs occur the neuter forms frumist, first; maist, most.

§ [213]. Adverbs of Place ar formd either without a suffix or by means of the suffixes -þ (-d) and -drê to denote motion towards a place; by means of the suffixes -r and -a to denote rest in a place; with the suffixes -þrô and -ana to denote motion from a place.

Note 1. From pronominal stems ar thus formd the correlativs:

ƕaþ, ƕadrê, wither?	ƕar, where	ƕaþrô, whense
[þaþ] (þadei, where, whither)	þar, there	þaþrô, thense
jaind, jaindrê, thither	jainar, yonder	jainþrô, thense
aljaþ, elsewhere, away	aljar, elsewhere	aljaþrô, by another way
	hêr, here

Note 2. Other exampls: (a) 'Whither'? dalaþ, down; samaþ, together; iup, upwards; ût, out; inn, into. (b) 'Where'? dalaþa, below; iupa, abuv; ûta, out; inna, in; faírra, far; afta, behind. (c) 'Whense'? dalaþrô, from below; iupaþrô and iupana, from abuv; ûtaþrô and ûtana, from without; innaþrô and innana, from within; allaþrô, from all sides; faírraþrô, from afar; aftana, from behind; hindana, from behind, beyond.

§ [214]. Adverbs of Time ar for the most part represented by cases of substantivs; e. g., gistradagis, to-morrow; himma daga, to-day; du maúrgina, to-morrow; ni aiw, never (acc. of aiws, time); framwigis, continually.

Note. Simpl adverbs of time are rare: nu, now; ju, alredy; áir, erly; simlê, onse; ufta, often; from pronominal stems: þan, then; ƕan, when?, whenever; suman, in times past.

§ [215]. Other nominal cases than those givn in [§ 214] ar also uzed as adverbs; e. g., landis, far away, lit. 'of land'; allis, holely; sunja and bi sunjai, truly.

§ [216]. Questions and Answers ar mostly accumpanied by adverbial particls. Interrogativ particls ar: -u (niu, not?, [§ 18], n. 2); an, nuh, then?; ibai, whether; jau (ja-u), whether; þau, perhaps.—Affirmativ particls: ja, jai, yes, truly!; a negativ particl is nê, no! These particls, however, ar rarely uzed 'alone' as answers, the verb of the question being uzually repeated, in negativ sentences with the adv. ni.

Note. The interrogativ particl -u is enclitically attacht to the first word of the sentence; as, skuldu; e. g., skuldu ist kaisaragild giban; Mk. XII, 14. In combinations with a prefix the u is attacht to the prefix; e. g., galaubjats þatei magjau þata taujan? Mk. IX, 28.

2. PREPOSITIONS.

§ [217]. (a) With the Dativ: alja, except; af, of; du, to; miþ, with; us, out, out of; faúra, before; fram, from; nêƕa, near; faírra, far off; undarô, under.

(b) With the Accusativ: and, along; þaírh, thru, by; inuh, without; undar, under; wiþra, against; faúr, for.

(c) With Dativ and Accusativ: ana, on, upon; at, at, by; afar, after; bi, by, according to, against, about, concerning; hindar, behind, beyond; und w. dat., for; w. acc., unto, to, until; uf, under, beneath; ufar, over, abuv.

(d) With Genitiv and Dativ: ufarô, over, abuv, upon.

(e) With Genitiv, Dativ, and Accusativ: in w. gen., on account of, for ... sake; w. dat., in, into, within, among, on, at; w. acc., in, into, toward, against, etc. (s. the Glossary).

Note. Also adverbs ar uzed as prepositions with the genitiv; as, utaþrô, utana, hindana, innana ([§ 213], n. 2).

3. CONJUNCTIONS.

§ [218]. (a) Copulativ: jah, and, also; -uh, and (cp. [§ 24], n. 2); nih, and not. (b) Disjunctiv: aíþþau, or; andizuh... aíþþau, either ... or; jaþþê...jaþþê, whether ... or; þau (þáuh), or. (c) Adversativ: iþ, þan, aþþan, akei, but, however; ak, but. (d) Causal: allis, auk, untê, raíhtis, for, because. (e) Conclusiv: þanuh, þaruh, eiþan, nu, nuh, þannu, nunu, now, therefore, hense. (f) Conditional: jabai, if, niba, nibai, if not, unless ([§ 10], n. 2). (g) Concessiv: þáuhjabai, even if, tho; swêþauh, yet, indeed, however. (h) Final: ei, þatei, þêei, þei, that, in order that; ei, swaei, waswê, so that; ibai (iba), that not, lest. (i) Comparativ: ƕaiwa, how?; swê, as; swaswê, so as, as; þau, (þáuh), than. (k) Temporal: swê, as, when; þan, þandê, when, as long as; biþê, miþþanei, while; sunsei, as soon as; faúrþizei, before; untê, und þatei, þandê, til, until, as long as.

Note. Sum of these conjunctions ar uzed also as adverbs. The adverbial origin of a few is even recognizabl from their form; e. g., allis, raihtis, faúrþizei (faúrþis, adv., beforehand).

4. INTERJECTIONS.

§ [219]. ô, oh! ah!; wai, woe!; sai, behold!—Interjectional in meaning ar the sg. hiri, the du. hirjats, and the pl. hirjiþ, cum here! (cp. [§ 20], n. 1; [§ 187], n. 4).