Plate V.
Fig. 1.—Carting Corn.
Fig. 2.—Threshing Corn with Native Threshing Board.
Often, owing to want of sufficient hands and shortness of time or other reasons, land which has been fallowed is sown without being first ploughed up. This is called εις το πρὁσωπον, i.e. on the surface, or face of the field. Again, a field which has had a corn crop is sown the next autumn without ploughing; and this is locally called "on the stubble."
It is not uncommon for the same land to be sown year after year with a corn crop, with no rotation. This is especially the case with the deep soils in the plains, known as "kambos," as contrasted with the shallow, rocky soils called "trachonas."
At the time of harvest numbers of labourers, men and women, usually arrive from Anatolia and Syria and find employment in the fields.
The threshing-floors are practically identical with those of Biblical times. They are frequently paved with flag-stones, but as often as not are merely levelled pieces of ground. On these the sheaves are opened and spread out for the threshing. The threshing-board (δουκἁνι or δουκἁναις) is that referred to by Virgil as tribulum (Georg. Bk. 1) and is merely a stout board, studded on the underside with sharp flint stones (see Plate V, fig. 2). This is drawn round and round over the spread-out sheaves by mules, donkeys or oxen, and affords a pastime to old and young during the summer months. During the process the grain is separated from the straw, and the latter is bruised and partly shredded, and it is the rooted belief of the Cypriot farmer that only in that condition will it be relished by and benefit the animals which feed on it. The straw is then gradually cleared away and the grain is winnowed by being thrown up in the wind with wooden shovels. The grain is then heaped up and left until measured by the tithe official. With the grain is also collected the sweepings of the threshing-floor, and the percentage of the foreign substances mixed with the grain varies from 5 to 15 per cent. There are a few winnowing machines and it is hoped that they will come into more general use as soon as they can be imported.
At Athalassa all cereal crops are reaped and threshed by machinery.
A good many reaping machines were imported by the Agricultural Department some years ago for resale to the farmers, and there is a very fair demand. This procedure has not been permitted for some years, and the work fell into the hands of an English merchant who has succeeded in placing a few machines every year. The country is ready to employ these and other agricultural machines, but the farmers need guidance in the choice of a machine and are reluctant to place orders through native merchants, who may not know the best types to supply and whose profits they fear to be exorbitant. If they could procure these through the medium of the Agricultural Department they would be encouraged to make considerable purchases. The loss of grain on the "aloni" alone may be gauged by the current opinion that each pair of oxen consumes, while threshing, one kilé of grain per day. Much damage is often caused by hot westerly winds at the time when the grain is just forming.
In the absence of any law to prevent the adulteration of cereals, dishonest practices are very frequent. A common method of adulteration is to mix with the grain the joints of the straw which are cut during the process of threshing and separated when winnowing. These are often sprayed with water in order to increase both bulk and weight. The moisture is absorbed by the grain, which thereby swells and is made to look bigger.
Under the Seed Corn Law of 1898 the Government make advances of seed wheat, barley, oats and vetches to cultivators under an agreement to repay in kind after harvest a quantity of grain equivalent to the amount of seed so advanced, together with an addition of one-fourth of the quantity so advanced, by way of interest.
This benefit is very generally availed of by smaller cultivators. It has not, however, been found possible for Government to keep separately the various kinds and qualities of tithe corn, from which these advances are made, and farmers frequently complain that the seed, so issued promiscuously, is unsuitable to the land, aspect, or special conditions on individual farms. Weevilled grain also is a source of trouble, and farmers obtaining such seed advances must be prepared to run risk of failure from this cause.
It is a well-known fact that cultivators often sell their seed corn so advanced them, in order to buy some other corn known to them as more suited to their land, and they are often justified, perhaps, in so doing.
The issues are made by District Commissioners to selected applicants who are believed to be unable to buy seed for cash. The average annual issues, for the last five years, have been: wheat, 38,013 kilés; barley, 31,479 kilés.
Wheat
In ancient times, when the population numbered about 1,100,000, the Island was said to be self-supporting in the matter of wheat. Taking the annual consumption of wheat per head of population at 8 bushels (Gennadius's Report on the Agriculture of Cyprus, Part I, p. 8) and after making an allowance for seed, the annual production would then have been about 10,000,000 bushels. From British Consular Reports it appears that in 1863 the average produce was reckoned at 640,000 bushels. The average annual production of wheat for the ten years ended 1913, as shown in Blue Book Returns, was 2,292,827 kilés. For later years the figures are:
| Year. | Kilés. |
| 1914 | 1,924,336 |
| 1915 | 1,761,501 |
| 1916 | 1,524,484 |
| 1917 | 1,782,800 |
| 1918 | 2,424,570 |
Wheat is sown at the rate of 1 kilé per donum. The average yield per donum is 6 to 10 kilés, and varies between 3 to 4 kilés on dry land in a poor year, to 16 to 20 on the best lands in a good year. When rains are very late and spring weather is unfavourable, a farmer often fails to recover even the seed.
Much might be done to increase the yield by better methods of husbandry, by the use of improved implements for cultivating and reaping, and by the use of threshing machines. An immense quantity of grain is consumed by birds (larks, sparrows, doves, etc.), which at times literally strip the fields and continue their depredations on the threshing-floors.
Wheat is sown from October to December; a field which has had a winter crop is pastured after the harvest until January; in January and February it is broken up and cross ploughed and sown immediately after with a spring or summer crop.
The crop is cut about May-June. It is cut with a sickle (δρεπἁνι), tied into sheaves, and carried on donkeys or small carts to the threshing-floors. The sickle is larger than the European one, and is often provided with bells ("koudounia" or "sousounaria") to frighten the snakes, and the handles are ornamented with leather tassels.
Several varieties of wheat are grown in the Island, mostly of the hard kinds, these being preferred by millers.
The following English varieties have been imported and tried during the last four years: Improved Treasure, White Stand Up, and Improved Red Fife. The two former failed, being too late in maturing; the latter is still under trial, but it is not very attractive, being a late variety, and it gives a smaller yield than the native kinds. The same remarks apply to several wheats obtained from India and South Africa and which are still under trial.
Barley
This crop is sown about the same time as wheat, if anything slightly earlier; and it is ready for the sickle three or four weeks before wheat. When the straw is short the plant is uprooted, not cut.
It is sown at the rate of 1 to 1½ kilés to the donum, and may be expected to yield from 10 to 15 kilés; but 30 kilés is not uncommon in the plains, and even much larger yields have been recorded from time to time.
There are three native varieties, viz. the common 4-row, the ordinary 6-row and the Paphos 6-row barley, also grown around Davlos in the north-east of the Island. The last-named is heavier than the two former kinds. Little success has attended the introduction by the Agricultural Department of "Prize Prolific," "Gold Thorpe" and "Chevalier," which have been experimentally grown for the last three years. They mature late and have not resisted severe drought. Their yield is small compared with native barleys, although this may improve when they are fully acclimatised.
Barley is the staple food for all kinds of animals, pigs and poultry in Cyprus, and it is often used for bread-making in years of wheat shortage.
The tithe is mainly exported to England, where it has a good name for malting purposes, especially that produced in the Paphos district. It has failed to attain the place it deserves on the English market owing to the high percentage of dirt, etc., it mostly contains.
A sample of Cyprus barley examined at the Imperial Institute in 1914 proved to be of good malting quality, and similar material if marketed in commercial quantities would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xii. 1914, p. 552).
A sample of naked or skinless barley from Cyprus has also been reported on by the Imperial Institute. This type of barley cannot be employed for malting for ordinary brewing purposes, but it was considered that the Cyprus material might be used by distillers (who only require a partially malted barley), and in any case the sample would rank as a good class feeding barley (ibid. vol. xiv, 1916, p. 159).
The average annual production of barley, as shown by the Blue Book returns, for the ten years ended 1913 was 2,449,285 kilés. For later years the figures are:
| Year. | Kilés. |
| 1914 | 1,957,944 |
| 1915 | 1,912,316 |
| 1916 | 1,953,628 |
| 1917 | 2,508,880 |
| 1918 | 3,080,710 |
These figures should be contrasted with British consular estimated average in the sixties of 960,000 bushels.
Oats
In Cyprus, oats are used on a far smaller scale than barley as food for cattle, and they are unknown, except to a few townsfolk, as a food for human beings.
The cultivation of this crop is restricted, partly because it ripens late and needs late rains, and partly because it sheds its ripe grain too quickly for the ordinary easy-going farmer, who frequently finds his next year's crop smothered with self-sown oats. It is also commonly held that the crop exhausts the soil.
There are two native varieties, both white. The one is grown much more than the other, called "anoyira," which, although incomparably superior, is little cultivated outside the Limassol district.
The seed is sown at the rate of 2 to 2½ kilés to the donum, and a yield of from 20 to 30 kilés is obtained. The average annual production for the ten years ended 1913, as shown by Blue Book returns, was 394,695 kilés. For later years the figures are:
| Year. | Kilés. |
| 1914 | 404,917 |
| 1915 | 378,724 |
| 1916 | 446,469 |
| 1917 | 306,010 |
| 1918 | 313,260 |
Besides "Black Tartar," which has been regularly grown at Athalassa for several years, the Agricultural Department has introduced of late years "Black Cluster," "White Cluster" and "Supreme." All these ripen late and need late rains, and they have not given any promise of success. A black variety imported from Greece some years ago has proved much superior to the two native varieties, but its cultivation is still limited.
Reports on oats from Cyprus and on oat, straw and kyko oat plant (Avena sativa var. obtusata) are given in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (vol. xv. 1917, pp. 308-10).
Rye
Rye has only lately been introduced by the Agricultural Department, but already its cultivation, though very small, is extending. The dark colour of the rye loaf creates some prejudice against it, but its value in cases of diabetes, a common complaint in Cyprus, is greatly in its favour.
The seed is sown and cultivated here in the same manner as wheat, but at the same time or even earlier than barley. It is harvested by being cut and is threshed on the threshing-floor. The straw is fed to animals, but when threshing machines become more general the long straw will become available for other purposes than cattle food, e.g. in the manufacture of the native saddles ("stratura"), native straw trays and native straw hats.
Rye is also grown for green food, in the same way as barley grass.
Maize (Indian Corn)
This crop was first introduced by the Agricultural Department in 1902. Its cultivation is governed by the water-supply. It is grown mostly for green food, and is met with very generally throughout the Island, being sown among the growing crops, e.g. louvi, sesame, cotton, etc., as a wind-break or to afford shade. There was a good demand for the grain for grinding during the war and the meal is found to be a useful ingredient in the ordinary loaf. The stems and leaves provide a welcome change of food for cattle when exhausted from threshing and during the dry season of the year. At the Government Farm at Athalassa the stems and leaves are made into ensilage.
Dari or Millet (Sorghum vulgare)
This crop is little grown, and is mostly found in the Messaria and also at Paleochori, almost exclusively in places irrigated by river floods. The grain is used for making flour and the fresh stalks are fed to cattle.
Fruits
Cyprus produces a considerable variety of fruits, the chief ones exported being raisins, pomegranates, oranges and lemons, and grapes. There is a considerable and expanding export trade in the fruits enumerated, as shown by Blue Book returns as under:
| Year. | £. |
| 1904 | 29,706 |
| 1905 | 29,265 |
| 1906 | 41,716 |
| 1907 | 36,009 |
| 1908 | 35,027 |
| 1909 | 29,890 |
| 1910 | 52,267 |
| 1911 | 57,393 |
| 1912 | 59,887 |
| 1913 | 69,097 |
The pomegranate of Famagusta is famous, and the annual export of this fruit alone during the five years ended 1913 averaged £14,682.
Among the mountain villages apples, pears, and plums are extensively grown; the latter specially being in good demand in Egypt.
Apricots and kaisha trees are grown generally throughout the Island, and their fruits are particularly good and plentiful. The last-named is a delicious variety with a delicate flavour and externally somewhat resembles the nectarine. Peaches are mostly grafted on almond stocks, as these are hardy and good drought-resisters, but there are a fair number of European varieties. Almond trees abound in all parts and do extremely well if properly cultivated. Other fairly common fruit trees are the quince and loquat, or Japanese medlar.
For several years choice kinds of fruit trees have been imported from England, and many thousands of trees of different kinds throughout the Island have been grafted and are now beginning to produce fruit of excellent quality. Good work has been done by the Perapedhi Wine Association, whose garden has been a centre for the dissemination of choice grafts.
Unhappily the village growers have been very reluctant to apply proper cultivation or to carry out advice in treating their trees, which have become the hosts of all kinds of diseases and insect pests. A better spirit is now being shown in this direction.
Vines and Wines
Writing in 1896, Gennadius described the industry and perseverance of the peasants, who with most imperfect implements, by breaking up the hard rock and building up the scanty soil, formed vineyards on the steep mountain sides, and often up to their very summits. These vineyards, he says, having been mostly planted in haste in the happy days of the demand for wines (when French vineyards were destroyed by phylloxera), were formed by the personal labour of the peasant eked out by the help of loans. Since then the wine trade has passed through critical times and prices have often been greatly depreciated. The small vine-growers, who are also for the most part wine-producers, fell on evil times and became heavily indebted. They have remained so until the last year or two, when, owing to the large demand and the high prices of wines in Egypt, they have been able to free themselves.
Gennadius regarded the cultivation of the vine in Cyprus as indisputably unprofitable, and was in favour of checking its extension, and even advocated the imposition of a special tax on new plantations. At the time he wrote there was an overproduction, and the value of wine had greatly fallen, and the revenue which Cypriot wine-makers could gain therefrom would hardly suffice to cover the expenses of its transport to the market, the annual interest on their debts, and the taxes they had to meet.
The village-made wine is usually clarified by means of gypsum. It is carried down from the mountain villages in goat-skins (askos or ashia) on pack animals, and then sold to the Limassol merchants, who ship the greater part to Egypt.
The production of wine as carried out in Cyprus leaves much to be desired. M. Mouillefert, who visited Cyprus in 1892 to report on the wine industry, says: "The vintage is often gathered too late. Insufficient care is given to the picking of the grapes and diseased, rotten, mildewy or unripe grapes are often used which detract from the quality of the wine.
"The grapes are trodden and the fermentation takes place in jars and chatties of porous earth, of a capacity of 2 or 3 hectolitres, which are tarred inside to counteract their porosity. The houses in which the fermentation takes place are of almost the same temperature as the surrounding air, with the result that in the warmer parts of the Island fermentation at first is generally rapid or disturbed, and the temperature of the must becomes excessive. In the colder parts, on the contrary, the opposite takes place and the resulting wine is rough and sharp. The use of gypsum as a preservative is unfortunately very common. The tarring of the goat-skins and jars imparts a flavour which is very unsuited to the European taste."
M. Mouillefert made the following recommendations: "Tarred jars for fermentation should be replaced by wooden vats, or, in the warmer parts of the Island, by tuns similar to those used throughout the South of France and in Algeria. Presses less primitive than those in use should be employed since these leave in the lees a very large quantity of wine. The wine when drawn off from the lees should be kept in tuns or in small wooden casks." "In short," he says, "to speak quite plainly, no good wine destined for ordinary consumption can be obtained with jars."
Some twenty years ago an English Wine Company was established at Perapedhi and, until the war, carried on a successful trade and produced some good wines manufactured on modern lines. The factory was well equipped with up-to-date plant, and its wine of port type was especially popular. It was throughout the greater part of this time owned by the firm of W. H. Chaplin & Co., London, but since the war it has been closed down. The excellent brandy of Messrs. Hadji Pavlo & Co. has found for some time a steady market in England, and there are other well-equipped wine and spirit factories at Limassol, notably those of the Limassol Wine & Spirit Co., Ltd., of Mr. M. Michaelides and of Mr. N. Joannides.
The firm of Messrs. Hadji Pavlo & Co. has carried out since 1872 the manufacture of spirits, and for twenty-five years they have been engaged in producing their "Zanatzin" brand of wines. Their V.O. cognac and three-star brandy are both excellent.
Various liqueurs, made from local products, aniseed, kernels of apricots and other stone fruit, etc., are made by this and other firms, and sold under the name "Zucki."
The principal wines, spirits, liqueurs and other alcoholic liquors produced are:
The ordinary black wine of the country, or "krasi."
The ordinary white wine of the country, or "asprokrasi."
Commandaria.
Brandy. First and second quality sold in barrels; one-star, two-star, three-star and V.O. sold in bottles.
Mastic, sold in four qualities; Zucki, sold in two qualities.
Rum and Amer Pigon.
Alcohol. 95 C. and 36 C.
Various spirits, liqueurs and syrups: whisky, vermuth, amathus, banana, mentha, mandarini, triantaphyllo, kitro, pergamotto, vanilla, violetta, anana, benedictine.
Eau de Cologne.
Commandaria is one of the oldest and most famous sweet dessert wines. It is held indeed to have been the "nectar of the gods." In the time of the Knights Templar it acquired great fame. Existing stocks are annually added to, the original vintage having in some cases a great age, so much so that, through evaporation, the wine becomes a syrup or pulp, which imparts a bouquet to the fresh commandaria which is added to it. In making commandaria the grapes are left on the vines until overripe and, after picking, are spread out in the sun for further evaporation, when they undergo the usual process of wine-making. In this way a sweet wine, rich in sugar and alcohol, and having a characteristic flavour, is produced. A limited quantity only is made every year, and of this a certain quantity is exported and fetches a high price, as a speciality, in England and on the Continent.
A red mastic is made at the Kykko Monastery which has acquired local fame.
The situation at the present time is generally improved, and although Cyprus wines can never form more than an insignificant proportion of the world's supply, and could not create any special market without considerable change of system and large expenditure in advertising, they may yet, by simple improved methods, by means of co-operative storage and the application of sound elementary principles, be able to secure a more recognised position and a remunerative, though perhaps limited, demand, at any rate for some of the special brands.
For the benefit of village producers practical lectures, with the help of special apparatus, are now being given in the wine villages during the vintage season, by officials of the Agricultural Department.
The export of wines (including commandaria) and spirits during the ten years ended 1913 were of a total value of £313,920 and £55,364 respectively. The lowest and highest figures were £20,274 in 1909 and £52,351 in 1911 for wines and £3,991 in 1906 and £8,187 in 1913 for spirits. For the last four years the exports have been:
| Year. | Wines (including Commandaria). | Spirits. |
| £ | £ | |
| 1914 | 29,405 | 4,396 |
| 1915 | 38,158 | 5,431 |
| 1916 | 80,165 | 6,865 |
| 1917 | 78,451 | 22,173 |
There is an export duty on wine at the rate of 8 paras per gallon, on all spirit of 20 paras per gallon and on all vinegar of 5 paras per gallon.
Some seventeen varieties of Vitis vinifera have for a long time been grown in Cyprus; the most largely cultivated being the following:
Mavro (black). The commonest variety, medium-sized bunch, with dark, large, oval-shaped grapes.
Xinisteri (white). Common variety, with medium-sized bunch, white roundish grapes, thin skin. These are suited to a rich moist soil.
Voophthalmo (ox-eye). Equally common variety. Rather small bunch, with black, round and rather small grapes. Suited to a dry, calcareous soil.
The Muscat comes next, being mostly grown at Omodhos. It is the common early muscatel of the East.
The remaining kinds are locally known as Bastardico (bastard), Maratheftico or Kraseti, Morokanali or Spourta (flabby-berried), Promari or Glycopromo (early or early-sweet), Xantho, Axanthi or Phinikoto, Kouphorrhovo or Katin-parmak, Verico, Sultana, Razaki, Corinthiaki (currant), Malaga (Alexandria Muscatel), Rhodities. Of these, several are only to be found here and there in private gardens.
Five years ago several thousand Sultana vines were imported by the Agricultural Department from Crete, and these have now become fairly well distributed over the Island and the produce is beginning to appear in the market. These dried sultanas in 1918 sold for as much as 4s. per oke.
Three years ago the following varieties of table vines were imported from England by the Agricultural Department:
Black Hamburg
Alicante or Black Tokay
Canon Hall Muscat
Lady Hastings
Royal Muscadine
Muscat of Alexandria
These are now being acclimatised, and it is hoped gradually to distribute a large number of grafts.
Vine cultivation covers an area of about 140,000 donums and is in the hands of some 15,700 vine growers.
Owing to defects of planting the vines of Cyprus do not in most cases begin to bear fruit before the third or fourth year, while, if modern methods were adopted, they would bear fruit in their second year and attain their full growth in their fourth year.
What is known as the "willow-head" system of pruning has been very general, with consequently poor results. Better methods have long been inculcated and are now being more and more adopted. Manuring is but rarely practised and ploughing is confined to lightly turning the surface soil with a wooden plough, and this not every year. On the higher slopes of the mountains terracing is common and necessary.
Grape mildew (Oidium Tuckeri) is prevalent in nearly all the vine areas. Other diseases and pests of the vine met with are anthracnose, pourridié, Septosporium Fuckelii, cuscute, Cochylis, Zygæna ampelophaga and Pyralis. Happily the stringent regulations which for many years have been in force prohibiting the importation of any kind of living plant have resulted in keeping the Cypriot vineyards free from the scourge of phylloxera.
Sulphuring has become more general of late years. The Government has done much to bring this about, and for fifteen years or more has imported sufficient sulphur from Sicily, which has been placed in the hands of village store-keepers and sold at a fixed price by the Agricultural Department. This has never more than exceeded the bare cost and more often has been issued at half cost and in times of distress even gratis.
The vine-owners have been stimulated by the recent high prices for wines to expend more time and money on this operation. The ignorant prejudice against the effectiveness of sulphur as a cure for grape mildew has to a great extent died out. False ideas of economy alone prevent its general use.
Fresh grapes are largely consumed locally, and considerable quantities are exported to Egypt, as shown by the following table:
| Year. | Quantity. | Value. |
| Cwts. | £ | |
| 1904 | 12,025 | 1,854 |
| 1905 | 8,607 | 1,208 |
| 1906 | 9,563 | 1,487 |
| 1907 | 7,399 | 1,161 |
| 1908 | 6,807 | 1,331 |
| 1909 | 7,078 | 1,094 |
| 1910 | 7,588 | 1,216 |
| 1911 | 11,597 | 1,865 |
| 1912 | 12,565 | 2,028 |
| 1913 | 10,303 | 1,487 |
The average annual export of raisins for the ten years ended 1913 was 54,007 cwts. valued at £24,190. The lowest price was 5s. 4cp. per cwt. in 1909 and the highest 11s. 4½cp. in 1911. During the war the exports have been: 1914, 16,395 cwts., £7,419; 1915, 54,189 cwts., £34,467; 1916, 34,361 cwts., £38,188; and 1917, 70,624 cwts., £90,040. The annual prices in these years were respectively 9s., 12s. 6½cp., 22s. 2cp. and 25s. 4½cp. per cwt.
Up to 1905, inclusive, by far the greatest quantity of raisins had been shipped every year to Austria; Rumania, Turkey and Egypt coming next in order. Since that date Rumania has easily taken the first place, being followed at a distance by Austria, Turkey and Egypt. Since the war the bulk has been shipped for military requirements and to France, Egypt, Malta and England for eating and for use in confectionery, and the industry has grown.
A marked improvement has taken place in the preparation of the raisins; and specially qualified officials of the Agricultural Department every year give practical instruction on this subject in the vine villages.
Citrus Fruits
Oranges and lemons are very extensively grown in Cyprus, whilst mandarines, citrons ("kitria") and sweet limes ("glykolemonia") are also found in every part of the Island. In addition, the shaddock ("phrappa") and the bergamot orange are cultivated in the Island.
The best and most common variety of the sweet orange is the oval (sometimes round) Jaffa, grown everywhere, but specially at Famagusta, where there are numerous orange groves. Another variety of good quality is grown at Lefka. The trees of both varieties produce large, firm, thick-fleshed fruit.
Bitter oranges are largely grown from seed for stock on which the better kinds are grafted. Many thousands of these, and also of the grafted plants, are annually issued from the Government Nurseries. Much loss has been sustained from time to time through disease, and in 1899 whole orange groves at Famagusta, Lefka and Kythrea were uprooted or cut right back. With the expansion of the Agricultural Department and a small qualified staff it has become possible to bring these diseases somewhat under control, and the orange and lemon production has much increased, though gummosis and scale disease still play much havoc.
In the Varosha orange groves the trees are grown in light, sandy soil, which is banked up round the trunk. They are irrigated by means of the native alakati, or noria, or more often by air-motors, which in this locality are much in vogue.
The two most common causes of failure are the persistent planting of trees too close together and over-watering. Growers turn a deaf ear to all advice aimed at changing these two bad habits. The native agriculturist is convinced, beyond the reach of argument, that the greater the number of trees on a given area the greater will be the profit. In a land where water is so precious the deep-rooted opinion is held that the more water a plant receives the better it will thrive, and too frequent irrigation accounts to a large extent for the widespread damage caused by gummosis. Until lately pruning was scarcely practised at all. Thanks to a system of model orchards lately instituted by the Agricultural Department, better methods are at last being introduced, and fruit-growers are able to model their practice upon the work carried out on the specimen trees, alongside their own, reserved by the Department for such demonstrations.
Lemons are largely consumed by natives with their food. The produce is of large size, thick-skinned and juicy. Until some twelve years or so ago the fruit was largely sold on the trees for shipment to Russia and Rumania, but those markets failed, owing to the prevalence in Cyprus of scale disease and partly to loss through rotting in transport. The export of oranges and lemons has of late years been confined almost entirely to Egypt.
Fig (Ficus Carica)
This tree thrives everywhere, and is particularly cultivated at Livadhia and Lefkara (Larnaca district), in Paphos and at the Tylliria, where the small, sweet, white variety, locally called "antelounika," is grown. There are but few true Smyrna figs, but this variety is being multiplied by cuttings and also by grafting. Other good kinds are the "sarilop" and "bardajik," of which there are a few private specimens only, and the "vardika" which is more or less common, particularly at Morphou. The Lefkara figs somewhat resemble those of Tylliria and, like the latter, mature naturally; they are considered very good and are divided into two varieties, the "malantzana" and the "kourtziatika." The figs of Ktema in Paphos are the common violet-coloured variety, but are larger, and are mostly ripened artificially.
Cyprus figs are only of moderate quality, though doubtless susceptible of improvement. They resist drought and generally yield good crops every year.
The native dried fig is much eaten, and is also used as an adulterant of, if not a substitute for, coffee, and makes a good beverage, like the well-known Austrian "feigen café." Dried figs are also made into a paste and mixed with flour to make fig pies ("sykopitæ").
The method of oiling, that is, smearing with oil the orifice on the top of the fig while still unripe, is applied to those varieties which ripen slowly. It is these varieties which are especially grown in Cyprus. The fruit so treated is rather tasteless and insipid, but as it comes early to market it fetches a good price. The reason for hastening the ripening process by oiling is that the fruit may become ready for picking before sparrows and hornets get it, as they would otherwise do at that season. The later crop is more or less immune from their attacks, as ripe corn is then abundant in the field or on the threshing-floor.
Figs first appear on the market in May. This early fruit is called "magiles" (possibly from Maios-gilia = May production). The fruit is produced on the wood of the preceding year, from a bud which has remained dormant. The next crop appears about mid-July, and then the fruit is called by its proper name "syka."
Cherries
The principal and almost the only cherry-growing village in the Island is Pedoulas, in the Marathassa valley. This village is about 3,600 ft. above the sea-level. The trees at that village do remarkably well, and they bring in a good revenue. They are mostly wild trees which have been grafted; but there are also a small number which have been raised from imported Malaheb seed. From time to time good kinds of young grafted cherry trees have been imported from England by the Agricultural Department and grafts from these have been freely supplied to the village.
There are two native varieties, one ("kerasi") which is almost exclusively grown at Pedoulas, the other ("vysino") which is found fairly well distributed over the Island. The former is pale yellow and pink, the latter is slightly smaller and less sweet and of a darkish-red colour, and is used mostly in making jam and preserves, while the "kerasi" is more for table purposes.
More grafted trees are now coming into bearing and "White-hearts" are now sold in the bazaar at about 12 cps. per oke. "Black-hearts" are also beginning to make an appearance.
Efforts are being made to introduce the cherry tree to other hill villages, and there seems no reason why its cultivation should not become general in the higher parts of the Island. This fruit travels well and a fine market awaits it in Egypt.
Owing to the prohibition of fruit exports during the war, a small industry has grown up for drying the "kerasi."
Banana
The local name of the banana is Sykiton Adam (Adam's fig), from the belief that Adam made an apron of the leaves.
There is some hope that the cultivation of this delicious fruit may become more taken up in Cyprus than has hitherto been thought possible. Paphos has for several years had the reputation of possessing fruit-yielding trees of good quality. Offshoots from some of these have been transplanted to Larnaca, and there are now several gardens in which a fair quantity of fruit ripens each year. At Kyrenia and Lapithos there are also a good number of trees. The fruit is of a different variety from that of Paphos and Larnaca, the shape being longitudinally angular, whereas the latter kind is longitudinally round and larger.
Five years ago the Agricultural Department obtained some special varieties from Zanzibar. These are now beginning to yield fruit, and offshoots are being distributed in the Island.
Azarol Hawthorn
This hawthorn (Cratægus Azarolus), known locally as "mosphilia," grows wild scattered about over the country. The fruit makes an excellent jelly. The tree is an excellent stock on which to graft the pear tree.
In the higher regions another species, C. monogyna, is found.
Melons
The western end of the Messaoria plain is noted for its water-melons and sweet-melons. These are grown in "postania," a corruption of the Persian word "bustan," a garden. They are cultivated only on irrigable land. At Asha, where, perhaps, the best fruits are grown, the land is flooded by the river and no later watering, as a rule, takes place. Through a well-grounded fear of theft, the grower and his family live in their "postania" during the season of marketing. Reed shelters are erected, and the rolled-up beds and bedding with their white coverlets present a strange appearance. There is always a big local demand and a good yield is generally obtained from these "postania." High prices are paid for suitable melonland.
The local names for the water-melons are "karpousia" or "paticha," and for the sweet-melons "piponia" or "tamboures."
The cultivation of this fruit is general throughout the Island.
Date Palm
This tree grows promiscuously throughout the plains, produced mostly by accidental seeding. Very little actual sowing takes place. The best groves are round about Nicosia.
The trunk-wood, being very hard and fibrous, is used in the construction of the old type of waterwheel ("alakati") and for beams in houses. It is also utilised as fuel in Turkish baths as it burns slowly and gives out great heat. Palm leaves are in demand for making various native baskets, specially the "zimpilia" for holding seed when sowing broadcast. Hats are made from them in a few villages.
The native varieties of date palm are not of high quality. They are: "Baltchik," the fruit of which ripens on the tree; "Phountouk" (hazelnut); "Kourmouzou" (red); and "Saraih" (yellow). The last three are artificially ripened when picked, by spraying them with a mixture of syrup and vinegar. The "Baltchik" produces fruits suitable for fresh consumption. The "Phountouk" is somewhat inferior. The other two have large fruits which are specially suited for preserving.
Two years ago the Agricultural Department imported from Sudan the following varieties: "Condeila," "Bertamouta" and "Barakawi." They suffered much on the journey and it is doubtful if more than two or three specimens will survive.
As a rule dates ripen well in Cyprus; gathering takes place from October to December. The clusters must generally be covered with sacking to protect them from birds.
Nuts
Hazelnuts and Cobnuts or Filberts
These nuts are collectively known in commerce as "small nuts." They are all, however, the produce of a species of Corylus, the different kinds being distinguished by trade names according to their country of origin (see an article on "Sources of Supply of Hazelnuts" in Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xiv. 1916, pp. 261-7).
In Cyprus these are grown almost exclusively around a well-defined group of villages of the Pitsillia, notably Alona, Palæchori, Askas, Platanistassa, Phterikoudi, Livadhia, Agros, Alithinou, Saranti, Polystipos. In this locality the plantations are thickly grown and good yields are obtained. It is doubtful whether there are other parts of the Island equally well suited to this tree.
Hazelnuts, besides their use for dessert purposes and in the preparation of various nut foods, are employed largely as a cheap substitute for almonds, and in years when the latter are scarce, hazelnuts are in especially good demand.
The Cyprus nuts are outwardly of good size and appearance and are very attractive in the English market, but unfortunately they are usually picked before reaching full maturity, and consequently the kernels are frequently small and soon become rancid. Being gathered when unripe they lose greatly in weight, which means loss of money to the exporters. The flavour is also impaired by premature picking and on this account Cyprus nuts compare unfavourably in this respect with those from Spain, and Trebizond and other parts on the Black Sea, with which they have to compete. If growers would pay more attention to this point, Cyprus hazelnuts would, owing to their size, hold a much better place than they do in the English market.
The export of hazelnuts is not separately recorded, but the annual average production is stated to be approximately 120,000 okes.
Walnuts
Some fine specimens of walnut trees are to be seen in the Marathassa valley and in the neighbourhood of Palæochori, and near mountain streams in several places among the slopes of the hills. These yield excellent fruit and are profitable to their owners, but unfortunately many trees have succumbed to the attacks of the Codlin moth. Special action has been taken during the last two years to deal with this pest. There has been a marked increase of late in the planting of young walnut trees.
Almonds
The cultivation of this tree has greatly extended of late. Its drought-resisting properties enable it to withstand the climate of the plains and on the level slopes of both ranges it grows well. There are several large plantations, notably at Psevdhas, Larnaca district, where the famous Jordan variety is found, and as the tree seems indifferent to soil, and thrives particularly well on the limestone which is so general throughout the Island, it may be hoped that it will be greatly multiplied. Both the soft- and the hard-shelled varieties are grown. Much good work has lately been done in School Gardens, under expert advice, in germinating the seed in damp sand. The villagers, finding the seedlings already to hand for planting, have been induced to plant them out.
Almonds are used as stocks on which to graft peaches, kaishas, apricots and plums ("mirabelles").
Spanish Chestnut
Some years ago good numbers of the edible chestnut were raised at Pedoulas by the Agricultural Department and distributed to villagers for growing in the hills. It is feared that the greater part of these trees, through want of attention, unsuitability of soil or climate, lack of moisture, and especially damage by goats, have been lost, but some remain and well-grown young trees may be found in certain localities and in moderate numbers among the mountains. As soon as adequate protection from goats can be given, this tree might be well worth more extensive cultivation. It prospers well when properly cared for, but will not thrive in soils containing more than about 3 per cent. of lime or at an elevation below about 1,000 ft.
The tree has been propagated almost entirely from seed, which must be as fresh as possible. No doubt one reason for the lack of interest hitherto shown in this tree by villagers is that it does not begin to fruit, as a rule, until about its twentieth year.
Pistacia
Several species of Pistacia occur in Cyprus, and although they yield products of different kinds, it will be convenient to deal with them together in the present section.
The pistachio nut (Pistacia vera), locally called "Aleppo pistachio," is a native of Persia and Arabia and it was thought, until a few years ago, that it would not thrive in Cyprus. That is, however, a fallacy, which is rather confirmed by the fact that the P. Terebinthus and the P. Lentiscus are indigenous to the Island. It is considered that the best method of cultivation is to bud P. vera on P. Terebinthus. Though they grow more slowly, these budded trees are more robust and better resist drought, cold and moisture. The trees should yield fruit in five years from the time of grafting. A fair number of these trees have now been distributed from the Government Nursery Gardens.
This tree provides the pistachio nuts which are now imported from Syria and Chios.
Male trees do not usually flower at the same time as female; consequently there has been difficulty in getting fruit with seeds, and recourse must in that case be had to artificial fertilisation.
The Palestine or turpentine tree (P. palæstina), local name "trémithos," grows in certain parts of the Island, but is seen at its best in the Paphos district, especially in and around the town of Ktima. The fruit is eaten fresh or salted and dried. It yields 10 to 15 per cent. of edible oil which has a certain local demand. A medium-sized tree may produce up to 60 to 80 okes of fruit. After crushing and expression, the residue together with the seed is found to be a good food for pigs. A small consignment of both the dried and salted fruit and of the residue was sold in Egypt in 1916 and realised 5 to 6 cp. per oke for the former, and 3s. to 4s. per kilé for the latter.
By making incisions in the trunks of both the male and the female trees a gum or turpentine known as "Paphos tar" is obtained, which fetches as much as 8s. to 10s. per oke. It is used locally for chewing.
This is one of the largest trees in the Island and is of handsome shape. It is deciduous and some fine specimens are met with.
Pistacia Lentiscus, locally known as shinia, or shinia bush, abounds all along the coasts of the Island. From the seeds of this shrub an oil is expressed which is used for culinary purposes, particularly for frying fish. The oil is also in good local demand for soap making, and a very fair soap is produced, especially at Akanthou, in which the oil is the chief ingredient.
The leaves of this shrub are largely used for tanning purposes and were at one time regularly exported to England, though in small quantities. The principal market for shinia leaves is Palermo. They are employed to no small extent for the adulteration of sumach, for which Palermo is also the leading market. Shinia leaves were also in demand at Lyons as a dyeing material for silk stuffs.
There are also a few specimens of a variety of P. Lentiscus (mastic tree) from which in the Island of Chios the famous Chios mastic is obtained by incisions made in the trunks of the male stocks.
The terebinth tree (P. Terebinthus), locally called "tremithia," is a bush very widely grown throughout the higher regions. It is used as a stock on which to graft P. vera. The berries are used for extraction of oil which has a value for culinary purposes. They are also made into a cake called "tremithopites." The berries are much smaller than those of the P. palæstina.
Vegetables
The cultivation of vegetables has considerably extended of late. Good market gardens have existed in and around the principal towns for many years, but more attention is now being paid to this industry in the villages, wherever water is available, and a considerable amount of skill is shown in production.
Among the best and most generally grown vegetables are spinach, cauliflowers, cabbages, egg-plants, lady's fingers, leeks, artichokes, broad beans (also grown as a field crop), radishes, celery, beet-root, pumpkins, marrows, cucumbers, lettuces, tomatoes, lentils, kohl-rabi ("kouloumbra"), kidney beans ("phasoulia"), peas, kolokas, onions and potatoes.
There is a considerable demand in Egypt for fresh vegetables, and to meet this the land around the "ports" of Famagusta, Larnaca and Limassol has been for some years specially devoted to their cultivation. In the mountain valleys a continuous series of small vegetable gardens may be seen flanking the sides of the river-banks. The exports of vegetables to Egypt in recent years are given in the following table:
| Year. | Onions. | Beans and Peas. | Other Vegetables. |
| Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | |
| 1909 | 6,664 | 1,729 | 49 |
| 1910 | 3,807 | 858 | 60 |
| 1911 | 5,512 | 2,346 | 122 |
| 1912 | 3,659 | 2,583 | 135 |
| 1913 | 2,854 | 1,670 | 32 |
Beans and Peas
Beans are grown for market mainly at Marathassa and Pitsillia and generally in the higher regions, but only to a small extent in the plains.
Before the war there was a comparatively large importation of beans from Anatolia. This having stopped, local prices rose and stimulated production in the Island.
The Cypriot is a lover of dried vegetables, and there might well be an extension in the cultivation of beans, similar to that which has lately taken place in the case of green peas. Except in one or two places, these were not sown by the villagers until about four years ago, but so valuable have they been found, especially in recent years of scarcity and high cost of other foodstuffs, that now whole districts are being devoted to their cultivation.
The French or kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is locally known under the general term "louvia." This name is applied both to Phaseolus vulgaris and to Dolichos melanophthalmus (Vigna Catjang var. sinensis). To distinguish the two kinds the Cypriot describes the P. vulgaris as "louvia gliastra" (i.e. lustrous, owing to its shiny appearance), or "louvia peratica" (i.e. foreign), as D. melanophthalmus was introduced and had become acclimatised some time before. Gennadius, however, describes the "louvia peratica" as Dolichos Lablab or lablab bean.
Both the dwarf ("koutsoulia") and the climbing ("makrya" or "anarichomena") varieties of P. vulgaris are grown. There are two white kinds, the large ("adra") and the small ("psintra").
Beans of various colours are grown here and there, and one spotted variety ("patsaloudhia") merits greater attention than it receives at present, both on account of its greater productiveness and for its excellent flavour. Two of these are stringless, but a drawback to them is that they discolour the water in which they are boiled.
There are several newly imported kinds which are privately grown, and these are gradually coming into the local markets.
The lubia or cow-pea (Dolichos melanophthalmus = Vigna Catjang var. sinensis), being a good drought-resister, is grown more or less throughout the Island. It is frequently sown in mixed crop with cotton, sesame, Indian corn, etc.
Two kinds are cultivated—the larger, "lubia melissomatia" (having the eye like a bee), and the smaller, "lubia mavromatoudhia" (dark-eyed).
The dried pods of Phaseolus and Dolichos are fed to animals and are also used for stuffing mattresses.
The broad bean (Vicia Faba) has been grown for some years on irrigated land in the plains, where it takes a recognised place in the rotation. Its cultivation is now spreading to the higher parts.
The soy bean was introduced a few years ago by the Agricultural Department, but has failed hitherto to attract attention. Villagers find it requires different cooking from what they are accustomed to, and local dealers are not yet prepared to deal in it. It has been found resistant to disease, and further efforts are being made to bring it into popular favour.
The Ochrus vetch (Lathyrus Ochrus), locally known as "louvana," is a fairly common spring crop, being grown for the sake of the seed which provides a favourite Cypriot dish. The leaves are also used as a salad. This crop is sown in the plains in January, but in the Karpas and some other parts it is sown in the autumn.
Chick-peas (Cicer arietinum), locally called "revithia," grow well and are cultivated to a moderate extent. Samples examined at the Imperial Institute proved to be of normal composition. Two firms of produce brokers in London stated that if quantities of about 5 tons at a time could be delivered in England in as good a condition as the sample they could be sold for human consumption and would be worth (1917) £20 to £24 per ton c.i.f., United Kingdom ports. If of inferior quality to the sample they would be fit only for cattle food and fetch considerably less (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xv. 1917, p. 307).
Chick-peas when roasted are locally called "koudames" and are eaten in the same way as ground-nuts, which they much resemble in flavour. They are little, if at all, used in Cyprus as a cattle food.
Potatoes
The potato-growing industry in Cyprus has developed considerably in recent years, as will be seen from the subjoined table of exports:
| Year. | Quantity. | Value. |
| Cwts. | £ | |
| 1909 | 12,586 | 3,105 |
| 1910 | 14,983 | 3,839 |
| 1911 | 36,271 | 8,472 |
| 1912 | 45,336 | 10,348 |
| 1913 | 31,310 | 7,003 |
| 1914 | 54,203 | 11,741 |
| 1915 | 82,304 | 28,513 |
| 1916 | 136,027 | 74,632 |
| 1917 | 224,453 | 101,120 |
These figures, however, are a very inadequate indication of the actual increase of production, inasmuch as the local consumption of this vegetable before the war was confined almost entirely to the well-to-do residents in the towns, whereas now it is rapidly becoming a staple food of the people. This unascertainable but large local consumption must be added to the latest export returns in order to arrive at an estimate of present production.
The most favoured variety was at first, and with many growers still is, what is known as the French potato, the original seed having been brought from France. Irish potatoes (locally called "pittakoura") have now largely displaced these, partly, no doubt, on account of the greater facility of obtaining the latter seed during the war.
A native variety of potato, believed to have been imported by Syrian Arabs in the sixteenth century, is still grown on a small scale in the Marathassa valley. This potato has deep-set eyes and a luxuriant growth above ground and possesses a characteristic sweet taste.
Great progress has been made within the last few years in the matter of cultivation, and the old practice of planting broadcast on the flat has given way to ridge planting at proper distances apart. The practice formerly was to drop the potatoes into the plough furrow. These were covered over by the return plough; every third furrow was sown.
The Egyptian demand and the purchases made for military purposes have greatly stimulated production.
The good prices obtained have led, particularly in the Famagusta district and in what are called the "red earth" villages, to much activity and no small outlay in the matter of water-supply and distribution, and in the use of chemical manures.
The custom has grown up for importers to send their seed potatoes for planting in the higher parts of the Island. The produce therefrom is exchanged with growers in the plains, who send up their plain-grown tubers as seed to the cultivators in the hills. Merchants often stipulate with the hill-growers that they shall have their crop at an agreed, and generally a fairly high, figure. In this manner degeneration of the seed has been retarded; but owing to the difficulty of obtaining seed from outside during the war a certain amount of degeneration has taken place.
Only one crop can be grown in the hills during the year, but in the plains two crops are obtained. The one is planted in January and is dug in May-June; the other is planted in July and dug in November. It is found that the tubers lifted in the summer suffer greatly from the heat, and heavy losses occur from rot, whether the tubers remain in the ground or if they are dug and stored; and it is a question whether, when these losses are taken into account, the summer crop is really profitable.
The average yield is sometimes put at 2,000 okes per donum, but 1,600 okes, or 2 tons, is probably a more accurate figure.
Kolokas (Colocasia antiquorum)
This is a favourite food of the villager, but can only be grown where there is an ample water-supply and on heavy land that holds the water. It is an exhausting crop. The root only is eaten. It is sown in March-April and dug about October-November.
Onions
These are generally grown, especially in the Paphos district; Famagusta and Limassol following in the order named. The Paphos onions are supposed to have particularly good keeping qualities. Both round ("strongyla") and long varieties ("tolmalikia") are grown; the latter have less fleshy scales than the former.
Onions are grown either in irrigated gardens or in "livadhia," or low-lying lands which retain their moisture, no irrigation being needed. They are propagated by means of "konari" or bulblets. Lapithos in the Kyrenia district makes a speciality of producing these from seed and supplying them to the whole Island, although onions are grown for market only on a limited scale in that area. The method is to plant out the full-grown onions (locally called "mammes") and leave them to ripen their seed. The seed is sown in February-March, at the rate of 20-25 okes per donum, from which some 3,000 okes of "konari" are raised. These are then sold for planting out in October-November-December at the rate of 40-50 okes per donum.
Onions are grown either in rows or broadcast. The native variety has the outer scales of a reddish colour, but these have largely given way to superior imported kinds.
Fodders and Feeding Stuffs
Carob Tree
The carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is indigenous in Syria, and probably also in the northern countries of Africa, whence it presumably spread to certain parts of Asia Minor, to Greece, the Greek Islands and Southern Italy.
At the time of Christ, and for some centuries later, this tree was known to the Greeks by the name of keronia or keratea, being the Greek for horns, and is given to the locust or carob bean from its supposed resemblance to goats' horns. It is also known in different parts of Cyprus under the following names; teratsia (a corruption of keratea), xylokeratea, kountouroudia, koutsoupia and charoupia. The last named is of Arabic origin (kharroub) and the same root of the word is common all over Europe. Moreover, the fruit varies slightly according to locality, and develops local characteristics which have acquired for it distinctive local names; thus in Kyrenia District we have templiotiké and kyrionitiké, in the Karpas there is the sarakine (introduced by Saracens?) and elsewhere the vaklitiké and komboté. This bean or pod, which when ripe is of a chocolate colour, contains from 6 to 10 hard seeds, embedded in a sweet, pithy, honey-like substance which imparts the flavour so much appreciated by animals.
The carob tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosæ, sub-order Caesalpinæ, and is the only species of the genus Ceratonia. It is an evergreen, long-lived tree, growing to a height of 30 ft. and sometimes even to 50 and 60 ft. It thrives in most kinds of soil, especially in porous, marly and even volcanic soils, but not in marshy lands. Owing to its long tap root it resists drought well, and is to be found growing well in rocky land such as is common in many of the carob areas of Cyprus. It is very generally found intermixed with the olive tree and up to about the same altitude.
A succession of flowers is produced from July to September or October, and in favourable years up to December and even later, and in July-August the tree bears both flowers and ripe fruit. The collection of the latter commences about mid-August, the exact date being annually fixed separately in each district by the Commissioner. This is done in order to prevent the fruit from being stolen.
Recent investigations made by the Agricultural Department go to prove that the fruit-producing carob tree of Cyprus is really hermaphrodite, though there yet remains much room for investigation and the point is not finally settled. The others are true male trees. The hermaphrodite carob trees which form practically the whole of the fruit-producing trees of the Island are cleistogamous (i.e. self-fertilised before the calyx opens) and short-stamened.
There are also certain trees self-produced from seed which are superior to the ordinary so-called wild tree. These bear fruit which is straight and short but more or less marketable, and these are known as "kountoura" (short) or "apostoliki," as though sent by chance or by Providence. The word "apostoliki" is applied in Cyprus to other kinds of trees or fruit showing similar phenomena.
There are several millions of these trees in the State forests, and yet more privately owned. It frequently happens that, owing to the wide powers of testamentary disposition, a single tree passes by inheritance to several heirs.
Many thousands of carob plants are annually raised in the Government gardens and issued at a trifling charge. The common method of propagation has been to sow the seeds in pots, and when the plant is from 18 in. to 2 ft. high it is ready for transplanting. The seed, which is very hard, is softened by placing it in a cauldron or saucepan of cold water. The water is then brought to the boil. On arriving at boiling-point the water is cooled and should then be changed and the seed left to steep for twenty-four hours. Owing to the long tap root, sowing in ordinary nursery beds has not been satisfactory, as the plants, which certainly make better growth than in pots, do not transplant well.
The foregoing methods have to a great extent been superseded by that of germinating the seed in damp sand and sowing direct in the field in properly prepared holes. Little watering is needed if the holes are deep and the soil kept friable. A top mulch is useful to conserve the moisture.
Transplanting from pots or beds is best done when the plants are twelve months old and about 12 in. high, after that it is precarious. Grafting may be done as soon as the stem is thick enough to take a graft, either before or after transplanting.
The tree is liable to attack by insects and other pests. Scale (Aspidiotus ceratoniæ) is very common; but the greatest damage of late years has been caused by the fly Cecidomyia ceratoniæ, which lays its eggs on the flowers or newly-set fruit, and the grub feeds on the bean, causing it to become stunted and of no commercial value. This stunted condition is locally known as "brachycarpia" and has been the subject of careful scientific study and practical treatment by the Agricultural Department during the last few years. Very satisfactory results have been recorded from the campaigns, which have so far been limited to the Kyrenia District, and these have justified the extension of compulsory treatment to other infected areas. This and other pests, such as Myelois ceratoniæ, Cossus liniperda (a lepidopterous boring insect), a species of Mycetiasis, and a small hymenopterous fly which has lately appeared and is now under investigation, have, no doubt, checked production. The attacks of Cecidomyia, when serious, reduce the yield by 80 per cent. or over, and normally may lessen it by 40 to 50 per cent.
Much damage is also caused by rats (Mus alexandrinus), which gnaw the bark of the branches, causing them to dry up. Their destruction is encouraged by Government by the payment of 1 cp. per tail.
Carob gathering commences about mid-August and lasts for about a month. The beans are knocked down with long sticks, put into sacks and brought into store, or heaped up in the open air, where they often remain for several weeks. This is a safe procedure, as there is little rainfall at that season, and what might fall would not harm the beans, which would quickly dry again.
It is not easy to estimate the yield per donum of carob trees, but assuming that the trees were planted 30 ft. apart, and there were 16 medium-sized trees to the donum, the yield would average somewhere about 1,260 okes to the donum. The yield varies from year to year, a good year generally being followed by a moderate year. The fruit may be destroyed by frost in January and February, knocked off by hail-stones in March and April or scorched by hot winds in May or June. A full-sized, well-cultivated tree can give up to 720 okes. Taking good and bad years, the value of the annual produce of a medium-sized tree is 5s.
Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes, and the normal price may be put at from 13s. to 17s. per cantar delivered into store.
Carobs are weighed on export and the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the Customs House.
The following table shows the export of carobs during the ten years ending 1913-14:
| Year. | Quantity. | Value. |
| Tons. | £ | |
| 1904-05 | 31,887 | 104,301 |
| 1905-06 | 26,187 | 85,105 |
| 1906-07 | 44,965 | 157,452 |
| 1907-08 | 42,381 | 151,610 |
| 1908-09 | 57,010 | 188,841 |
| 1909-10 | 44,059 | 157,972 |
| 1910-11 | 37,485 | 145,590 |
| 1911-12 | 51,359 | 182,883 |
| 1912-13 | 63,658 | 251,750 |
| 1913-14 | 44,989 | 179,027 |
The falling-off in 1913-14 was mainly due to the losses caused by the fly Cecidomyia ceratoniæ.
The fruit of the carob is exported mostly to England, but also to France and Egypt, and more recently, before the war, to Germany. Gaudry mentions that about the middle of last century it was exported to Russia, Sardinia and Austria. Some is used, in Egypt and the Levant especially, as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and sherbets. Its chief use in Western Europe is as food for animals, bovine and equine, for which purpose it is ground up and made into either meal or cattle cakes. It is also said to be employed in the manufacture of chocolate and spirit, and there is a demand for the seed for use in the manufacture of certain gums.
The juice of the bean, "carob honey," locally called "mavromelos," "teratsomelo" or "betmezi," is consumed as a substitute for bee-honey or jam and also as a flavouring for culinary purposes. From the carob honey is also made the sweetmeat "pastelli."
At one time carobs were used in Cyprus for fattening mules and other animals, but, unfortunately, this practice died out. Efforts are now being made to revive it, and the advantages of this local product are again becoming recognised.
The carob contains some 50 per cent. of saccharine matter and the interesting question has been raised in recent years as to whether the bean might not become a new source of sugar production.
Lucerne (Medicago sativa)
This plant was introduced about eighteen years ago, but in spite of its undoubted success when properly grown on suitable soil, the Cypriot farmer was for many years very slow to make use of it. Every effort has been made of late years to encourage its cultivation and during the last three or four years there has been a steadily increased demand for seed. Irrigation is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory yield, but there are many farms where it might be grown with great advantage. Its value for cattle food is generally recognised, and now that greater attention is being given to dairy cattle, lucerne would seem to have an assured future.
Vetch (Vicia Ervilia)
This plant, known locally as "rovi," is undoubtedly the most widely grown of the fodder crops. Being a leguminous plant, it has a restorative action on the soil, although the average Cypriot farmer still considers it to be exhaustive.
In the plains sowing begins in January, whereas in the Pitsillia, and even in the Morphou, Solea and Tylliria districts which are only at the foothills, it is sown in October-November, i.e. before the cereals.
Rovi is almost the only food in the form of seed given to ploughing oxen throughout the East. It is regarded as heat-giving and strengthening, and is therefore fed specially in winter. It is sometimes given unthreshed with the straw. It is harvested in May, when it is uprooted, made into little bundles, which are stacked together in small heaps in the field, until they turn yellow, when they are removed to the native threshing-floor and threshed in the customary manner. The dry stems, etc., are eagerly eaten by cattle and sheep. The average yield is very little, from 2 to 4 or 5 kilés per donum. It is subject to tithe.
Chickling Vetch (Lathyrus sativus)
The chickling vetch, known locally as "favetta" or "chavetta," has come rather more into prominence of late years, displacing the vetch (Vicia Ervilia) to some extent, as it gives a heavier yield. It is subject to tithe.
Vetch (Vicia sativa)
This crop, called locally "vicos," was introduced from Crete in 1913 and has been found excellently suited to this country. It is most useful in any rotation, and has to some extent supplanted rovi (Vicia Ervilia) as it gives a larger yield. It is a most nutritious cattle food, for which purpose it is grown. When crushed and mixed with chopped straw it is readily eaten by cattle and sheep. The plant seeds itself very freely. It is sown about November-December and is ready for harvesting in about April. Seed is sown at the rate of 5 to 6 okes per donum and the yield is normally from 8 to 12 kilés per donum. It is a good drought-resister and needs no irrigation, and being a leguminous plant should be cut and not pulled up, as the roots left in the soil serve to increase the amount of nitrogenous salts. Being a vetch it is subject to tithe.
Tares (Vicia tenuifolia var. stenophylla)
This plant, locally called "mavracheron" or "phakacheron," grows wild in the Pitsillia district among the vineyards and other cultivated as well as uncultivated lands. It is of value in those remote localities where grain and straw are little grown and difficult to procure, as it provides a wholesome fodder for cattle. The villagers have now taken to cultivating the plant. It is cut before the seeds are fully matured to prevent loss of seed through shedding. The seeds and chaff are mixed together when fed to cattle.
Milk Vetch (Astragalus)
This plant, locally called "arkokoutsia," grows wild in some abundance among the hills. When it appears above ground it is readily eaten by animals, especially sheep; but at this stage it is apt to cause hoven. As the plant hardens the animals do not touch it, except when fully ripe, and then it is greedily eaten.
As soon as it blossoms, but before the fruit is set, the plant is gathered and tied into bundles or small sheaves and stored in a heap. When, after a few months, it is quite dry, and at a time when other foods are scarce, it forms an important part of an animal's ration.
The plants are sometimes allowed to mature their seeds, and these, after being steeped in water for two or three days to remove acidity, are given to pigs, and are considered a nourishing and palatable food.
Moha, Sulla (Hedysarum)
These have been tried for some years with success and are gradually becoming known and experimentally grown by farmers.
Teosinte (Reana luxurians)
This grass is one of the most valuable fodder plants with which the New World has enriched the Old. It is a native of Guatemala and is also largely grown in Australia.
Seed was first imported into Cyprus by the Agricultural Department in 1897, and since then the plant has been continuously grown in the Government gardens with marked success. It is sown in March-April in the same manner as Indian corn, to which it is allied.
If irrigated, three or four cuttings may be obtained during the summer, yielding 25 to 30 tons of green food per scala. It is greedily eaten by cattle. Some plants grown by the Department attained a height of 11 ft. 3 in. and of others which were left to ripen their seed, one had 93 stems and weighed 26 okes, though the leaves had begun to shrivel and had lost weight.
This plant is gradually becoming known and may be found growing on some of the more progressive farms.
Sudan-grass
Seed of this fodder grass was imported in 1915 and very satisfactory crops have been obtained each year since then from the experimental plots. The grass seems well suited to Cyprus and gives a useful yield even when unirrigated. Occasional irrigation produces a valuable crop. Trial sowings are now being made on a few private farms.
Teff-grass (Eragrostis abyssinica)
This has also been tried experimentally with good results and it is hoped that its cultivation will extend as it becomes more known.
Mangold Wurzel
This crop has been grown for several years at the Government Farm, Athalassa, where it has done well and forms an important part of the cows' rations. It has been grown successfully on a small scale in some of the Nursery Gardens.
As irrigation, deep ploughing, thorough cultivation of the soil and special cultural operations are needed, this crop cannot be generally recommended to farmers, but it is being grown by a few progressive stock owners under Departmental advice.
The wild beet (Beta vulgaris) is a native of the seacoasts of South-eastern Europe, and the garden beet-root is much grown in Cyprus in certain localities, so, if carefully cultivated, mangold wurzel, which is a variety of B. vulgaris, might also do well in many parts and be of great advantage to stock owners.
Prickly Pear (Opuntia)
The prickly pear grows wild as a hedge plant in Cyprus. The fruit is eaten to some extent by villagers, but no attempt has yet been made to use the stems as food for animals. In Sicily very large quantities are so utilised, and now that milch cows are coming more into demand in Cyprus the value of the plant for fodder may become recognised. Successful experiments have been made by the Agricultural Department in mixing the juice of the stems with lime for giving brilliance and permanence to ordinary whitewash. There has been an occasional export of the fruit to Egypt for consumption by Arabs.
Spices
Coriander Seed
Coriander seed is the product of Coriandrum sativum, Linn., an annual herb belonging to the natural order Umbelliferæ. The "seed," or more strictly fruit, of the plant is employed in confectionery in making bonbons, in the preparation of certain liqueurs and as an ingredient for disguising the taste of medicines. In Cyprus it is commonly used as a flavouring in cooking.
A sample sent to the Imperial Institute in 1917 was examined as a source of volatile oil, and the residue remaining after distillation was analysed as a feeding-stuff. On steam distillation the ground seed yielded 0.48 per cent. of an almost colourless volatile oil with the characteristic and pleasant odour of coriander. This yield is below that furnished by Russian and German coriander, but is about equal to that obtained from Morocco seed. The results of the examination indicate that the residue has a fairly high feeding-value, and it would be quite suitable for the ordinary use of coriander residue, i.e. as a cattle food.
A sample of the seeds was submitted to brokers in London, who reported that they were very stalky, but that their value would be from 50s. to 60s. per cwt. (January 1917) as compared with 10s. to 15s. per cwt. before the war. (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xv. 1917, p. 301).
Aniseed
Aniseed, the fruit of an umbelliferous herb (Pimpinella Anisum, Linn.), is grown on a comparatively small scale in Cyprus, the exports in recent years varying from 1,000 to 2,000 cwts. per annum. In 1917, 1,015 cwts., valued at £3,164, were exported, all of which went to Egypt.
Seed sent for examination to the Imperial Institute was reported to consist of aniseed in good condition and practically free from extraneous matter.
A sample of the seed was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that at that time (January 1917) stocks of aniseed were quite exhausted, and the prices therefore much inflated, small stocks of Spanish aniseed having changed hands in London at 110s. per cwt. Such price could not be secured if any quantity of aniseed were placed on the market. The value of the Cyprus sample before the war would have been about 27s. 6d. per cwt. (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xv. 1917, p. 300).
White Cumin Seed
White cumin is also an umbelliferous herb (Cuminum Cyminum, Linn.); an account of the cultivation and uses of this and other spices is given in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 131-136.
A sample of the seed sent to the Imperial Institute was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that it was rather small and stalky, but that it would probably be worth between 70s. and 80s. per cwt. (January 1917), although they were of opinion that its pre-war value would not have been much over 20s. per cwt. (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xv. 1917, p. 302).
Black Cumin Seed
These seeds, sometimes known as fennel-flower seeds, are the product of Nigella sativa, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Ranunculaceæ). The plant is an annual, native to the Mediterranean region, and the seeds, which are used in the East for flavouring curries, etc., and in Egypt as comfits on cakes, have an aromatic fennel-like odour when fresh and a slightly acrid taste. There is a small export of black cumin seed from Cyprus. There is, however, but little demand for this seed (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xv. 1917, p. 304).
Essential Oils and Perfumes
Origanum Oil
Different opinions have been held as to the botanical identification of the plant from which the Cyprus origanum oil is produced. An interesting series of articles on this subject by E. M. Holmes appears in the Perfumery and Essential Oil Record, 1913, from which it would seem that this oil is derived from Origanum majoranoides, Wild.; while Dr. Stapf, of Kew, regards the plant as O. dubium, Boiss. (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). Other varieties growing wild in Cyprus are O. Onites, O. hirtum, both of which are locally called "rigani," O. Bevani (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xv. 1917, p. 305) and O. majorana.
In its wild state the plant from which origanum oil is distilled is a small perennial shrub, but, if cultivated, its size may be doubled or even trebled. The first crop, consisting of shoots and flowers, may give from 300 to 500 okes per donum; in subsequent years up to 1,000-1,500 okes per donum. The latter quantity would produce 40 to 60 okes of origanum oil, which is largely used in England for perfuming soap and other purposes.
For twenty years the distillation of origanum oil has been made under Government control. The industry was started in 1899 and, though not large, has steadily grown. It has been found that the Cyprus origanum oil is exceptionally rich in carvacrol (over 80 per cent.), a powerful antiseptic, and to this substance the oil owes mainly its characteristic thyme-like odour. Frequent analyses have shown that the Cyprus origanum oil is remarkably constant in character.
This oil has the slight disadvantage of darkening considerably on exposure to light and air, which renders it unsuitable for use in light-coloured soaps, but a method has been worked out at the Imperial Institute of refining the oil so as to yield a product which will remain practically colourless for long periods.
A report furnished by the Imperial Institute (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. iv. 1906, p. 299), after giving a detailed description of the oil, states:
"The foregoing results show that this oil sells readily in this country at prices which should be fairly remunerative to producers in Cyprus. It should, however, be borne in mind that the demand for this oil is somewhat limited, and that it competes with the thyme oil produced in France and Spain, and with the 'origanum oil' produced in Smyrna, and that consequently a sudden increase in production in Cyprus might lead to a considerable fall in price. The Cyprus oil has, however, the advantage that it is very rich in the odorous and antiseptic constituent carvacrol, and it is probably due to its richness in this constituent, as revealed by the analyses made at the Imperial Institute, that the comparatively high prices realised for these consignments were obtained at a time when 'red thyme oils' were selling at lower rates. It would be advantageous if a refined white oil could be prepared by some simple method from this material, as this probably would fetch an enhanced price, and be applicable to other purposes for which the 'red oil' is unsuitable."
Until 1910 the distillation was made by the Department, but since then it has been undertaken by private contract, permission being given to collect the wild plant from the forest. The annual production is now about 2,750 lb., and the price has steadily risen from about 3s. per lb. to 8s. 6d. per lb. at the present time. But whereas the cost of transport to London before the war was £8 per ton, it has risen to the prohibitive rate of £200 per ton, and the 1917 oil still remains in store at Alexandria.
The supply of the wild plant is limited and its cultivation is under consideration.
The following table shows the exports of origanum oil in recent years:
| Year. | Quantity. |
| lb. | |
| 1902 | 2,092 |
| 1903 | No distillation |
| 1904 | 2,410 |
| 1905 | 1,463 |
| 1906 | 2,200 |
| 1907 | 1,745 |
| 1908 | 2,051 |
| 1909 | [4]1,530 |
| 1910 | 2,842 |
| 1911 | 2,276 |
| 1912 | 2,230 |
| 1913 | 2,455 |
| 1914 | 3,776 |
| 1915 | 3,709 |
| 1916 | 2,756 |
| 1917 | 2,696 |
| 1918 | 2,066 |
Marjoram Oil
This is not yet a regular product, but samples of locally produced oil have been examined at the Imperial Institute and pronounced to be superior to European marjoram oil and about equal in value to sweet fennel oil (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). It is distilled from a plant which is abundant in the forests of Kyrenia and Paphos, and which has been referred by Dr. Stapf to O. majoranoides, Wild., and by Mr. Holmes to O. Maru, Linn. The market is, however, restricted.
Laurel Oil
Samples of oil distilled from the leaves of Laurus nobilis which were examined at the Imperial Institute were found to have an aroma inferior to that of the oils usually met with in commerce (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xi. 1913, p. 430). The demand for the oil is said to be small.
Otto of Roses
This has been prepared since 1897 in a very small way with native stills at the village of Milikouri, where the Damask rose is abundant. The cultivation of this rose has now spread to other hill villages. The closing of the market for Bulgarian otto of roses owing to the war has given an impetus to the industry in Cyprus. The Agricultural Department has for two years sent qualified officers to superintend the work at Milikouri and to carry out an experimental distillation.
A report from the Director, Imperial Institute, upon samples of the 1917 distillation states that "the constants of the Cyprus oil agree closely with those recorded for Bulgarian otto of roses." It was found that the odour of the Cyprus oil was fairly good, but rather weak. The otto sold at 70s. per ounce, less 2½ per cent., which "in view of the very small quantity must be considered satisfactory." At the time of sale French otto was quoted at 78s. to 85s. per ounce.
Acacia Farnesiana
This tree is but sparsely represented in Cyprus, but wherever found it is vigorous and healthy. It belongs to the Mimosa tribe of the order Leguminosæ and, as other species are common in the Island and thrive remarkably well, there would seem no reason why this species also should not become more general.
It is known elsewhere under different names; that of "sweet briar" (in Barbados) on account of its numerous thorns and the exquisite scent of its flowers, and "stinking cossie" (in Antigua) owing to the highly disagreeable smell of its wood. The word "cossie" may be a corruption of acacia.
Its flowers are largely used in perfumery, and the annual crop of the flowers of this plant in France is stated to be worth thousands of francs, and a particularly delicate fragrant perfume is extracted from them. The pods are said to yield a fair amount of tannin, while from the cracks in the bark of the trunk and branches there exudes a gum very like the true gum arabic and is utilised for the same purpose. The wood makes good charcoal.
It is locally known as "skouroupathos" or "skouroupathia," and is closely allied to the extremely common weed of that name which is found abundantly in nearly every field in the plains during summer, but which, owing to its deep-rooted system, the natives do not trouble to eradicate. It is also allied to Prosopis juliflora or algaroba tree, of which there are a few specimens in the Island.
Oils and Oil Seeds
Olives
The olive tree grows wild in Cyprus, but the wild fruit is small and bitter and yields an inferior oil. The cultivated trees are those which have been grafted. Owing to the stringent regulations which have prohibited the introduction of living plants from abroad, it has not been possible to obtain from elsewhere good grafts of new varieties. These regulations have lately been modified to allow of importations by the Agricultural Department under special restrictions, and now that the war has ended it is hoped to obtain these much-needed olive grafts.
This tree thrives well, almost all over the Island, up to an altitude of about 2,300 ft., and numbers of vigorous wild olive trees are to be met with, which only need cleaning and grafting in order to bear fruit.
Cyprus olives are divided into two classes, locally known as (a) "adrouppes" or "drouppes," which are eaten in the green or black stage, and (b) "ladoelies," which are suitable both for eating and for oil extraction.
Of the former, or "adrouppes," one kind is rather large, with rough skin, having a rough, big stone, the other is longer but of less diameter, and has a very thin, smooth skin and the stone is smooth, curved and smaller. The latter has a better taste and resembles the well-known Greek olive of Calamata. Both these "adrouppes" are prepared for the table while still green, and are known as "kolymbates," or sometimes they are called "tsakkistes," owing to the stone being slightly crushed in the process of preparation.
The "ladoelies" are of two distinct varieties, the larger of which is mostly regarded as an edible olive, and contains a less percentage of oil, while the other, or smaller kind, is richer in oil contents, and is mainly used for oil production, though it is sometimes eaten.