A military dictionary

by William Duane

G.

GABION, in fortification, is a kind of basket, made of ozier-twigs, of a cylindrical form, having different dimensions, according to what purpose it is used for. Some gabions are 5 or 6 feet high, and 3 feet in diameter: these serve in sieges, to carry on the approaches under cover, when they come pretty near the fortification. Those used in field-works are 3 or 4 feet high, and 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet diameter. There are also gabions, about 1 foot high, 12 inches diameter at top, and from 8 to 10 at bottom, which are placed along the top of the parapet, to cover the troops in firing over it, they are filled with earth.

In order to make them, some pickets, 3 or 4 feet long, are struck into the ground, in form of a circle, and of a proper diameter, wattled together with small branches, in the manner of wattled fences. Batteries are often made of gabions. See [Battery].

Gabions.—Small gabions of 3 feet high, and 2 feet diameter, are made with least trouble, and are easiest carried. The pickets for them must be 1¹⁄₂ or 2 inches thick, and 4 feet long. Large gabions are 6 feet high, and 3 feet in diameter; and require two men to carry them. The smallest gabions or baskets are formed of pickets, 1 inch in thickness, and 1 foot long: they are 12 inches in diameter at top, and 10 at bottom. The small gabions have 7 or 8 pickets, the large ones 9 or 10.

To make them—The pickets are first to be fixed in the ground in a circle, the size or the bottom of the intended gabion; then a few twigs are to be wove through the upper ends, to keep them from flying out; afterwards the work must be begun at the bottom and continued upwards; and the whole being well driven down with a mallet, the edges must be secured by twigs, wattled up and down. The twigs of willow, birch, hazle, alder, poplar, and beech are proper for this purpose. The top of the gabion must be made very even, because that becomes the bottom when finished. Four men are usually employed on each gabion, with a billhook, a mallet, a spade, and two axes. Two collect the wood, while the other two form the gabion. A 3 foot gabion ought to be made in half an hour.

Stuft-Gabions, in fortification, are made in the same manner as the former: they are only filled with all sorts of branches and small wood, and are 4 or 6 feet long: they serve to roll before the workmen in the trenches to cover them in front against musquet-shot.

Gabion farci, Fr. a stuft gabion.

GABIONADE, Fr. a term made use of when a retrenchment is suddenly thrown up and formed of gabions, for the purpose of covering the retreat of troops, who may be obliged to abandon a work, after having defended it to the last extremity. Every parapet that is made of gabions is generally called gabionade.

GABIONNER, Fr. to cover or secure with gabions.

GAFFLES, the steel lever with which the ancients bent their cross-bows.

GAGES, Fr. wages. Among the French this phrase signified the fruits or compensations which were derived by individuals from appointments given by the crown, whether of a military, civil, or judicial nature, or for service done at sea or by land.

GAIN is frequently used in a military sense, as they gained the day, &c.

To Gain ground. See [Ground].

GAINE de flamme, Fr. a sort of linen sheath or cover, into which the staff of a flag or pendant is put.

Gaine de pavilion, Fr. a cloth, or linen-band, which is sewed across the flag, and through which the different ribands are interlaced.

Gaines de girouettes, Fr. bands, or pieces of linen, with which the vanes are tied to the staff.

GAITERS, a sort of cover for the leg, usually made of cloth, and are either long as reaching to the knee, or short, as only reaching just above the ancle; the latter are termed half-gaiters.

Galeries Capitales, Fr. are those galleries which lie under the capitals in works of fortification.

Galerie tranversale, Fr. is a gallery in fortification which cuts the capital in a perpendicular direction.

Galerie meurtriére ou de premiere envelope, Fr. a gallery which runs under the whole extent of the covert-way, and is frequently carried close to the counterscarp, in order to afford a circulation of air.

Galerie d’envelope, Fr. a gallery which is constructed at the extremity of the glacis, and is commonly made parallel to the magistral or principal line of fortification. The envelope is the chief gallery in a fortress or garrison-town, and serves as a path of communication or covered way to all the rest.

It is of the utmost consequence to the besieged to secure this gallery from every approach of the enemy; and if any impression should be made, to repair the injury without delay. From this gallery the garrison always direct their attacks, whenever it is necessary to keep the assailants out of the covert-way.

Galerie d’écoute, Fr. a gallery in front of the envelope. Ecouter, which signifies to listen, sufficiently explains the purpose for which these galleries are erected.

Petites Galeries, ou rameaux, Fr. small galleries, branches, or arraignées, in fortification, which issue from the counter-mine, and at the extremities of which the furnace or chamber for the lodgment of gunpowder is constructed. There is not any established or fixed rule to direct the height to which small galleries, branches, or arraignées ought to be carried; in general they should have the least possible elevation.

When galleries are built of mason-work their height is from five to six feet, their breadth from three to four, and sometimes only three.

Galeries de mines, Fr. galleries in mining differ from counter-mines, in as much as that they are supported by coffers resting upon frames, which are covered with earth three feet in depth; that is, two feet and a half from one frame to another. These galleries are usually built three feet and a half high, and two and a half broad; and whenever there is a necessity to work in the rameau or arraignée, the galleries in that case are reduced to smaller proportions.

Galerie magistrale, Fr. in mining signifies any covered avenue or gallery which is parallel to the magistral or principal line of the place, and exists under the whole or part of the front of the fortifications. This gallery is usually as thick as the enemy’s mason-work against which the counter-mine is directed. By means of this work, the besieged generally endeavour to interrupt every attempt which the besiegers may make in the passage of the fossé or ditch.

Galerie à passer un fossé, a gallery constructed for the purpose of crossing a ditch. It is a small passage made of timber-work, having its beams or supporters driven into the bottom of the ditch, and being covered at top with boards that are again covered with earth, sufficiently strong to bear the miner, and to withstand the effect of artificial fire, or the weight of stones which the enemy might direct against them. This sort of gallery is sometimes called the traverse, or cross way.

These galleries have been out of use for some years. The miner gets at the body of the place which is attacked, either through a subterraneous gallery that is dug beneath the ditch, when the nature of the ground will permit the attempt, or under cover of the epaulement, which covers the passage of the ditch. When the ditch is full of water, and the miner has made considerable progress under it, he instantly makes the best of his way to the breach, either by swimming, or by supporting his body on a raft of timber; as soon as he has reached the spot, he works into the earth among the ruins of the wall, and completes the object of his enterprize.

Galeries de communication, Fr. are subterraneous galleries, by means of which, the garrison of a besieged town or place may, without being perceived by the enemy, communicate from the body of the place, or from the counterscarp, with the different outworks.

Galeries souterraines des anciens, Fr. Subterraneous galleries as originally invented by the ancients. The author of the Dictionnaire Militaire in his last edition of that work enters upon the explanation of these galleries by the following curious assertion.

“I must, he observes, in this place, assert with the chevalier Folard, that it would be absurd to deny the superiority which the ancients possessed over us in the essential knowlege and requisites of war, and that they pushed the different branches of that science to as high a pitch of perfection as it was possible to raise it.

“The only inventions which the moderns can boast of, are those of fire-arms, mines, and furnaces. But then, on the other hand, we stand indebted to them for our lines of circumvallation and of contravallation, our approaches or trenches which are effected from a camp to its different batteries, together with the construction of those batteries; our parallel entrenchments or places of arms, the descent into, or the filling up of the ditch, our covered saps in mining, and our open galleries; we owe to them, in fact, the original art of throwing up works and of creating obstacles, by which we are enabled to secure ourselves, or by various stratagems to annoy our enemies. The ancients were indeed superior to us, in the means of defence.

“The origin of subterraneous galleries or passages in mining, is totally unknown to us; a circumstance which proves their antiquity. We read in the History of Josephus, that the Jews frequently made use of them; so that neither the Greeks nor the Romans, who, in many instances arrogate to themselves the exclusive glory of invention, were the authors of this discovery.

“The method which was pursued by the ancients in their passages of mines, resembled the one that is invariably followed by the moderns. But the latter possess a considerable advantage over the former, in this sort of attack and defence, which advantage consists wholly in the invention of gunpowder.

“The ancients, it is well known, could only undermine in one way; namely under the terraces or cavaliers, or under the towers and battering-testudo-machines (tortues bélieres,) and in order to do any execution, they were obliged, in the first place, to construct a spacious high subterraneous chamber, to carry away and raise the earth, to support the remainder by powerful props, and afterwards to fill the several chambers with dry wood and other combustible materials, which were set fire to in order to reduce the towers and various machines that were placed above, into one common heap of ruins. But this attempt did not always succeed; for owing to the magnitude of the undertaking and the time it required, the enemy might either trace the miners, cut off their communication with the main body of the place, or get into the chambers before they could be finished, or be properly prepared for inflammation.

“The ancients constructed their galleries on a larger scale than we adopt. They were wider, but less elevated; whereas those that we use require less trouble; our chamber mines being more contracted, and having an advantage of access by means of the different branches. One or two small chambers are sufficient with us to blow up the whole face of a bastion. But the ancients only sapped in proportion to the extent of wall which they were determined to demolish. This was a tedious operation; for when the besieger had reached the foot of the wall, it became necessary to run a gallery along the whole extent of what he proposed to demolish. Subsequent to this, he had to operate upon the entire front, during which the besieged found time and opportunities to open subterraneous passages, and to discover those which the assailants were practising against them. In the latter, indeed they seldom failed.

“The Romans were extremely partial to subterraneous galleries. By means of these secret passages they took Fidenæ, and Veiæ; and Darius, king of Persia, by the same method took Chalcedon. That species of gallery which is run out under the soil of an encampment, and pushed forward into the very body of a town, has been known from time immemorial. The Gauls were likewise very expert in their management of subterraneous galleries. Cæsar mentions the use of them in five or six places of his Commentaries.”

Galerie de pourtour, Fr. in architecture, a sort of gallery which is raised either in the inside, or on the outside, and surrounds the whole or part of a building.

GALEA,		-
GALIOT,

a low built vessel for the conveyance of troops and stores, having both sails and oars.

GALION, Fr. a name which was formerly given to French ships of war that had three or four decks. The term, however, is in disuse, except among the Spaniards, who call vessels galions, that sail to Santa Marguerita, to Terra Firma, Carthagena, Porto-Bello, &c.

GALIOTE à bombes, Fr. a bomb-ketch. A vessel built of very strong timber, with flat ribs and half decks. It is used for the carriage of mortars, that are placed upon a false deck which is made in the hold. Chevalier Renau first invented this species of naval battery, and submitted it to the French government. The Dey of Algiers having declared war against France, this ingenious man naturally imagined, that the most effectual method which could be adopted to strike terror into the barbarians, would be to bombard their capital, and this, he knew, could not be done, except from the decks of ships. His proposal was at first treated with extreme neglect, and was considered in full council, as the project of a visionary madman.

This disheartening circumstance, however, (which as Monsieur Belidor has very justly remarked, almost always attends original plans and inventions) did not check the warm mind of Chevalier Renau. His known abilities had secured some powerful partisans in his favor, and the French government at last consented, that he should construct two galiotes à bombes at Dunkirk, and three at Havre de Grace. Having completed them, he sailed for Algiers; and after having braved the most tempestuous weather, got before the place with five vessels of that description. The town was bombarded during the whole of the night; and so great was the consternation of the inhabitants, that they rushed out of the gates, to avoid the dreadful effects of so unexpected an attack. The Algerines immediately sued for peace, and as M. de Fontenelle has shrewdly remarked, the Chevalier Renau returned to France with his galiotes à bombes, having obtained a complete triumph, not only over the Algerines, but over the petty cavillers against his invention.

Orders were instantly issued to construct others after the same model, and the king gave directions, that a new corps of artillery officers should be formed, for the specific purpose of doing duty on board the galiotes or bomb-ketches.

GALLERY, a passage of communication to that part of a mine where the powder is lodged. See [Galerie].

GALLET. Fr. See [Jalet].

GALLIVATS are large row-boats, used in India. They are built like the grab, but of smaller dimensions, the largest rarely exceeding 70 tons; they have two masts, of which the mizen is very slight; the mizen mast bears only one sail, which is triangular and very large, the peak of it, when hoisted, being much higher than the mast itself. In general the gallivats are covered with a spar deck, made for lightness of bamboos split, and these carry only patteraroes, which are fixed on swivels in the gunnel of the vessel; but those of the largest size have a fixed deck, on which they mount six or eight pieces of cannon, from two to four pounders; they have forty or fifty stout oars, and may be rowed four miles an hour.

GALLOPER, a piece of ordnance of small calibre.

GAMACHE, Fr. See [Gaiters].

GAMBESON, Fr. a term which the French formerly applied to a coat of mail that was worn under the cuirass. It was likewise called cotte gamboisée. It was made of two strong cloths interwoven with pointed worsted.

GAMBLING. Every species of chance play, such as hazard, &c. should be strictly forbidden in the army. The non-commissioned officers and private soldiers are severely punished when found guilty of this mischievous practice; and in some services the officers are treated with equal severity.

GAMELLE, Fr. a wooden or earthen bowl used among the French soldiers for their messes. It generally contained the quantity of food which was allotted for three, five, or seven men belonging to the same room. The porridge-pots for the navy were made of wood, and held a certain allowance. During the monarchy of France, subaltern officers and volunteers were frequently punished for slight offences by being sent to the gamelle, and excluded their regular mess, and put upon short allowance, according to the nature of their transgression.

GANTELET, Fr. See [Gauntlet].

GANGES, a considerable river in India in Asia. It rises in the mountains which border on Little Thibet, in 82 degrees of east longitude, and 32 degrees 45 minutes of north latitude. According to the ingenious author of the History of Indostan, it disembogues itself into that country through a pass called the straights of Kupele, which are distant from Delhi, about 30 leagues, in the longitude of 96, and in the latitude of 30° 2′. These straights are believed by the Indians, who look very little abroad, to be the sources of the Ganges; and a rock 15 miles distant from them, bearing some resemblance to the head of a cow, has joined in the same part of the country two very important objects of their religion; the grand image of the animal which they almost venerate as a divinity, and the first appearance of that immense body of holy water, which is to wash away all their sins.

GANTLET,		-
GAUNTLET,

in ancient military history, a large kind of glove, made of iron, and the fingers covered with small plates: it was formerly worn by cavaliers, or single knights of war, when armed at all points, but is now in disuse.

Gantlet or gantelope, denotes a kind of military punishment, in which the criminal running between the ranks receives a lash from every man. See [Run the Gantlet].

GAP. See [Breach].

GAR, the general term used by the Saxons, for a weapon of war.

GARCON-Major, Fr. an officer so called in the old French service. He was selected from among the lieutenants of a regiment to assist the aid-majors in the general detail of duty.

GARDE d’une Place, Fr. the garrison of a place. See [Garrison].

Garde du l’armée, Fr. the grand guard of an army. Guards in the old French service were usually divided into three sorts: Guard of Honor, Fatigue Guard, and the General’s Guard. That was called a guard of honor in which the officers and men were most exposed to danger; for the quintessence of military honor is to be often in peril, and either to fall courageously in the discharge of duty, or to return from the field after having exhibited proofs of valor, prudence and perseverance. A fatigue guard belonging to a garrison or to a camp. A general’s guard was mounted before the door or gate of the house in which the commanding officer resided. For a more specific account of guards in general see [Guard].

Gardes de corps, Fr. the body guards. Under the old government of France they consisted of a certain number of gentlemen or cavaliers whose immediate duty was to attend the king’s person. They were divided into four companies, under as many captains, whose tour of duty came every quarter. They took rank above the Gens-d’armes and the king’s light cavalry.

The first and most ancient of the four companies was called the Scotch company.

In 1423 Charles VII. of France established this body of gentlemen or cavaliers, for the purpose of shewing the great confidence which he placed in the Scots; who were not a little indebted for this mark of distinction to the service which their countryman Lord Buchan, eldest son to the Duke of Albany, rendered the French in 1421 at the battle of Bangé en Anjou, where the English army was completely routed. In order to preserve the remembrance of their behaviour, and in token of their gratitude to the Scotch nation, the French king gave orders that whenever the roll-call took place in the Scotch company, each individual instead of answering Me voila! should say I am here! or here!

Gardes-feux, Fr. wooden cases or boxes used to hold cartridges.

Gardes fous, Fr. the rails of a bridge.

Garde imperiale, Fr. The only guard of honor which at present exists in France.

Gardes Francoises, Fr. the French Guards—In 1563 Charles IX. King of the French, raised a regiment for the immediate protection of the palace. The colonel or the gardes Francoises was on duty throughout the year, and was entitled to the baton de commandement in common with the four captains of the body guards. Peculiar privileges were attached to every officer belonging to this body. No stranger, not even a native of Strasburg, Savoy, Alsace, or Piedmont, could hold a commission in the French guards. The age at which men were enlisted was above 18 and under 50 years. The height 5 French feet 4 inches and upwards. The serjeants were strictly forbidden to exercise any trade or business, and many of them got the [Croix de St. Louis].

In the revolution of 1789 the French guards took a very active and leading part.

Gardes-magazins, Fr. In the old French service there were two sorts of magazine guards:—one for the military stores and the other for the artillery. The first was subject to the grand master, and the second was appointed by the secretary at war.

Garde-general d’artillerie, Fr. An officer was so called under the old government of France, who had charge of all the ordnance and stores belonging to his majesty for the land service. He gave receipts for all ammunition, &c. and his bills were paid by the treasurer general of the artillery.

Gardes provinciaux, Fr. Provincial guards, were persons appointed to superintend, take charge of, and be responsible, for the artillery belonging to Paris, Metz, Chalons, Lyons, Amiens, Narbonne, and Calais.

Gardes particuliers des magazins d’artillerie, Fr. Officers appointed by the grand master of the ordnance for the specific purpose of attending to the ammunition, &c. Their pay was in proportion to the quantity of stores with which they were entrusted. They enjoyed some particular privileges, and were lodged at the expence of government.

Garde magazin d’un arsenal de marine, Fr. An officer in France appointed to take charge and to keep a register of all warlike stores, &c. for the service of the navy.

Gardes de la porte, Fr. A company so called during the monarchy of France, and of so ancient a date, indeed, with respect to original institution, that it appears to have been coeval with it. Mention is made of the gardes de la porte in the oldest archives or records belonging to the king’s household, in which service they were employed, without being responsible to any particular treasurer as other companies were.

This company consisted of one captain, four lieutenants, and fifty guards. The captain and officers received their commissions from the king. The first took an oath of fidelity to the king in person, and received the baton from his hands. The duty he did was purely discretionary, and depended on his own will. The lieutenants served by detachment, and took their tour of duty every quarter. Their specific service consisted in guarding the principal gate belonging to the king’s apartments. Their guard-house was within the palace, which they occupied from six o’clock in the morning until six in the evening; when they were relieved by the body guards. They delivered the keys to a brigadier belonging to the Scotch garrison.

Gardes Suisses, Fr. The Swiss guards. This body originally consisted of a certain number of companies which were taken into the French service in consequence of the close alliance that subsisted between the Swiss cantons and France; but they were not distinguished from other troops by the appellation of guards, until a considerable period had elapsed from their first establishment. The zeal, fidelity, and attachment which they uniformly evinced whenever they were entrusted with this distinguished part of the service, induced the crown in 1616 to bestow upon them this additional name.

The regiment was composed of twelve companies of two hundred effectives each. Some consisted of half companies complete in men. They were commanded by the three following officers, subordinate to each other, and created in 1689, viz. One colonel general of the nation, one particular colonel of the regiment, and one lieutenant colonel. The Swiss guards received double the pay which was given to the French guards. It is somewhat remarkable, that one hundred and three years after the regular establishment of the regiment under the three mentioned field officers, this brave body of men should have fallen victims to their attachment to the monarchy of France. On the 10th of August, 1792, they withstood the Parisian populace, and defended the palace in the Louvre until almost every man was killed. During the resistance which the Swiss guards made, Louis the XVIth, with his family escaped, and took shelter in the national assembly.

Gardes (cent) Suisses du corps du Roi, Fr. One hundred Swiss guards immediately attached to the king’s person. They were a select body of men who took an oath of fidelity to the king, and were formed into a regular troop. Louis XIV. during several sieges which he personally attended, gave directions, that the head of the trench should be guarded by a detachment of this troop; so that the hundred Swiss guards might properly be ranked as military men, although their officers did not wear any uniform, and in the last periods of the monarchy of France, the principal duties of the hundred Swiss guards consisted in domestic and menial attendance.

Garde qui monte, Fr. The new guard.

Garde qui descend, Fr. The old guard.

Gardes ordinaires des lignes, Fr. ordinary guards.

Garde de la tranche, Fr. Guard for the trenches. Among the French, this guard usually consisted of four or six battalions. It was entrusted to three general officers, viz. one lieutenant general on the right, one major general on the left, and one brigadier general in the centre. All general officers, when on duty for the day in the trenches, remained the succeeding night, and never left them until they were regularly relieved by others of their own rank.

When it came to the tour of any particular battalion to mount the trench guard, it was the duty of the major of that battalion to examine the ground on which it was to be drawn up, to look at the piquets, and to see where the grenadiers were posted, in order to go through the relief with accuracy and expedition.

The battalion was drawn up in front of the camp; the grenadiers being stationed on the right, next to them the piquet, and on its left flank the body of the battalion. The latter was divided into different piquets, and formed in order of battle. So that instead of the several companies being posted together, the men were drafted out, and distributed in such a manner, that the whole battalion was separated into troops or companies, each consisting of forty eight men, promiscuously thrown together.

The advantage which was derived from this disposition of the battalion, and from its having been previously told off according to each company’s roster, is manifest; for when a second or third battalion piquet was wanted in the trenches, the different detachments were already formed without going into the small detail of companies. The officers in conformity to their roster were ordered to march, and the piquet moved out without a moment’s delay.

Add to this that whenever it was found necessary to make a sortie, the loss of men did not fall upon one company, but was divided among the whole battalion.

A general rendezvous or parade was fixed for all the regiments who were to do duty in the trenches; they assembled in that quarter, and were drawn up in line, with all the grenadiers on the right, and the whole of the piquets upon the same alignement. At the hour appointed the latter began to file off, and each regiment followed according to its seniority. The lieutenant general whose tour of command was in the trenches, placed himself at the head of those troops who were to attack from the right; the major general at the head of those belonging to the left, and the brigadier general took the centre; the oldest regiment headed the right, the next in seniority stood in front of the left, and the third preceded the centre.

As soon as the troops reached the tail of the trench, the men marched by Indian files, or rank entire, and each one took his post. Sentries were stationed, and the necessary detachments were made. The colors were planted upon the parapet of the trench. At night the adjutants of corps went to head quarters, to receive instructions relative to the projected attack, and got the parole and countersign from the general. The senior adjutant communicated his orders to the rest, who conveyed the same, first to their several colonels, and afterwards to the serjeants of each regiment.

When on duty in the trenches, soldiers must not, on any account, quit their firearms; and the instant the least noise is heard, it is their duty to throw themselves upon the back of the trench, and there remain till the order is given to march. When an attack is directed to be made, the execution of it is always entrusted to the grenadiers. These are supported by the different piquets, and the main body of the corps follows with the colors.

When the chamade was beat by the besieged with a view to capitulate, it was a rule among the French, that the battalions which were posted in the trenches, might refuse to be relieved, and could remain at their station until the garrison marched out. When the capitulation was signed, it fell to the oldest regiment belonging to the besieging army to take possession of the gate that was delivered up, and that corps remained in the town until a governor was named, and a regular garrison appointed.

Garde du camp, Fr. See [Quarter Guard].

Garde avancée, Fr. a small body of cavalry, consisting of 15 or 20 horsemen, under the command of a lieutenant, whose station is beyond, but still in sight of the main guard. The particular duty of those men is to watch the motions of the enemy for the greater security of the camp.

During the famous crusade to the Holy Land, the Christians having taken the town of Damietta, and finding it impossible to make further progress, on account of the overflowings of the river Nile, effected a passage over, but neglected to entrench themselves according to the custom of those days. The consequence was, that the Arabs insulted them in their camp, and frequently murdered their sentries at their very tents. In order to prevent these incursions, advanced guards of the description just mentioned were resorted to. Vedettes were posted round the camp, and from hence most probably was derived their origin.

Many methods have been proposed by the military writers of all ages to secure advanced guards from surprise. Frochetta advises fires to be lighted during the night in one quarter, while the rendezvous and station of the guard are in another. His reason is this: if the enemy should approach the quarter which is lighted up, the soldiers belonging to the advanced guard may readily discover him, without being themselves exposed to a direct attack. Onosander is of the same way of thinking. Silence on these occasions is indispensably requisite. Xenophon, on the other hand, has proposed, that the station should be often changed, and that the guard should consist of different numbers. His object is to form a considerable ambuscade in front of the spot where the guard has been usually posted, so that when the enemy approaches towards it, he may be suddenly surprised by a larger body of men than he expected, and instead of carrying off the ordinary guard, be himself taken prisoner.

Garde du pont, Fr. Guard for the security of a bridge. The same author (Frochetta) proposes that one or two sentries be posted at each end of the bridge, if it be of any length. His motive is to prevent too heavy loads from being conveyed upon it, and to check bodies of cavalry who might be disposed to gallop or trot across it. If the bridge be constructed upon barges or boats, there must always be a certain number of wooden scoops to drain off the water as it rises, or gets through small apertures upon the surface. The commanding officer of the guard must order frequent rounds to be made, both night and day, lest the enemy should send divers to get under the boats and pierce the bottoms.

Foresti, the historian, relates, that the Emperor Henry III. having ordered several barges to be constructed and stationed on the Danube for the purpose of storming Posonio, his project was defeated by the bold and desperate act of an individual. One Zormonde, a Hungarian, having provided himself with a gimblet, swam under the surface of the water, and got beneath the boats, which he bored in several places, without the least suspicion or knowlege of the mariners. The boats gradually filled, and were finally sunk, which circumstance obliged the emperor to raise the siege.

Garde des travailleurs, Fr. A particular guard which is kept among the workmen and artificers during a siege. In France they had a particular roster among themselves; beginning from the eldest downwards, as well among the officers as among the men.

Garde relevée, Fr. the guard that is relieved, commonly called the old guard.

Gardes de la marine, Fr. During the existence of the old French government, several young gentlemen received brevet commissions from the king, and were permitted to serve on board ships of war. They were distributed among the fleet, and when they had acquired a knowlege of their profession, were promoted to the rank of officers. Their duty was near the admiral, when he commanded in person; and during his absence they were placed on board the different vessels, in order to assist the several officers, particularly in the discharge of their functions at the batteries.

Gardes costes, Fr. from the Spanish guarda costa, signifying ships of war that cruize along the coast to protect merchantmen, and to prevent the depredations of pirates.

Gardes costes (capitaineries), Fr. The maritime divisions, into which France was formerly divided, were so called.

Each division was under the immediate superintendance of a captain, named capitaine gardes-costes, who was assisted by a lieutenant and an ensign. Their duty was to watch the coast, and to attend minutely to every thing that might affect the safety of the division they had in charge.

There were thirty-seven capitaineries gardes côtes in Normandy, four in Poitou, two in Guienne, two in Languedoc, and six in French Flanders, Picardy, Boulogne, Calais, &c.

The establishment of sea fencibles in Great Britain, which has taken place during the present war, most probably owes its origin to the gardes costes.

Garde d’épée, Fr. Sword-hilt.

Garde, Fr. Watch, guard, protection.

Corps de Garde du guet, Fr. Watch-house or rendezvous for the street patroles.

Garde bois, Fr. a forest-keeper.

Garde du corps, Fr. life-guard.

Garde chasse, Fr. a game-keeper.

Garde pluie, Fr. literally means a fence, or cover against rain. This machine was originally invented by a Frenchman, who left his native country to avoid persecution or unmerited neglect, and submitted it to the Prussians, who adopted it for the use of their infantry. Other armies, however, either seem ignorant of the invention, or do not think it worthy of imitation. Belair, the author of Elemens de Fortification, in his military dictionary, (which forms a small part of that interesting work,) observes, that “these machines might be rendered extremely useful in the defence of fortresses, outposts, redoubts, or retrenchments. Under the cover of them, the besieged, or the troops stationed in the posts attacked, would be able to keep up a brisk and effectual discharge of musquetry during the heaviest fall of rain, and thereby silence, or considerably damp the fire of the enemy. The garde pluie is capable of being much improved. Light corps ought to be particularly anxious for its adoption, as the service in which they are generally employed, exposes their arms to every change of weather; and by means of this cover, both themselves, and their rifles, or musquets, would be secured against rain.”

Attaquer la Garde, Fr. to make an attempt on the guard.

Une forte Garde, Fr. a strong guard.

Un piquete de Garde, Fr. a piquet guard.

La Garde à pied, Fr. the foot guards.

La Garde à cheval, Fr. the horse guards.

La Garde Ecossoise, Fr. the Scotch guards.

La Garde Irelandoise, Fr. the Irish guards.

Faire monter la Garde, Fr. to set the guard.

Etre de Garde, Fr. to be upon guard.

Monter la Garde, Fr. to mount guard.

Descendre la Garde, Fr. to come off guard.

Rélever ou changer la Garde, Fr. to relieve guard.

La Garde montante, Fr. the guard that mounts, or the new guard.

La Garde descendante, Fr. the guard that comes off, or the old guard.

Garde à vous, Fr. A cautionary phrase made use of in the French service. We formerly adopted the term, take care, or have a care—at present we use the word attention, which is usually pronounced ’tention.

GARDENS, in ancient military history, places of resort to practice military exercises.

GARGOUILLIS, Fr. the powder with which cannon is charged.

GARGOUSSE, Fr. a cartouch, a cartridge.

GARGOUSSIERE, Fr. a pouch for cartridges.

GARLAND, a sort of chaplet made of flowers, feathers, and sometimes of precious stones, worn on the head in the manner of a crown. The word is formed of the French guirlande, and that of the barbarous Latin garlanda, or Italian ghirlanda. Both in ancient and modern times it has been customary to present garlands of flowers to warriors who have distinguished themselves. Among the French the practice is still familiar. A beautiful young woman is generally selected for the purpose.

GARNIR d’artillerie, Fr. to line with artillery. Un rampart garni de grosse artillerie, a rampart covered or lined with heavy ordnance.

Se GARNIR, Fr. To seize.

GARNISH-nails. Diamond headed nails, formerly used to ornament artillery carriages.

GARNISON, Fr. See [Garrison].

GARNITURE. See [Equipage], &c.

Garrison des Janissaires, Fr. The elite or flower of the Janissaries of Constantinople is frequently sent into garrison on the frontiers of Turkey, or to places where the loyalty of the inhabitants is doubted. The Janissaries do not indeed assist in the immediate defence of a besieged town or fortress, but they watch the motions of all suspected persons, and are subject to the orders of their officers, who usually command the garrison.

GARRISON, in the art of war, a body of forces, disposed in a fortress or fortified town, to defend it against the enemy, or to keep the inhabitants in subjection; or even to be subsisted during the winter season: hence garrison and winter-quarters are sometimes used indiscriminately for the same thing; while at others they denote different things. In the latter case a garrison is a place wherein forces are maintained to secure it, and where they keep regular guards, as a frontier town, a citadel, castle, tower &c. The garrison should always be stronger than the townsmen.

Winter-quarters signifies a place where a number of forces are laid up in the winter season, without keeping the regular guard. See [Winter-quarters].

Garrison-town, generally a strong place in which troops are quartered, and do duty, for the security thereof, keeping strong guards at each port, and a main-guard in, or near the market-place.

Order of the GARTER, an English order of knighthood, instituted by Edward III. This order consists of 26 knights companions, whereof the king of England is the sovereign or chief.

This piece of regal mummery is not strictly military, but is inserted here as matter of curiosity.

All these officers, except the prelate, have fees and pensions. The college of the order is in the castle of Windsor, with the chapel of St. George, and the chapter-house, erected by the founder for that purpose. The habit and ensign of the order are, a garter, mantle, cap, George, and collar. The 3 first were assigned the knights companions by the founders; and the George and collar by king Henry VIII. The garter challenges pre-eminence over all other parts of the dress, because from it the noble order is denominated; that it is the first part of the habit presented to foreign princes, and absent knights, who, together with all other knights elect, are therewith first adorned; and it is of such honor and grandeur, that by the bare investiture with this noble ensign, the knights are esteemed companions of the greatest military order in the world. It is worn on the left leg, between the knee and calf, and is enamelled with this motto, Honi soit qui mal y pense: that is, “Evil be to him, who evil thinks.” The meaning of which is, that king Edward having laid claim to the kingdom of France, retorted shame and defiance upon him that should dare to think amiss of the just enterprize he had undertaken, for recovering his claim to that crown; and that the bravery of those knights whom he had elected into this order, was such as would enable him to maintain the quarrel against those that thought ill of it.

The mantle is the chief of those vestments made use of upon all solemn occasions. The color of the mantle is by the statutes appointed to be blue. The length of the train of the mantle, only, distinguishes the sovereign from the knights companions. To the collar of the mantle is fixed a pair of long strings, anciently wove with blue silk only, but now twisted round, and made of Venice gold and silk, of the color of the robe, with buttons and tassels at the end. The left shoulder of the mantle is adorned with a large garter, and device Honi soit, &c. Within this is the cross of the order, which was ordained to be worn at all times by king Charles I. At length the star was introduced, being a sort of cross irradiated with beams of silver.

The collar is composed of pieces of gold in fashion of garters, the ground enamelled blue, and the motto gold.

The garter is of blue velvet bordered with fine gold wire, having commonly the letters of the motto of the same: it is, at the time of installation, buckled upon the left leg, by two of the senior companions, who receive it from the sovereign, to whom it is presented upon a velvet cushion by Garter king at arms, with the usual reverence, whilst the chancellor reads the following admonition, enjoined by the statutes. “To the honor of God omnipotent, and in memorial of the blessed martyr St. George, tie about thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter; wear it as the symbol of the most illustrious order, never to be forgotten, or laid aside; that thereby thou mayest be admonished to be courageous, and having undertaken a just war, in which thou shalt be engaged, thou mayest stand firm, valiantly fight, and successfully conquer.”

The princely garter being thus buckled on, and the words of its signification pronounced, the knight elect is brought before the sovereign, who puts about his neck, kneeling, a sky colored riband, whereon is appendant, wrought in gold within the garter, the image of St. George on horseback, with his sword drawn, encountering the dragon. In the mean time the chancellor reads the following admonition: “Wear this riband about thy neck, adorned with the image of the blessed martyr and soldier of Christ, St. George, by whose imitation provoked, thou mayest so overpass both prosperous and adverse adventures, that having stoutly vanquished thy enemies both of body and soul, thou mayest not only receive the praise of this transient combat, but be crowned with the palm of eternal victory.”

Then the knight elect kisses his sovereign’s hand, thanks his majesty for the great honor done him, rises up, and salutes all his companions severally, who return their congratulations.

Since the institution of this order, there have been 8 emperors, and 28 kings, besides numerous sovereign princes, enrolled as companions thereof. Its origin is somewhat differently related: the common account is, that it was erected in honor of a garter of the countess of Salisbury, which she dropped dancing with king Edward, and which that prince picked up; but others think it was instituted on account of the victory over the French at Cressy, where the king ordered his garter to be displayed as a signal of the battle.

GASCONADE, a boast or vaunt of something very improbable. The term is originally derived from the Gascons, or people of Gascony in France, who it seems have been particularly distinguished for extravagant stories.

Gasconade, Fr. pour menterie, ródomontáde, filouterie; a lie, a ródomontáde, an imposition.

GASCONNER, Fr. to gasconade, to repeat extravagant, wild stories.

GATE, an entrance, a large door, the passage into a walled place; in a military sense, is made of strong planks with iron bars to oppose an enemy. Gates are generally fixed in the middle of the curtain, from whence they are seen and defended by the two flanks of the bastions. They should be covered with a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by the enemy. The palisades and barriers before the gates within the town are often of great use. The fewer ports there are in a fortress, the more you are secured against the enemy. At the opening of a gate, a party of horse is sent out to patrole in the country round the place, to discover ambuscades or lurking parties of the enemy, and to see if the country be clear.

GAUCHE, Fr. The left.

A Gauche, Fr. On the left.

GAUGE. See [Standard].

GAUGES, in gunnery, are brass rings with handles, to find the diameter of all kinds of shot with expedition.

GAULS, the name given by the Romans to the inhabitants of the country that now forms part of the kingdoms of Italy and France. The countries were called cisalpine, and transalpine Gaul, with reference to the position of Rome. The original inhabitants were descended from the Celtes or Gomerians, by whom the greatest part of Europe was peopled: the name of Galli or Gauls, being probably given them long after their settlement in that country.

GAUNTELOPE.		-
GAUNTLET.

See [Gauntelope]. [Run the Gauntelope].

GAZETTE, a newspaper. The word is derived from gazetta, a Venetian coin, which was the usual price of the first newspaper printed there, and which name was afterwards given to the paper itself.

The first gazette in England was published at Oxford, the court being there, in a folio half sheet, November the 7th, 1665. On the removal of the court to London, the title was changed to the London Gazette. The Oxford Gazette was published on Tuesdays, the London on Saturdays. And these have continued to be the days of publication ever since that publication has been confined to London.

All commissions in the British army, militia, fencible, and volunteer corps must be gazetted. The dates specified in the gazette generally agree in every point with those of the original commissions. So that by referring to the gazette, an officer may always know the precise day on which he is entitled to receive subsistence from the agent, and to assume rank in the British army. Should an erroneous statement, however, get into the gazette, or a commission be wrong dated therein, a reference to the latter will always supersede any notification in the former.

GAZONS, in fortification, are pieces of fresh earth or sods, covered with grass, and cut in the form of a wedge, about a foot long, and half a foot thick, to line the outsides of a work made of earth; as ramparts, parapets, banquettes, &c. The first bed of gazons is fixed with pegs of wood: and the second bed is so laid as to bind the former, by being placed over its joints; and so continued till the works are finished. Betwixt those sods it is usual to sow all sorts of binding weed or herbs, in order to strengthen the rampart.

GEAR, furniture, equipage, or caparison.

GEAT, the hole through which the metal is conveyed to the mould in casting ordnance.

GEBEGIS. Armorers among the Turks are so called.

GEBELUS. Every timariot in Turkey, during a campaign, is obliged to take a certain number of horsemen, who are called gebelus, and to support them at his own expence. He is directed to take as many with him as would annually cost three thousand aspres (each aspre being equal to two-pence farthing English) for subsistence.

GELD, in the English old customs, a Saxon word signifying money, or tribute. It also denoted a compensation for some crime committed. Hence wergeld, in the old Saxon laws, was used for the value of a man slain; and orfgeld, for that of a beast.

GELIBACH. A sort of superintendant or chief of the gebegis, or armorers among the Turks. He is only subordinate to the toppi bachi, or the grand-master of the Turkish artillery.

GENDARMERIE, Fr. the gendarmerie was a select body of cavalry that took precedence of every regiment of horse in the French service, and ranked immediately after the king’s household. The reputation of the gendarmerie was so great, and its services so well estimated by the king of France, that when the emperor Charles V. in 1552, sent a formal embassy to the Court of Versailles to request a loan of money, and the assistance of the gendarmerie to enable him to repulse the Turks; Francis I. returned the following answer: “With respect to the first object of your mission, (addressing himself to the ambassador) I am not a banker; and with regard to the other, as my gendarmerie is the arm which supports my sceptre, I never expose it to danger, without myself sharing its fatigue and glory.”

The uniform of the gendarmerie, as well as of the light cavalry, under the old French government, was scarlet, with facings of the same color. The coat was formerly more or less laced with silver according to the king’s pleasure. A short period before the revolution, it was only laced on the cuff. The waistcoat of buff leather, and the bandouleer of the same, silver laced; the hat was edged with broad silver lace. The horse-cloths and holster-caps were red, and the arms of the captain embroidered on the corners of the saddle cloths, and on the front of the holsters. In 1762, a considerable body of men was raised by order of Louis XIV. The soldiers who composed it were called gensdarmes. And in 1792, the number was considerably augmented, consisting of horse and foot, and being indiscriminately called gens d’armes; but their clothing was altered to deep blue. Their pay was greater than what the rest of the army enjoyed, and when others were paid in paper currency, they received their subsistence in hard cash (en argent sonant.) They possessed these privileges on account of the proofs they were obliged to bring of superior claims to military honor, before they could be enlisted as gendarmes. It was necessary, in fact, that every individual amongst them should produce a certificate of six or eight years service.

GENDARMES (gens d’armes) de la garde, a select body of men so called during the old government of France, and still preserved in that country; but their services are applied to different purposes. They consisted originally of a single company which was formed by Henry IV. when he ascended the throne. He distinguished them from his other troops, by stiling them hommes d’armes de ses ordonnances; men at arms under his own immediate orders. They consisted of men best qualified for every species of military duty, and were to constitute a royal squadron at whose head the king himself might personally engage the enemy, as necessity might require. He gave this squadron to his son, the Dauphin, who was afterwards king of France, under the name and title of Louis XIII.

GENERAL, in a military sense, is an officer in chief, to whom the government of a country have judged proper to entrust the command of their troops. He holds this important trust under various titles, as captain-general, in England and Spain, feldt mareschal, in Germany, or mareschal, in France.

In the British service the king is constitutionally, and in his official right, captain-general. He has ten aids-de-camp; every one of whom enjoys the brevet rank of full colonel in the army. Next to the king is the commander in chief, whom he sometimes honors with the title of captain-general. During the expedition to Holland the Duke of York was entrusted with this important charge.

The natural qualities of a General, are a martial genius, a solid judgment, a healthy robust constitution, intrepidity and presence of mind on critical occasions, indefatigability in business, goodness of heart, liberality, a reasonable age; if too young, he may want experience and prudence; if too old, he may not have vivacity enough. His conduct must be uniform, his temper affable, but inflexible in maintaining the police and discipline of an army.

Acquired qualities of a General should be secrecy, justice, sobriety, temperance, knowlege of the art of war from theory and practice, the art of commanding, and speaking with precision and exactness; great attention to preserve the lives and supply the wants of the soldiers, and a constant study of the characters of the officers of his army, that he may employ them according to their talents. His conduct appears in establishing his magazines in the most convenient places; in examining the country, that he may not engage his troops too far, while he is ignorant of the means of bringing them off; in subsisting them, and in knowing how to take the most advantageous posts, either for fighting, retreating, or shunning a battle. His experience inspires his army with confidence, and an assurance of victory; and his good qualities, by creating respect, augment his authority. By his liberality he gets intelligence of the strength and designs of the enemy, and by this means is enabled to take the most successful measures. He ought to be fond of glory, to have an aversion to flattery, to render himself beloved, and to keep a strict discipline and regular subordination.

The office of a General is to regulate the march and encampment of the army; in the day of battle to choose out the most advantageous ground; to make the disposition of the corps; to post the artillery, and, where there is occasion, to send his orders by his aids-de-camp. At a siege he is to cause the place to be invested, to regulate the approaches and attacks, to visit the works, and to send out detachments to secure the convoy and foraging parties.

GENERALISSIMO, a supreme and absolute commander in the field. This word is generally used in most foreign languages. It was first invented by the absolute authority of cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the French army in Italy.

General of the artillery. See [Ordnance].

Generals of horse are officers next under the general of the army. They have an absolute command over the horse belonging to an army, above the lieutenant generals.

Generals of foot are officers next under the general of the army, having an absolute command over the foot of the army.

General officers. All officers above the rank of colonel in the line are so called.

General. In the German armies, and among the sovereigns of the North, there are certain generals of cavalry, and others of infantry, who take rank of all lieutenant generals. Those belonging to the infantry, in the imperial service, and who are of this description, are called general field zeugmeisters. In Russia they bear the title of generals in chief; of which class there are four belonging to the armies of that empire, two for the infantry and two for the cavalry. They are only subordinate to field marshals; which title or dignity is the same in Russia as was formerly that of marshal of France.

In the two imperial armies just mentioned, it is usual for generals, lieutenant generals, and major generals to take their routine of duty, and rise progressively in the infantry or cavalry corps, to which they were originally appointed, until they arrive at a chief command; whereas in France a major general might be employed to take charge of either infantry or cavalry, without any regard being paid to the particular line of service in which he was bred.

General chez les Turcs, Fr. Turkish generals.

The Turks have had brave generals. They possess experience, because from their earliest infancy they become inured to arms; because through the different stages of acknowleged service, they rise by degrees; and because their empire being very extensive, it is necessary that they should over-run several provinces for its protection, and be almost constantly engaged in skirmishes or battles. These, at least, were the original principles upon which the military code of that country was established. But abuses, the natural consequences of corruption, have since crept in amongst them; for there have been persons suddenly raised from subordinate employments under the Porte to the supreme command of armies. The primary cause of this abuse is to be found in the luxury and effeminacy of the grand signors, who are become heedless of the Mahomedan laws, and never go to war in person.

The acknowleged valor of the Turkish generals may be attributed to the following causes. To a constitution which is naturally robust, to a practical knowlege of war, and to habitual military exercises.

To these may be added the confidence with which they are inspired by the recollection of former victories; but they are influenced above all, by the secret dictates of a religion, which holds out eternal happiness to those who shall die in battle, and which teaches them to believe, that every Turk bears written on the forehead, not only the hour of his departure from this earth, but the manner of his removal.

A Turkish general possesses a power as absolute and uncontroled as that which was entrusted to the dictators of the Roman republic. He has no competitor, or equal in the charge he holds, no assistants or colleagues with whom he is directed to consult, and to whose assent or dissent, in matters of consultation, he is to pay the least regard. Not only the army under his command, but the whole country into which he marches, is subject to his orders, and bound implicitly to obey them. Punishments and rewards are equally within his distribution. If an authority so absolute as this be considered in the light of executive effect, nothing most unquestionably can so readily produce it; for the tardiness of deliberation is superseded at once by a prompt decision, before which all sorts of objections, and every species of jealousy, subside. When a project is to be fulfilled, secrecy is the natural consequence of this arbitrary system, and rational plans are not interrupted by a difference of opinion, by prejudice, or cabal.

General de bataille,		-
General major,

a particular rank or appointment, whose functions correspond with those of a ci-devant marshal of France. This situation is entrusted to a general officer, and is only known among the armies of Russia, and some other northern powers. He takes precedence in the same manner that our major generals do, of all brigadier generals and colonels, and is subordinate to lieutenant generals. The rank of brigadier general is known in France, Russia, England, Holland, and the United States. It does not exist in Austria or Sweden.

General des galéres, Fr. Superintendant officer, or general of the gallies. This was one of the most important appointments belonging to the old government of France. The officer to whom it was entrusted commanded all the gallies, and vessels which bore what the French call voiles latines (a triangle rectangular sail) in the Mediterranean. He had a jurisdiction, a marine police, and an arsenal for constructing ships under his own immediate command, without being in the least subordinate to the French admiralty board. When he went on board he was only inferior in rank to the admiral.

The privileges which were attached to his situation, and the authority he possessed with regard to every other marine, or sea officer, were specifically mentioned in the king’s regulations, and were distinguished by the respect and compliments that were paid to the royal standard, which this general bore, not only on board his own galley, but whenever he chose to hoist it in another.

During the reign of Louis XIV. in 1669, the Duke de Vivone, marshal of France, raised the reputation of the galley service, to a considerable degree of eminence, by gaining several hard fought engagements. His son the Duke de Mortemart succeeded him in the appointment; and the chevalier d’Orleans, grand prior of France, was general of the gallies at his decease.

General des vivres, Fr. a sort of chief commissary, or superintendant general of stores, whose particular functions were to provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit for the army. There were several subordinate commissaries who watched the distribution of these stores, and saw, that the bakers gave bread of the quality they contracted for. It was likewise within the department of the superintendant general to attend to the collection of grain and flour, and to see that proper carriages and horses were always at hand to convey them to the several depots or magazines. The different camps were also supplied from the same source. See [Munitionnaire].

General and staff officers are all officers as above described, whose authority extends beyond the immediate command of a particular regiment or company, and who have either separate districts at home, or commands on foreign service.

Lieutenant General, this office is the first military dignity after that of a general. One part of the functions belonging to lieutenant generals, is to assist the general with counsel: they ought therefore, if possible, to possess the same qualities with the general himself; and the more, as they often command armies in chief, or succeed thereto on the death of the general.

The number of lieutenant generals have been multiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies have become numerous. They serve either in the field, or in sieges, according to the dates of their commissions. In battle the oldest commands the right wing of the army, the second the left wing, the third the centre, the fourth the right wing of the second line, the fifth the left wing, the sixth the centre, and so on. In sieges the lieutenant generals always command the right of the principal attack, and order what they judge proper for the advancement of the siege, during the 24 hours they are in the trenches, except the attacks, which they are not to make without an order from the general in chief. Lieutenant generals are entitled to two aids-de-camp.

Lieutenant General of the ordnance. See [Ordnance].

Lieutenant General of artillery, is, or ought to be, a very able mathematician, and a skilful engineer, to know all the powers of artillery, to understand the attack and defence of fortified places, in all its different branches; how to dispose of the artillery in the day of battle to the best advantage; to conduct its march and retreat; as also to be well acquainted with all the numerous apparatus belonging to the train, laboratory, &c.

Major General, the next officer to the lieutenant general. His chief business is to receive orders from the general, or in his absence from the lieutenant general of the day; which he is to distribute to the brigade-majors, with whom he is to regulate the guards, convoys, detachments, &c. On him the whole fatigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It is the major general of the day who is charged with the encampment of the army, who places himself at the head of it when it marches, who marks out the ground of the camp to the quarter-master-general, and who places the new guards for the safety of the camp.

The day the army is to march, he dictates to the field officers the order of the march, which he has received from the general, and on other days gives them the parole.

In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging, with reconnoitring the ground for it, posting the escorts, &c.

In sieges, if there are two separate attacks, the second belongs to him; but if there be only one, he takes either from the right or left of the attack, that which the lieutenant general has not chosen.

When the army is under arms, he assists the lieutenant general, whose orders he executes.

If the army marches to an engagement, his post is at the head of the guards of the army, until they are near enough to the enemy to rejoin their different corps; after which he retires to his own proper post; for the major generals are disposed on the order of battle as the lieutenant generals are, to whom however, they are subordinate, for the command of their divisions. The major general has one aid-de-camp and one brigade major.

Brigadier General, is the next rank to that of major general, being superior to all colonels, and having frequently a separate command.

General of a district, a general officer who has the charge and superintendance of a certain extent of country, in which troops are encamped, quartered, or cantoned. He is entitled to have three aids-de-camp and one brigade major.

He receives reports, &c. from the major general, respecting the troops in his district; reviews and inspects them, likewise orders field days of the whole, brigaded, or by separate corps, when and in what part he pleases, making the necessary reports to the war-office, commander in chief, &c.

Colonel General, an honorary title, or military rank, which is bestowed in foreign services. Thus the prince of the peace in Spain was colonel general of the Swiss guards.

Brigade major General. As England and Scotland have been divided into different districts, each district under the immediate command of a general officer, it has been found necessary, for the dispatch of business, to establish an office, which shall be solely confined to brigade duties. The first brigade major general was appointed in 1797. Since which period all orders relative to corps of officers, which are transmitted from the commander in chief to the generals of districts, pass through this channel of intermediate communication.

By the British regulations, it is particularly directed, that all general officers commanding brigades, shall very minutely inspect the internal œconomy and discipline of the several regiments under their order. They are frequently to visit the hospitals and guards. On arriving in camp they are never to leave their brigades till the tents are pitched, and the guards posted; they must always encamp with their brigades, unless quarters can be procured for them immediately in the vicinity of their camp. General officers must not at any time change the quarters assigned them, without leave from head quarters.

All general officers should make themselves acquainted, as soon as possible, with the situation of the country near the camp, with the roads, passes, bridges, &c. leading to it; and likewise with the out-posts, that in case they should be ordered suddenly to sustain, or defend any post, they may be able to march without waiting for guides, and be competent, from a topographical knowlege of the country, to form the best disposition for the service. They should instruct their aids-de-camp in these particulars, and always require their attendance when they visit the out-posts.

All general officers, and others in considerable command, must make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the country, the quality of the roads, every circuitous access through vallies or openings, the relative height of the neighboring hills, and the course of rivers, which are to be found within the space entrusted to their care. These important objects may be attained by maps, by acquired local information, and by unremitting activity and observation. And if it should ever be the fate of a country, to act upon the defensive, a full and accurate possession of all its fastnesses, &c. must give each general officer a decided advantage over the commanding officer of an enemy, who cannot have examined the ground upon which he may be reduced to fight, and must be embarrassed in every forward movement that he makes. Although guides may serve, and ought always to be used in the common operations of marches, there are occasions where the eye and intelligence of the principal officers must determine the movements of troops, and enable them to seize and improve every advantage that occurs as the enemy approaches.

General officers on service abroad, or commanding districts at home, may appoint their own aids-de-camp and brigade majors. The latter, however, are to be considered as officers attached to their several brigades, not personally to the officers commanding them. The former are their habitual attendants and domestic inmates. In the selection of aids-de-camp and brigade majors, too much attention cannot be given to their requisite qualifications; and that general would not only commit an act of injustice against the interests of his country, but deserve the severest censure and displeasure of his sovereign, who through motives of private convenience, family connexion, or convivial recommendation, could so far forget his duty, as to prefer an unexperienced stripling, to a character marked by a knowlege of the profession, a zeal for the service, and an irreproachable conduct.

In the day of battle the station of a general is with the reserve, where he remains so situated that he can see every thing which is going forward; and by means of his own observation, or through the communications of his aids-de-camp, is enabled to send reinforcements, as the exigencies of the conflict may require.

The celebrated Marshal Saxe has made the following remarks on the necessary qualifications to form a good general. The most indispensible one, according to his idea, is valor, without which all the rest will prove nugatory. The next is a sound understanding with some genius; for he must not only be courageous, but be extremely fertile in expedients; the third is health and a robust constitution.

“His mind must be capable of prompt and vigorous resources; he must have an aptitude, and a talent at discovering the designs of others, without betraying the slightest trace of his own intentions. He must be seemingly communicative, in order to encourage others to unbosom, but remain tenaciously reserved in matters that concern his own army; he must, in a word, possess activity with judgment, be able to make a proper choice of his officers, and never deviate from the strictest line of military justice. Old soldiers must not be rendered wretched and unhappy, by unwarrantable promotions, nor must extraordinary talents be kept back to the detriment of the service, on account of mere rules and regulations. Great abilities will justify exceptions; but ignorance and inactivity will not make up for years spent in the profession.

“In his deportment he must be affable, and always superior to peevishness, or ill-humor; he must not know, or at least seem to know, what a spirit of resentment is; and when he is under the necessity of inflicting military chastisement, he must see the guilty punished without compromise or foolish humanity; and if the delinquent be from among the number of his most intimate friends, he must be doubly severe towards the unfortunate man. For it is better, in instances of correction, that one individual should be treated with rigor (by orders of the person over whom he may be supposed to hold some influence,) than that an idea should go forth in the army, of public justice being sacrificed to private sentiments.

“A modern general should always have before him the example of Manlius; he must divest himself of personal sensations, and not only be convinced himself, but convince others, that he is the organ of military justice, and that what he does is irrevocably prescribed. With these qualifications, and by this line of conduct, he will secure the affections of his followers, instil into their minds all the impulses of deference and respect; he will be feared, and consequently obeyed.

“The resources of a general’s mind are as various as the occasions for the exercise of them are multiplied and chequered; he must be perfectly master of the art of knowing how to support an army in all circumstances and situations, how to apply its strength, or be sparing of its energy and confidence; how to post all its different component parts, so as not to be forced to give, or receive battle in opposition to settled plans. When once engaged, he must have presence of mind enough to grasp all the relative points of disposition and arrangement, to seize favorable moments for impression, and to be thoroughly conversant in the infinite vicissitudes that occur during the heat of a battle; on a ready possession of which its ultimate success depends. These requisites are unquestionably manifold, and grow out of the diversity of situations, and the chance medley of events that produce their necessity.

“A general to be in perfect possession of them, must on the day of battle be divested of every thought, and be inaccessible to every feeling, but what immediately regards the business of the day; he must reconnoitre with the promptitude of a skilful geographer, whose eye collects instantaneously all the relative portions of locality; and feels his ground as it were by instinct; and in the disposition of his troops, he must discover a perfect knowlege of his profession, and make all his arrangements with accuracy and dispatch. His orders of battle must be simple and unconfused, and the execution of his plan be as quick as if it merely consisted in uttering some few words of command; as, the first line will attack! the second will support it! or such a battalion will advance and support the line.

“The general officers that act under such a general, must be ignorant of their business indeed, if, upon the receipt of these orders, they should be deficient in the immediate means of answering them, by a prompt and ready co-operation. So that the general has only to issue out directions according to the growth of circumstances, and to rest satisfied, that every division will act in conformity to his intentions; but if, on the contrary, he should so far forget his situation as to become a drill serjeant in the heat of action, he must find himself in the case of the fly in the fable, which perched upon a wheel and foolishly imagined, that the motion of the carriage was influenced by its situation. A general, therefore, ought on the day of battle to be thoroughly master of himself, and to have both his mind and his eye rivetted to the immediate scene of action. He will by these means be enabled to see every thing; his judgment will be unembarrassed, and he will instantly discover all the vulnerable points of the enemy. The instant a favorable opening offers, by which the contest may be decided, it becomes his duty to head the nearest body of troops, and, without any regard to personal safety, to advance against his enemy’s line. [By a ready conception of this sort, joined to a great courage, general Desaix determined the issue of the battle of Marengo.] It is, however, impossible for any man to lay down rules, or to specify, with accuracy, all the different ways by which a victory may be obtained. Every thing depends upon variety of situations, casualties of events, and intermediate occurrences which no human foresight can positively ascertain, but which may be converted to good purposes by a quick eye, a ready conception, and a prompt execution.

“Prince Eugene was singularly gifted with these qualifications, particularly with that sublime possession of the mind, which constitutes the essence of a military character.

“Many commanders in chief have been so limited in their ideas of warfare, that when events have brought the contest to issue, and two rival armies have been drawn out for action, their whole attention has devolved upon a straight alignement, an equality of step, or a regular distance in intervals of columns. They have considered it sufficient to give answers to questions proposed by their aids-de-camp, to send orders in various directions and to gallop themselves from one quarter to another, without steadily adhering to the fluctuations of the day, or calmly watching for an opportunity to strike a decisive blow. They endeavor, in fact, to do every thing, and thereby do nothing. They appear like men, whose presence of mind deserts them the instant they are taken out of the beaten track, or are reduced to supply unexpected calls by uncommon exertions; and from whence continues the same sensible writer, do these contradictions arise? from an ignorance of these high qualifications without which the mere routine of duty, methodical arrangement, and studied discipline must fall to the ground, and defeat themselves. Many officers spend their whole lives in putting a few regiments through a regular set of manœuvres; and having done so, they vainly imagine, that all the science of a real military man consists in that acquirement. When, in process of time, the command of a large army falls to their lot, they are manifestly lost in the magnitude of the undertaking, and from not knowing how to act as they ought, they remain satisfied with doing what they have partially learned.

“Military knowlege, as far as it regards a general or commander in chief, may be divided into two parts, one comprehending mere discipline and settled systems for putting a certain number of rules into practice; and the other originating a sublimity of conception, that method may assist, but cannot give.

“If a man be not born with faculties that are naturally adapted to the situation of a general, and if his talents do not fit the extraordinary casualties of war, he will never rise beyond mediocrity.

“It is, in fact, in war as it is in painting, or in music. Perfection in either art grows out of innate talents, but it never can be acquired without them. Study and perseverance may correct ideas, but no application, no assiduity will give the life and energy of action; those are the works of nature.

“It has been my fate (observes the Marshal) to see several very excellent colonels become indifferent generals. I have known others, who have distinguished themselves at sieges, and in the different evolutions of an army, lose their presence of mind and appear ignorant of their profession, the instant they were taken from that particular line, and be incapable of commanding a few squadrons of horse. Should a man of this cast be put at the head of an army, he will confine himself to mere dispositions and manœuvres; to them he will look for safety; and if once thwarted, his defeat will be inevitable, because his mind is not capable of other resources.

“In order to obviate in the best possible manner, the innumerable disasters which must arise from the uncertainty of war, and the greater uncertainty of the means that are adopted to carry it on, some general rules ought to be laid down, not only for the government of the troops, but for the instruction of those who have the command of them. The principles to be observed, are: that when the line or the columns advance, their distances should be scrupulously observed; that whenever a body of troops is ordered to charge, every proportion of the line should rush forward with intrepidity and vigor; that if openings are made in the first line it becomes the duty of the second instantly to fill up the chasms.

“These instructions issue from the dictates of plain nature, and do not require the least elucidation in writing. They constitute the A, B, C, of soldiers. Nothing can be more simple, or more intelligible; so much so, that it would be ridiculous in a general to sacrifice essential objects in order to attend to such minutiæ. His functions in the day of battle are confined to those occupations of the mind, by which he is enabled to watch the countenance of the enemy, to observe his movements, and to see with an eagle’s, or a king of Prussia’s eye, all the relative directions that his opponents take. It must be his business to create alarms and suspicions among the enemy’s line in one quarter, whilst his real intention is to act against another; to puzzle and disconcert him in his plans; to take advantage of the manifold openings, which his feints have produced, and when the contest is brought to issue, to be capable of plunging with effect, upon the weakest part, and of carrying the sword of death where its blows is certain of being mortal. But to accomplish these important and indispensible points, his judgment must be clear, his mind collected, his heart firm, and his eyes incapable of being diverted, even for a moment, by the trifling occurrences of the day.

“I am not, however, an advocate for pitched battles, especially at the commencement of a war. A skilful general might, I am persuaded, carry on a contest between two rival nations during the whole of his life, without being once obliged to come to a decisive action. Nothing harrasses and eventually distresses an enemy so much as this species of warfare. He must, in fact, be frequently attacked, and by degrees, be broken and unnerved; so that in a short time he will not be able to shew himself.

“It must not generally be inferred from this opinion, that when an opportunity presents itself, whereby an enemy may be crushed at once, the attack should not be made, or that advantage should not be taken of the errors he may commit; all I mean to prove is, that war can be carried on without leaving any thing to chance; and in this consists the perfection and highest point of ability belonging to a general. But when a battle is risked, the triumphant party ought well to know all the advantages which may be derived from his victory. A wise general, indeed, will not remain satisfied in having made himself master of the mere field of battle. This, I am sorry to observe, is too often the custom; and, strange to say, that custom is not without its advocates.

“It is too much the practice of some governments, and as often the custom of generals, to follow the old proverb, which says, that in order to gain your ends, you must make some sacrifices, and even facilitate the retreat of your enemy. Nothing can be more impolitic or more absurd. An able surgeon might as well tamper with a mortification, and by endeavoring to save an useless limb, run the hazard of destroying all the vital parts.

“An enemy, on the contrary, ought to be vigorously pushed, harrassed night and day, and pursued through every winding he can make. By a conduct of this sort, the advancing army will drive him from all his holds and fastnesses, and the conclusion of his brilliant retreat, will ultimately turn out a complete and total overthrow. Ten thousand well trained and disciplined troops, that are sent forward from the main army, to hang upon the rear of a retiring enemy, will be able to destroy an army of an hundred thousand men, when that army has once been forced to make retrograde movements. A want of confidence in their generals, added to many other disheartening circumstances, will naturally possess the minds of the latter, while implicit faith and warm affection must influence the former. A first defeat well followed up, almost always terminates in a total rout, and finishes the contest. But some generals do not wish to bring war to a speedy issue. Public misfortunes too frequently produce private emoluments, and the accumulation of the latter is too endearing to suffer itself to be superseded by the former.”

In order to substantiate what he thus advances with much good sense, the Marshal cites the following particular instance, from among an infinity of others.

“When the French army, at the battle of Ramillies, was retiring in good order over an eminence that was rather confined, and on both sides of which there were deep ravines, the cavalry belonging to the allies followed its track leisurely, without even appearing to wish to harrass or attack its rear. The French continued their march with the same composure; retreating upon more than twenty lines, on account of the narrowness of the ground.

“On this occasion, a squadron of English horse got close to two French battalions, and began to fire upon them. The two battalions, naturally presuming that they were going to be attacked, came to the right about, and fired a volley at the squadron. What was the consequence? the whole of the French army took to its heels; the cavalry went off full gallop, and all the infantry, instead of patiently retiring over the heights, threw itself into the ravines in such dreadful disorder, that the ground above was almost instantly abandoned, and not a French soldier was seen upon it.

“Let any military man consider this notorious event, and then praise the regularity of a retreat and the prudent foresight of those who, after an enemy has been vanquished in the field, relax in their exertions, and give him time to breathe. I do not, however, pretend to maintain, that all the forces of a victorious army should be employed to follow up the pursuit; but I am decidedly of opinion, that large bodies should be detached for that purpose, and that the flying enemy should be annoyed as long as the day lasts. This must be done in good order. And let it be remembered, that when an enemy has once taken to his heels in real earnest, you may drive him before you by the mere noise of empty bladders.

“If the officer who is detached in pursuit of an enemy, begins to manœuvre after prescribed rules and regulations, and operate with slowness and precaution, he had better be recalled; for the sole purpose of his employment is to push on vigorously, to harrass and distress the foe. Every species of evolution will do on this occasion; if any can be defective, the regular system might prove so.

“I shall conclude these observations by saying, that all retreats depend wholly upon the talents and abilities of generals, who must themselves be governed by circumstances and situations; but I will venture to assert, that no retreat can eventually succeed, unless it be made before an enemy who acts with extreme caution; for if the latter follow up his first blow, the vanquished army must soon be thrown into utter confusion.”

These are the sentiments of Marshal Saxe, as far as they relate to the qualifications which the general of an army should indispensibly possess. And no man we are persuaded was better enabled to form an opinion on so important a subject; for as baron Espagnac has justly observed in his Supplément aux Rêveries de ce Mar, p. 166, he possessed uncommon courage, was fertile in expedients and resources; he knew how to distinguish and to make use of the abilities of individuals, was unshaken in his determinations; and when the good of the service required chastisement or severity, was not influenced by private feelings, or hurried away by a sanguinary temper; he was uncommonly attentive to his men, watchful of their health, and provident to supply their wants; sparing of their blood in the day of battle, and always inspiring them, by the liveliness of his mind, tempered by experience, with confidence and attachment to his measures. He knew the cast of each man’s character, particularly so of his officers; and whilst he directed the former with consummate knowlege and consequent success, he never lost sight of the merits of the latter, when they co-operated with his designs. If the natural vivacity of his mind sometimes led him into temporary neglect, good sense and a marked anxiety to be just, soon made amends for apparent slights, by rendering the most important services; he was ingenious and subtle in all his manœuvres before an enemy, skilful in his choice of camps, and equally intelligent in that of posts; he was plain in his instructions previous to an engagement, simple in his disposition of the order of battle; and he was never known to lose an opportunity, through the want of prompt decision, whereby a contest might be ended by a bold and daring evolution. When it appeared necessary to give weight to his orders, and to turn the balance of fortune by personal exposure, no man became less fearful of his own destiny, than Marshal Saxe. On these occasions he was daring to an extreme, heedless of danger, but full of judgment, and a calm presence of mind. Such, in our humble opinion, are the outlines of a real general, how well they were exemplified and filled up by the subject of this article, time and the concurring testimony of events have proved.

General’s Guard. It was customary among the French, for the oldest regiment to give one captain, one lieutenant, one ensign, two serjeants, and fifty privates, as a general’s guard. Whenever the marshals of France were on service under the immediate orders of the king, or of the princes belonging to the royal household, they always retained the rank of general.

General d’armée, Fr. the commander in chief of any army.

Battre la General, Fr. to beat the general. See [Drum].

General court-martial. See [Courts martial].

General formations of the battalion, are from line into column, and from column into line by echellon; to either flank, to the front, or on a line oblique to any given point front or rear.

General, is also used for a particular beat of the drum. See [Drum].

GENETTE, Fr. a particular sort of snaffle, which is used among the Turks; it resembles a large ring, and serves to confine the horse’s tongue.

GENIE, Fr. The art of engineering. It consists in a knowlege of lines so as to be able to trace out all that is requisite for the attack or defence of places, according to established rules in fortification. Marshal Vauban and the marquis of Louvois, have particularly distinguished themselves in this art.

GENIUS, in a military sense, a natural talent or disposition to every kind of warlike employment, more than any other; or the aptitude a man has received from nature to perform well, and easily, that which others can do but indifferently, and with a great deal of pains.

From the diversity of genius, the difference of inclination arises in men whom nature has had the precaution of leading to the employment for which she designs them, with more or less impetuosity, in proportion to the greater or lesser number of obstacles they have to surmount, in order to render themselves capable of answering this occasion. Thus the inclinations of men are so very different, because they follow the same mover, that is the impulse of their genius. This is what renders one officer more pleasing, even though he trespasses against the rules of war; while others are disagreeable notwithstanding their strict regularity.

GENOUILLIERE, Fr. the lower part of the embrasure of a battery. The genouilliere is about 2¹⁄₂ or 3 French feet high from the platform to the opening of the embrasure. It lies immediately under the arch of the fortification. Its thickness, which usually consists of fascines well put together, is of the same dimensions that merlons bear; namely from 18 to 22 feet. The term genouilliere is derived from genou, signifying the knee, to the height of which it is generally raised.

GENS, Fr. a word in much desultory use among the French, signifying in a general acceptation of it, folks, people, servants, soldiers, &c.

Gens d’armes. See [Gendarmes].

Gens de guerre, Fr. men attached to a military profession.

Mes Gens, Fr. an affected phrase, which was formerly used among the French, to signify their servants or attendants. It seems to have been an arrogant and foolish imitation of mon peuple, my people. During the monarchy of France, this term was in much vogue at Paris, and was afterwards adopted by almost all the petits maitres, or coxcombs belonging to the church, state, and army.

Gens de sac et de corde, Fr. an opprobrious term which the French apply to men that deserve chastisement. In former times, the cord or rope, and the sack, were the common instruments and means of punishment. The ropes served to hang up malefactors: and the sack was used to contain their bodies when it was ordained that they should be thrown into a river.

Gens de mer, Fr. sea-faring men.

Gens de l’équipage, Fr. men belonging to the train of artillery.

Gent. Fr. Nation. It is only used in poetry, viz. La gent, qui porte le Turban. The Turkish Nation. In the plural number it is only accepted according to the following significations.

Le droit des Gens, Fr. the rights of nations.

Violer le droit des Gens, Fr. to infringe or violate the rights of nations.

Respecter le droit des Gens, Fr. to respect the rights of nations.

Un traité du troit des Gens, Fr. a treatise on the rights of nations.

The following phrases are in familiar use among the French, viz.

Gens de marque, Fr. men of distinction.

Gens de condition, Fr. men of condition.

Gens d’honneur, Fr. men of honor.

Gens de qualité, Fr. men of fashion, or quality.

Gens de coeur, Fr. men of spirit.

Gens d’epée, Fr. this term is used among the French, to distinguish officers, gentlemen, &c. who wear swords, from those who do not, particularly so in opposition to gens de la robe, or lawyers.

Gens de main, Fr. executive characters.

Gens de service, Fr. useful men, persons of exertions.

Gens de pied, Fr. The same as fantassins, foot soldiers, or men who serve on foot.

Gens de cheval, Fr. cavalry, or men who serve on horseback.

Mille Gens, cent mille gens, Fr. signifies any considerable number of men.

Gens, Fr. this word is likewise used to distinguish bodies of men that are in opposition to each other, viz.

Nos Gens ont battu les ennemis, Fr. our men, or people have overcome the enemy.

Nos Gens ont été battus, Fr. our men or people have been beaten.

Je craignois que ce ne fussent des ennemis, et c’étoient de nos Gens, Fr. I was apprehensive that they were our enemies, but they proved to be our own people.

Nos Gens battirent les vôtres, Fr., our men beat your’s.

Gens, Fr. when followed by the preposition de, and by a substantive, which points out any particular profession, trade, &c. signifies all those persons that belong to one nation, one town, &c. or who are of one specific profession or calling, as

Les Gens d’église, Fr. churchmen.

Les Gens de robe, Fr. lawyers or gentlemen of the long robe.

Les Gens de finance, Fr. men concerned in the distribution of public money.

Les Gens de loi, Fr. means generally all persons who have any connection with the law in the way of profession.

Les Gens du roi, Fr. Crown lawyers.

GENTILHOMMES de la garde, commonly called Au bec de corbin, or the battle axe. This company went through many alterations during the monarchy of France. During the last years of that government, it consisted of 200 guards under the command of a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign. The captain had the power of giving away the subaltern commissions, and had moreover the entire management of the rest; every vacancy being in his gift. They marched in file, each holding his battle-axe, before the king on days of public ceremony. These were chiefly at the coronation, and the marriage of the king, or at the reception of the knights of the Holy Ghost.

When the company was first raised, its particular duty was to attend the king’s person, and to be constantly near him on the day of battle.

GENTILHOMME à drapeau établie dans chaque compagnie des gardes Francoises, Fr. under the old French government, this person ranked as officier en second. He did duty in common with the ensigns of the French guards, and took precedence immediately under them. His name always stood upon the muster roll, but his appointment was purely honorary, as he did not receive any pay; his tour of duty in mounting guards, went with that of the ensigns, he was obliged to be present at all field days, and could not absent himself without leave.

Gentilshommes pensionnaires, Fr. Gentlemen pensioners. See [Pensioners].

GEODOESIA, GEODESIE, Fr. that part of practical geometry, which contains the doctrine or art of measuring surfaces and finding the contents of all plain figures. Among the French géodesie means likewise the division of lands. See [Surveying].

GEOGRAPHY is the doctrine or knowledge of the terrestrial globe; or the science that teaches and explains the state of the earth, and parts thereof that depend upon quantity; or it is rather that part of mixed mathematics, which explains the state of the earth, and of its parts depending on quantity, viz. its figure, magnitude, place, and motion, with the celestial appearances, &c. In consequence of this definition, geography should be divided into general and special, or universal and particular.

By universal Geography, is understood that part of the science which considers the whole earth in general, and explains its properties without regard to particular countries. This division is again distinguished into three parts, absolute, relative, and comparative. The absolute part respects the body of the earth itself, its parts and peculiar properties; as its figure, magnitude, and motion; its lands, seas, and rivers, &c. The relative part accounts for the appearances and accidents that happen to it from celestial causes; and lastly, the comparative contains an explanation of those properties which arise from comparing different parts of the earth together.

Special or particular Geography is that division of the science which describes the constitution and situation of each single country by itself; and is twofold, viz. chorographical, which describes countries of a considerable extent; or topographical, which gives a view of some place, or small tract of land. Hence the object or subject of geography is the earth, especially its superficies and exterior parts.

The properties of Geography are of three kinds, viz. celestial, terrestrial, and human. The celestial properties are such as affect us by reason of the apparent motion of the sun and stars. These are 8 in number.

1. The elevation of the pole, or the distance of a place from the equator.

2. The obliquity of the diurnal motion of the stars above the horizon of the place.

3. The time of the longest and shortest day.

4. The climate and zone.

5. Heat, cold, and the seasons of the year; with rain, snow, wind, and other meteors.

6. The rising, appearance, and continuance of stars above the horizon.

7. The stars that pass through the zenith of a place.

8. The celerity of the motion with which, according to the Copernican hypothesis, every place constantly revolves.

The terrestrial properties are those observed in the face of the country, and are 10 in number.

1.	The limits and bounds of each country.
2.		-	Its	-		figure;
3.						magnitude;
4.						mountains;
5.						waters, viz. springs, rivers, lakes, and bays;
6.						woods and deserts.
7.	The fruitfulness and barrenness of the country, with its various kinds of fruits.
8.		-	The	-		minerals and fossils;
9.						living creatures there;
10.						longitude and latitude of the place.

The third kind of observations to be made in every country is called human, because it chiefly regards the inhabitants of the place. It consists of 10 specific branches.

1.	The stature, shape, color, and the length of their lives; their origin, meat and drink.
2.	Their arts, and the profits which arise from them, with the merchandize they barter one with another.
3.	Their virtues and vices, learning, capacities, and schools.
4.	Their ceremonies at births, marriages, and funerals.
5.	The language which the inhabitants use.
6.		-	Their	-		political government.
7.						religion and church government.
8.						cities and famous places.
9.						remarkable histories and antiquities.
10.	Their famous men, artificers, and inventions of the natives.

These are the three kinds of occurrences to be explained in special geography.

The principles of Geography, or those from which arguments are drawn for the proving of propositions in that science, are, according to the best authors, of three sorts.

1. Geometrical, arithmetical, and trigonometrical propositions.

2. Astronomical precepts and theorems.

3. Experience, being that upon which the greatest part of geography, and chiefly the special is founded.

In proving geographical propositions, we are to observe, that several properties, and chiefly the celestial, are confirmed by proper demonstrations; being either grounded on experience and observation, or on the testimony of our senses: nor can they be proved by any other means. There are also several propositions proved, or rather exposed to view, by the terrestrial globe, or by geographical maps.

Other propositions cannot be so well proved, yet are received as apparent truths. Thus, though we suppose all places on the globe, and in maps, to be laid down in the same order as they are really on the earth; nevertheless, in these matters, we rather follow the descriptions that are given by geographical writers.

Geography is very ancient, at least the special part thereof; for the ancients scarce went beyond the description of countries. It was a constant custom among the Romans, after they had conquered or subdued any province, to have a map or printed representation thereof, carried in triumph and exposed to the view of the spectators. Historians relate that the Roman senate, about 100 years before Christ, sent geographers into divers parts to make an exact survey and mensuration of the whole globe; but they scarcely ever saw the 20th part of it.

Before them, Necho, king of Egypt, ordered the Phœnicians to make a survey of the whole coast of Africa, which they accomplished in 3 years. Darius procured the Ethiopic sea, and the mouth of the Indus, to be surveyed; and Pliny relates, that Alexander, in his expedition into Asia, took two geographers to measure and describe the roads; and that from their itineraries, the writers of the following ages took many particulars. Indeed this may be observed, that whereas most other arts and sciences are sufferers by war, geography, artillery, mining, and fortification, alone have been improved thereby. Geography, however, must have been exceedingly defective, as a great part of the globe was then unknown, particularly all America, the northern parts of Europe and Asia, with the Australasia, and Magellanica; and they were also ignorant of the earth’s being capable to be sailed round, and of the torrid zone being habitable, &c.

The honor of reducing geography to art and system, was reserved for Ptolemy; who, by adding mathematical advantages to the historical method in which it had been treated of before, has described the world in a much more intelligible manner: he has delineated it under more certain rules, and by fixing the bounds of places from longitude and latitude, has discovered other mistakes, and has left us a method of discovering his own.

GEOLIER des prisons militaires, Fr. the superintendant or head jailor of military prisons. Under the old French government, this person had a right to visit all prisoners that were not confined in dungeons. He could order provisions, wood, and coal to be conveyed to them; but he had not the power of permitting women to visit or have any intercourse with the soldiers; and when their period of imprisonment expired, he could not detain them on account of debts contracted for food, lodging, or fees, &c. Half of the prisoner’s subsistence for one day, according to his rank, was given on his release.

GEOMETRICAL elevations, just dimensions of ascent proportionate to a given scale, &c. See [Orthography].

GEOMETRIE, Fr. Geometry.

Geometrie composée, Fr. compound geometry, which consists in the knowlege of curved lines, and of the different bodies produced by them. The immediate object or intent of compound geometry is confined to conic sections, and to lines of that species.

Geometrie sublime et transcendante, Fr. these terms have been applied by the French to the new system of geometry, which was produced by Leibnitz, and Newton, when they found out the method of calculating ad infinitum.

GEOMETRY, originally signified no more than the art of measuring the earth, or any distance or dimensions in it; but at present it denotes the science of magnitude in general; comprehending the doctrine and relations of whatever is susceptible of augmentation or diminution, considered in that light. Hence, to geometry may be referred the consideration not only of lines, surfaces, and solids; but also of time, velocity, number, weight, &c.

Plato thought the word geometry an improper name for this science, and accordingly substituted in its place the more extensive one of mensuration; and after him, others gave it the name of pantometry, as demonstrating not only the quantities of all manner of magnitudes, but also their qualities, ratios, positions, transformations, relations, &c. and Proclus calls it the knowlege of magnitudes and figures, and their limitations; also of their motions and affections of every kind.

Origin and progress of Geometry. This science had its rise in Asia, the invention, which at first consisted only in measuring the lands, that every person might have what belonged to him, was called geometry, or the art of measuring land; and it is probable, that the draughts and schemes which they were annually compelled to make, helped them to discover many excellent properties of these figures; which speculation has continued gradually to improve to this day.

From Asia it passed into Egypt, and thence into Greece, where it continued to receive improvement from Thales, Pythagoras, Archimedes, Euclid, &c. The elements of geometry, written by Euclid in 15 books, are a most convincing proof to what perfection this science was carried among the ancients. However, it must be acknowleged, that it fell short of modern geometry, the bounds of which, by the inventions of fluxions, and the discovery of the almost infinite order of curves are greatly enlarged.

Division of Geometry. This science is usually distinguished into elementary, and higher or sublime geometry. The first, or elementary geometry, treats of the properties of right lines, and of the circle, together with the figures and solids formed by them. The doctrine of lines comes first, then that of surfaces, and lastly that of solids. The higher geometry comprehends the doctrine of conic sections, and numerous other curves.

Speculative and practical Geometry. The former treats of the properties of lines and figures, as Euclid’s Elements, Apollonius’s Conic Sections, &c. and the latter shews how to apply these speculations to the use of mensuration, navigation, surveying, taking heights and distances, gauging, fortification, gunnery, &c.

Usefulness of Geometry. Its usefulness extends to almost every art and science. By the help of it, astronomers turn their observations to advantage: regulate the duration of times, seasons, years, cycles, and epochs; and measure the distance, motion, and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies. By it geographers determine the figure and magnitude of the whole earth; and delineate the extent and bearings of kingdoms, provinces, harbors, &c. It is from this science also that architects derive their just measure and construction of public edifices, as well as of private houses.

It is by the assistance of geometry that engineers conduct all their works, take the situation and plans of towns, the distances of places, and the measure of such things as are only accessible to the sight. It is not only an introduction to fortification, but highly necessary to mechanics. On geometry likewise depends the theory of gunnery, mining, music, optics, perspective, drawing, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, &c.

We may distinguish the progress of geometry into three ages; the first of which was in its meridian glory at the time when Euclid’s Elements appeared; the second beginning with Archimedes, reaches to the time of Descartes; who by applying algebra to the elements of geometry, gave a new turn to this science, which has been carried to its utmost perfection by our learned countryman Sir Isaac Newton, and by the German philosopher Leibnitz.

GEORGE, or knight of St. George, has been the denomination of several military orders. See [Garter].

GERBE, Fr. means literally a sheaf, but it here signifies a sort of artificial firework, which is placed in a perpendicular manner, and resembles a sheaf. See Jets de feu.

Gerbe likewise means the tithe which was formerly paid to the French curates.

Faire Gerbe de foarre à dieu, Fr. a figurative expression, signifying, that the farmer made up the worst sheaf he could for the parson; filling it principally with straw instead of good ears of corn.

GERMS, small coasting vessels employed by the French, to keep up an intercourse with Egypt.

GESE, Fr. a weapon used in former times.

Geses and Materes were adopted by the Allobroges (a body of ancient Gauls so called) independently of the broad cut and thrust sword, which the Swiss still wear. These instruments were only one cubit long; half the blade was nearly square, but it terminated in a round point that was exceedingly sharp. Virgil in his Æneid calls this species of blade, alpin, meaning, no doubt, to convey, that it was in general use among the neighboring inhabitants of the Alps. Not only the Romans, but the Greeks received it into their armies. The former retained the full appellation and called it gése, but the latter corrupted it into ysse. This is the only weapon with which those soldiers were armed that escorted malefactors, who were condemned to death, to the place of execution. The term gese was also applied to a sort of a javelin.

GESSATES, a people of whom Polybius speaks in his history of the ancient Gauls, and who inhabited the countries lying adjacent to the alps, and to the river Rhone. According to some writers, they were so called because they constantly wore geses. The gese is said to have been a dart which the ancient Gauls exclusively used, and which some authors since confounded with the pertuisane or partisan, a sort of halbert, called by others a javelin. This word was used in Provence, as late as the year 1300; for in the inventory which was taken of the goods, furniture, &c. appertaining to the Templars, we find gessus or gesus particularly specified in the list of weapons and iron instruments, which was understood to mean gese, and under that appellation was deposited in the king’s archives at Aix. See Boucher, Hist. Prov. Liv. ii. c. 4. p. 82. This same author further asserts, that the Gési, and the Gessates took their names from that weapon. He quotes Julius Cæsar’s account of the word gesi in confirmation of his own opinion. Many authors have mentioned the same term: among others, Justus, Lipsus, Hugo, Cheves, Vossius, &c.

Gessate ou Gesate, Fr. a knight among the ancient Gauls, who took delight in war, and frequently volunteered his services beyond the boundaries of his native country. Whenever a neighboring country made a levy of men, it was usual for the gessates to accompany the troops, from a conviction that it would be dishonorable in them to remain inactive at home. These adventurers, or knights-errant, were called gessates, either on account of the gessus or large dart, which they carried, or, as Polybius imagines, on account of the subsistence which was paid them, and was called by that name.

GESTURE, a motion of the body intended to signify some idea, or passion of the mind. All officers and soldiers who make use of any menacing gesture before a commanding or superior officer, or before a court-martial, are liable to be punished by the laws of war.

GEZE, Fr. a rentrant angle, which is made with slate or lead, and forms a gutter between two roofs. It is likewise called noue, or pantile.

GHERIAH, a port on the Malabar Mahrattah coast of Hindustan, the capital part of Angria’s dominions, which consisted of an extent of coast, from whence this warlike state was a perpetual source of uneasiness to the trading ships of all the European nations in India. It cost the English East-India company 50,000l. annually to protect their own ships. Eight or ten grabs, and forty or fifty gallivats, crowded with men, generally composed Angria’s principal fleet in 1754, destined to attack ships of force or burthen. The vessel no sooner came in sight of the port or bay where the fleet was lying, than they slipped their cables and put out to sea. If the wind blew, their construction enabled them to sail almost as fast as the wind; and if it was calm, the gallivats rowing towed the grabs: when within cannon shot of the chace, they generally assembled in her wake, and the grabs attacked her at a distance with their prow guns, firing first only at the masts, and taking aim when the three masts of the vessel just opened all together to their view; by which means the shot would probably strike one or other of the three. As soon as the chase was dismasted, they came nearer, and battered her on all sides until she struck: and if the defence was obstinate, they sent a number of gallivats, with two or three hundred men in each, who boarded sword in hand from all quarters in the same instant.

The English trusting to the report of the natives, had until the year 1756, believed Gheriah to be at least as strong as Gibraltar, and like that situated on a mountain which was inaccessible from the sea, for this reason it was resolved to send vessels to reconnoitre it; which service commodore James, in the Protector, with two other ships, performed. He found the enemy’s fleet at anchor in the harbor, notwithstanding which, he approached within cannon shot of the fort, and having attentively considered it, returned at the end of December to Bombay, and described the place, such as it truly was, very strong indeed, but far from being inaccessible or impregnable. This place was taken by the English troops under the command of colonel Clive. There were found in it 200 pieces of cannon, six brass mortars, and a great quantity of ammunition, and military and naval stores of all kinds; the money and effects of other kinds, amounted to 1,200,000l. sterling. All this booty was divided amongst the captors, without any reserve either for the nation, or the company. In less than a month the English, with their allies the Mahrattas got possession of all the territories wrested from the latter by Angria’s predecessors, and which they had for seventy years despaired of ever being able to recover.

GIBERNE, Fr. a sort of bag in which the grenadiers held their hand-grenades. It was worn like a powder flask. They likewise carried, independent of this bag, a cartouch box containing 18 or 20 charges.

GIBRALTAR, a strong fortress of Andalusia, in Spain. Gibraltar was formerly thought to be impregnable; but it was taken by Sir George Rooke in 1704, and has remained in the hands of the English ever since. It has been several times attacked by the Spaniards, who have always been unsuccessful. Their last effort to recover it was made September 13th, 1782, with floating batteries, in which were mounted 212 brass cannon and mortars. The French united with the Spaniards on this memorable occasion; and the brother to the last king of the French, (then Count D’Artois) commanded the camp of St. Roche, from whence the offensive operations were directed. General Elliot, (afterwards called lord Heathfield) had prepared a great number of red-hot balls against the attack; and these so effectually destroyed the floating batteries, that the Spaniards were greatly annoyed, and relinquished the enterprize. For particulars, see Drinkwater’s siege of Gibraltar.

GIN, in military mechanics, is a machine for raising great weights: it is composed of 3 long legs, 2 of which are kept at a proper distance by means of 2 iron bars fixed on one of the legs by a staple passing through a hole at one end: the other end has a hook which enters into a staple fixed into the other leg so as to be taken off or put on at pleasure.

At 3 feet from the bottom is a roller, upon which the cable was wound; and the 3 legs are joined together with an iron bolt, about which they move: to this bolt, is also fixed an iron half-ring to hook on a windlass: when the gin stands upright, so as the legs stand at a proper distance, one end of the cable is fastened to a gun, mortar, or other weight; and the other passes through the pullies and about the roller, which is turned round by means of hand-spikes passing through the holes in the ends of the roller: whilst a man holds the cable tight, the gun is raised to the height required, so that the carriage may be put under it.

Gin Triangle—Length of arms of the gin 16 feet 4¹⁄₂ inches. Roller, 6 feet long. Tackle fall, 78 feet of 3 inch white rope. Sling, 6 inch white rope.

The newly constructed gin, by having one half of the roller of a greater diameter than the other, gives a new power, that of elevating or lowering the object in a greater or lesser proportion, according to the end of the cylinder upon which the cable is fixed.

For the different exercises of the gin, see the word [Exercise].

GINCE, a place in India, situated 35 miles N. W. of Pondicherry.

GINJAULS or GINGAULS, an East Indian name, signifying large musquets used with a rest, somewhat similar to those invented by Marshal Vauban, for the defence of forts.

GIRANDE, Fr. the chief cluster, or assemblage of an artificial firework, with which a shew or illumination is generally concluded.

A girande may be made by uniting several chests or clusters together, and securing with a match of communication, a regular inflammation.

GIRANDOLE, Fr. literally, a chandelier; a cluster of diamonds.

Girandoles, Fr. circles ornamented with fusees. They are used in fireworks. See [Soleils tournans].

GIROUETTES, Fr. Weathercocks, vanes. They are seldom or ever used on shore, except as weathercocks on tops of church-steeples, &c.

Girouette in the singular number, likewise means figuratively light, inconstant, not to be depended upon. As ce jeune officier est aussi girouette que ce coutume. This young officer is as light as usual.

GISTES, pieces of wood which are made use of in the construction of platforms to batteries, and upon which the madriers or broad planks are placed.

GLACIS. See [Fortification].

Glacis d’une corniche, Fr. a waterfall, or insensible slope which is made upon the cymatium (a member of architecture, whereof one half is convex, and the other concave) of a cornish.

GLADIATOR, GLADIATEUR, Fr. a sword player, a prize fighter. The old Romans were accustomed to make their slaves fight with one another at their public festivals, and the only weapon they used, was a gladine or sword. This barbarous usage was abolished by the emperor Theodoric in the year of Christ 500; but it prevailed among the ancient Britons, and in England to a much later date.

GLAIS militaire, Fr. a military compliment which was paid to the remains of a deceased general. It consisted in a discharge of ordnance. In a civil sense, it means the chiming of bells at the death of a parish priest.

GLAISE, Fr. clay, or potter’s earth.

GLAISER, Fr. to do over with potter’s earth, or clay.

GLAIVE, a broad sword, or falchion, anciently so called.

Le Glaive de la justice, the sword of justice.

GLAIZE, a kind of halbert, so called by the Saxons.

GLAS, Fr. knell.

GLIB act, a very ancient act of parliament which directed that the Irish nobility and gentry who were of English or Norman extraction, should forfeit the privileges of their original country, if they did not shave the upper lip. This act took place when Ireland was first conquered, and its object was to distinguish the descendants of the invaders; from the old Irish nobility that traced its origin to Milesius, who wore their hair and their beards very long; hence glib, means loose, flowing.

GLIPHE ou GLYPHE, Fr. signifies generally every species of canal, or hollow, which constitutes any part of ornamental architecture.

Globes ou ballons d’artifices, Fr. globes or balloons, which are filled with artificial fire. They are used to set fire to an enemy’s town or works, &c.

Globes de feu, Fr. a cartouch made of mashed paper, which is laid upon a wooden bowl and made perfectly round. It is afterward perforated in several places, and filled with the inflammable composition that is used in the making up of [lances à feu]. The instant it catches, a very bright and lively fire issues out of the several holes.

GLOBE. See [Geography].

GLOIRE, Fr. an artificial fire-work, which resembles a large sun. It is made by means of an iron wheel containing four circles, each circle diminishing towards the centre, and kept at equal distances from one another. Forty eight jets de feu, or fire spouts, are tied to these circles; each jet is twenty French inches long, and there are twelve of them fixed to each of the four circles. The gloire or soleil is placed in the middle of the principal fire-work.

Military GLORY, honor, reputation and fame, acquired by military atchievements. That precarious splendor, which plays round the brows of a warrior, and has been collected by hard service, extraordinary genius, and unblemished integrity; but which may desert the greatest hero through one unfortunate failure.

GO. The verb to go is variously used in a military sense, as to march in a hostile, or warlike manner.

To Go off, implies to depart from any post.

To Go on, to make an attack.

To Go over, to revolt.

To Go out, to go upon any expedition, &c.

To Go out is likewise frequently used to signify the act of fighting a duel, as he went out with a brother officer, and was slightly wounded.

GOA, a strong town on the Malabar coast, belonging to the Portuguese. The chief trade is in arrack. This fort was taken by the English April 2d, 1756.

GOLADAR or GOLDAR, an East Indian term, signifying a store-keeper, or store-house-keeper.

GOLANDAAZEE, the Indian term for an artillery man.

GOLCONDA, a province in India, formerly comprehending the nabobships of Arcot, Canoul, Cudapa, Rajamandry, and Chicacole.

Golconda, formerly a city and the capital of the province. It stood at the foot of the rock and fortress of the same name; but the city has long since been deserted; and its inhabitants removed to Hyderabad: nevertheless its name is still frequently used in Indostan, when in reality the city of Hyderabad is meant.

GOLDEN Rock, a spot near Tritchinopoly in East India, which has been renowned by the victory that was gained by the British troops over the French and their allies in 1753.

GONDECAMA, Gondegama, a river in India, which makes the northern boundary of the province of Arcot; Condavir extends between this and the river Kristna.

GONDOLA, Gondole, Fr. this word may be taken in two senses, viz. to signify a cup; or a small barge which is flat and long in its construction, and is only moved, or worked by oars. Gondolas are much used upon the canals in Venice; they are extremely remarkable for their shape, and the great swiftness with which they glide through the water. The middle sized ones are about thirty feet long, and are only four feet broad across the middle, gradually tapering towards each end, and rising in two sharp and narrow points to the ordinary height of a man. Upon the prow is fixed an iron of uncommon length, which does not exceed half a finger’s breadth in thickness; but which is four fingers broad, and is so disposed as to cut the air. The upper part of this iron which is flatter than the rest, stretches out in the shape of a large hatchet a full foot in length: so that when the gondola is on her way, it seems to menace every thing before it, and to force its passage.

GONDOLIERS, Gondoliers, Fr. the men who have the management of the gondolas at Venice, are so called. The equipment of a gondola seldom exceeds two persons, even on board of those barges that belong to the foreign ambassadors.

It sometimes happens that there are four, when persons of distinction go to their country houses. The gondoliers never sit down but row the barge standing upright and push forward. One man always plies in the fore part of the gondola, and the other is at the poop.

GONFALON,		-
GONFANON,

an ensign or standard.

GONG, the Persian word for a village.

GONG WALLAS, villagers, the militia in India so called; from gong, a village, and wallas, a man.

GORGE. See [Fortification].

Gorge, Fr. likewise means any hollow between a chain of mountains, that affords a passage into an open country.

Gorge, Fr. a sort of concave moulding belonging to ornamental architecture.

GORGERIN, Fr. in ancient times, that part of the armor which covered the neck of a man. Hence our word gorget.

GORGONS, in military antiquity, a warlike female nation of Libya, in Africa, who had frequent quarrels with another nation of the same sex, called Amazons.

GOTHIC, (Gothique Fr.) any thing constructed after the manner of the Goths. Various works and buildings that appear to have been constructed without any particular regard to the rules of art, are so called. All the old cathedrals are in the Gothic taste.

Monsieur de Fenelon has said, that gothic architecture can support an immense vault upon the slightest pillars. The elevation of it is so wonderful, that although it seems ready to tumble, is perforated and full of windows in every part, and stands as it were suspended in the skies, it nevertheless lasts out centuries, and almost always proves more durable than the most regular buildings.

Fronton GOTHIQUE, Fr. a gothic pediment. In modern architecture, all circular or triangular gable ends are so called, when they are sculptured, or three leaved.

GOUDRON ou GOUDRAN, Fr. pitch and tar.

GOUDRONS, Fr. small fascines, or faggots which are well steeped in wax, pitch, and glue, and then are lighted for the purpose of setting fire to beams, planks, traverses, galleries, pontoons, &c. They are likewise used in various shapes and ways, to convey light into the ditches, or upon the ramparts.

GOVERNOR of a fortification, is, or should be, a person of great military knowlege; and is a very considerable officer, whose authority extends not only over the inhabitants and garrison, but over all troops that may be there in winter quarters, cantonments, or quarters of refreshment.

Duty of a Governor in time of peace, is to order the guards, the rounds, and the patroles; to give the parole and countersign every night after the gates are shut; to visit the posts, to see that both officers and soldiers do their duty, and that every thing goes on regularly and in good order.

Duty of a Governor in time of war. He should consider the place in such a manner, as if the enemy were going to besiege him, not omitting the least thing that may contribute to a long and obstinate defence; he should therefore take particular care to keep the fortifications in good repair; clearing the country round of all hedges, ditches, trees, hollow roads, caverns, and rising grounds, within the reach of cannon shot; not suffering any houses to be built within that distance, nor in general any thing to be done that may favor the approach of an enemy.

He should consider well with himself every minute circumstance that may be of advantage to him during the siege: he should thoroughly examine the several works, and canvas all the different stratagems that may be used, either to defend them, or to give way upon occasion, when overpowered, with an intent to return and dislodge the enemy, after he has got possession of them; in short, how to defend the place entrusted to his care, inch by inch, with the best advantage.

He should consider how, and in what manner, the works defend each other; whether their communications are safe, or liable to be interrupted by the besiegers; how to incommode the enemy when he is at a distance, or to dislodge him when near; whether the ground be proper for mines, and where they should be made; whether any part of the country may not be laid under water, by means of dykes or sluices: if there are any already made, how to keep them in constant repair, or to make new ones if they are wanted; taking care to construct them so that the enemy may not have it in his power to destroy them, either with his cannon or mortars.

If the governor be not sufficiently skilled in the systems of attack and defence, he should frequently converse with the officers of engineers and artillery who understand them; examine the works together, see what may be done to render the defence of the place as long as the circumstances and nature of the works will admit of; and to make it familiar to himself, he should set down a project of defence on paper, and have it canvassed by the most skilful officers of artillery and engineers about him. This must be done in private; that spies or deserters may not discover the weak parts to the enemy. In short, nothing should be neglected on the part of the governor.

He should see that the place be well supplied with ammunition, and wholesome provisions; that the hospitals are in good order, and provided with able physicians and surgeons, as likewise with every thing wholesome and necessary, that the sick and wounded may be well taken care of.

The powder magazines above all things, require his most special care: for though they are built bomb-proof, yet, when a great number of shells fall upon them, they seldom resist their shock; for which reason they should be covered 8 or 10 feet thick with earth, and a layer of fascines, dung and strong planks, laid over them.

GOUJAT, Fr. A soldier’s boy. It likewise signifies an ignorant good-for-nothing fellow.

GOUINE, a woman of infamous character.

GOURDIN, Fr. a flat stick, two fingers in breadth, which was used by the french to punish galley slaves.

GOURGANDINE, Fr. a strumpet of the lowest species, a soldier’s trull.

GOUVERNAIL, Fr. a rudder.

GOUVERNEMENT, Fr. anciently meant a certain specific allotment of provinces, towns, &c. under the superintendence and government of one person who received his powers from the king, and had subordinate officers under him. There were twelve governments in France, at the first institution of monarchy, called grands gouvernemens généraux, which were specifically noticed in all the general sittings of the kingdom. They were first formed by Hugues Capet, in 987. Previous to the revolution in 1789, they were subdivided into 39 general provincial governments with inferior officers, subject to their jurisdiction; such as governors of towns, and commandants of fortified places. Each governor general was entitled to a guard of cavalry, a certain number of halberdiers and armed men on foot.

GOUVERNEUR d’une place de guerre, Fr. the governor of a fortified town or place. See [governor of a Fortification].

GOWA. A witness is so called in India.

GRABS. Vessels peculiar to the Malabar coast. They have rarely more than two masts, although some have three; those of three are about 300 tons burthen; but the others are not more than 150 tons; they are built to draw very little water, being very broad in proportion to their length, narrowing from the middle to the end, where instead of bows they have a prow, projecting like that of a Mediterranean galley, and covered with a strong deck level with the main deck of the vessel, from which, however, it is separated by a bulk head, which terminates the forecastle. As this construction subjects the grab to pitch violently when sailing against a head sea; the deck of the prow is not enclosed with sides as the rest of the vessel is, but remains bare, that the water which dashes upon it may pass off without interruption. On the main deck under the forecastle are mounted two pieces of cannon nine or twelve pounders, which point forwards through the port holes cut in the bulk head, and fire over the prow; the cannon of the broadside are from six to nine pounders.

GRAFF. See [Ditch] or [Moat].

GRAIN, Fr. A word used in the repairing of damaged cannon.

Mettre un Grain a une piece, to fill up the touch-hole of a piece of ordnance, the heating it in such a manner, that the metal which is poured in may assimilate and mix. When it becomes cold, a fresh aperture is made or bored.

GRAIS, Fr. large stones resembling Scotch pebbles. They are used to pave the high-roads, and streets.

GRAM, the grey peas are called by this name in Hindustan, and is the common food of horses, for which purpose it is previously steept in water.

GRAMEN, grass, in botany.

GRAMINE, couronne gramine, Fr. a grass or gramineous crown, which was made among the Romans. See [Obsidional].

GRANADE. False orthography. See [Grenade].

GRANADIER, false orthography. See [Grenadier].

GRAND. This word is frequently used both in French and English as a word of title or distinction; it means great. In French it also means large.

Grand division. The battalion being told off by two companies to each division, is said to be told off in grand divisions; hence grand division firing is, when the battalion fires by 2 companies at the same time, and is commanded by 1 officer only.

Grand maitre d’artillerie, Fr. grand master of the ordnance, &c. &c. &c.

Grand soleil brillant, Fr. a sun exhibited in artificial fireworks. See [Gloire].

Grand Vizir. See [Vizir].

GRANITE, (granit, Fr.) a sort of hard stone which is variegated by spots and streaks, and is rather encrusted. It is very common in Egypt. There is a species of granite, that is of a white and violet color; and another which is green mixed with white. The most ordinary kind has grey and green spots scattered over a greyish white.

Columns 40 feet high have been seen in Egypt which consisted wholly of one piece of granite. The Egyptian Pyramids are made of that marble; such indeed is the quantity said to exist about the country, that some authors imagine the whole extent of its foundation to be a solid rock of granite. The French distinguish this sort of stone by calling it marbre granit and marbre granitelle. In natural history it is generally called granita, being a distinct genus of stones composed of separate and very large concretions rudely compacted together, of great hardness and capable of receiving a very fine and beautiful polish.

GRANOIR, Fr. a term used in the French artillery, to signify a sort of sieve, in which there are small round holes for moist powder to be passed through, in order to make the grains perfectly round.

GRAPE shot. See [Shot].

GRAPHOMETER, (graphometre, Fr.) among surveyors, an instrument for taking angles, and generally called a semi-circle. In mathematics it serves to measure heights and elevations, to raise plans, &c.

GRAPPLING. The French call it grapin, herisson, risson, or harpeau; it is a sort of small anchor, with four or five flukes or arms, commonly used to ride a boat.

Grappling-irons, in the art of war, are composed of 4, 5, or 6 branches, bent round and pointed, with a ring at the root, to which is fastened a rope to hold by, when the grapple is thrown at any thing, in order to bring it near, so as to lay hold of it.

Fire Grappling, an instrument which nearly resembles the above, only that it is fitted with strong barbs instead of flukes, and is fixed at the yard arms of a fire-ship to grapple her adversary, and set her on fire. The French call this instrument grapin de brulôt.

GRAS-bois, Fr. in carpentry, a term to signify any piece of wood which is too large to fit the place it was intended to fill, and which must necessarily be diminished. Hence the expression dêmaigrir, to thin.

GRASS, (gramen,) in botany a general name for most of the herbaceous plants used in feeding cattle.

Grass plats, green walks which for the most part are made by laying turfs or green sods.

GRATICULER, Fr. to divide with a pencil on a sheet of paper, any design or drawing into small equal squares, in order to reduce the original sketch or picture, or to enlarge it by the same process. This word is derived from the Italian, graticola, a gridiron.

GRATIFICATION, Fr. In a general acceptation of the term, this word meant, among the French, certain rewards which generals gave to the troops, after a severe engagement, in testimony of their valor and good conduct. These rewards were distributed according to rank. This custom was prevalent in the most ancient times. According to Vegetius, all monies distributed by the Romans, as military gratifications or rewards, were deposited in the ensign or standard-bearer’s hands, to be occasionally given to the soldiers. Sometimes the generals gave directions, that a certain proportion should be sequestered or put apart. By degree, a fund was collected; and the temptations to desert lost their influence in the superior attachment which every soldier felt to his standard, whose bearer was the trustee of his little property, and to whom he was consequently bound by one of the most powerful ties of the human heart—self interest.

By gratification was likewise meant the accumulation of a certain sum, which was deposited for the specific purpose of burying a deceased soldier.

Gratification signified, among the French, in a more extended sense of the word, a public reward given to a body of soldiers on the recommendation of a general, for some signal act of bravery in the day of battle. When this happened the soldiers had a certain sum of money distributed amongst them, and the officers received annual pensions.

Gratification likewise means a certain allowance in money which is made to prisoners of war. The British officers in France have been allowed 6d. per day, and the non-commissioned and soldiers 1¹⁄₂d. the officers have also 1s. 6d. in lieu of rations.

GRATTER un Vaisseau, Fr. to clean or careen a ship.

Gratter en maconnerie, Fr. to restore the original appearance of a wall or building by grating the superficies with a trowel, or any other iron instrument.

GRAVEURS, Fr. Persons employed and paid by the founders of cannon for repairing damaged pieces of artillery. Some individual, however, was distinguished by the name of Graveur de l’Artillerie, Engraver to the Artillery, and was permitted, by the Grand Master of the Ordnance, to exhibit over his shop-door the arms of the royal artillery.

GRAVITY.—Table of the Specific gravity of several Solid and Fluid bodies.

Platina	23400
Fine gold	19640
Standard gold	18888
Quick silver	11325
Fine silver	11091
Standard silver	10535
Copper	9000
Copper halfpence	8915
Gun metal	8784
Cast brass	8000
Steel	7850
Iron	7645
Cast iron	7425
Tin	7320
Crystal glass	3150
Marble	2700
Common green glass	2600
Flint	2570
Common stone	2520
Clay	2160
Brick	2000
Common earth	1984
Nitre	1900
Ivory	1825
Brimstone	1810
Solid gunpowder	1745
Sand	1520
Coal	1250
Boxwood	1030
Sea water	1030
Common water	1000
Oak	925
Gunpowder, close stacken	937
Do. in loose heap	836
Ash	800
Maple	755
Elm	600
Fir	550
Charcoal
Cork	240
Air	1.232

The several sorts of wood are supposed dry.

This table also contains the weight of a cubic foot of each body in avoirdupois ounces; from whence results the following rules:

1. To find the magnitude of any body from its Weight.

As the tabular specific gravity of the body,

Is to its weight in avoirdupois ounces.

So is one cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches,

To its contents in feet or inches respectively.

2. To find the weight of a body from its magnitude.

As one cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches,

Is to the content of the body,

So is the tabular specific gravity

To the weight of the body.

GRAVOIS, Fr. rubbish.

GREAT fortification. One of the divisions of the first system of M. de Vauban.—It consists in a fortification whose exterior side is from 185 to 260 toises, or from 370 to 520 yards, and is seldom adopted but towards a river or a marsh.

Great radius. The whole oblique radius. See [Fortification].

GRECIAN fire, feu Gregeois, Fr. a sort of artificial fire, which insinuates itself beyond the surface of the sea, and which burns with increased violence when it mixes with that element. Its directions are contrary to the course of natural fire; for the flames will spread themselves downwards, to the right or left, agreeably to the movement that is given. It is composed or made up of naphtha, sulphur, bitumen, gum and pitch; and it can only be extinguished by vinegar mixed with urine and sand, or with undressed leather or green hides. Some writers assert, that it was invented by an engineer (belonging to Heliopolis, a town in Syria,) whose name was Gallinicus, and who used it with so much skill and effect during a naval engagement, that he destroyed a whole fleet belonging to the enemy, upon which were embarked 30,000 men. This combustible matter has retained the name of Grecian fire, because the Greeks first practised the invention. It is asserted indeed, that the secret of making Grecian fire, which should be unextinguishable, has been long since lost; we say unextinguishable, because the ancients did nor know, as we do, how to repress or put out the flame.

According to the author of Oeuvres Militaires, a powerful composition, which could only be extinguished by strong vinegar (a secret unknown to the ancients) might be made of the following combustible materials: viz. pitch, rosin, tallow, camphor, turpentine, salt of nitre, liquid varnish, oil of sulphur, linseed, rock oil, flax, charcoal finely pulverized; the whole of which being boiled together, and before it grows cold, mixed with quick lime: a consistence is formed that will be susceptible of the most subtle and destructive fire.

GRENADES,		-
GRANADES or
GRENADOES,

in the art of war, are hollow balls or shells of iron or other metal, about 2¹⁄₂ inches diameter, which being filled with fine powder, are set on fire by means of a small fuse, driven into the fuse-hole, made of well seasoned beech wood, and formerly thrown by the grenadiers into places where men stood thick, and particularly into the trenches and other lodgments made by the enemy. As soon as the composition within the fuse gets to the powder in the grenade, it bursts into many pieces, greatly to the injury of all who happen to be in its way. Grenades were first made about the time [shells] were invented (which see) and first used in 1594. Grenades have much sunk into disuse; but nothing is more effectual than grenades thrown into the midst of the enemy, who have jumped into the ditch. During the siege of Cassel, under the Count de Lippe, in the campaign of 1762, a young engineer undertook to carry one of the outworks, with a much smaller detachment than had before attempted it without success. He gained his object with ease, from the use of grenades; which is a proof that they should not be neglected, either in the attack or defence of posts.

Grenade, grenade, Fr. There is a sort of grenade which is thrown out of a mortar.

It is sometimes used for the purpose of annoying the besieging enemy; in which case quantities are rolled down the rampart into the fossé, or ditch, upon the workmen or miners.

A grenade resembles a bomb or shell, with this only difference, that the grenade has not any handles to it.

There are some grenades, called grenades à main hand-grenades, whose calibre is equal to that of a four pounder. The charge is from five to six ounces of gunpowder, or thereabouts. They are extremely serviceable on many occasions: but particularly so to throw among the men that are working in the trenches; numbers of whom they must inevitably wound. The vent of a hand-grenade contains about six lines, or half an inch.

The following proportions belonged to grenades, according to their several diameters in former times; they have been much improved.

Grenades whose calibre is equal to that of a 33 pounder, contain about 6 French inches or more diameter, 8 lines in thickness, and 16 pounds in weight.

Grenades whose calibre is equal to that of a 24 pounder, contain 5 French inches 5 lines diameter, six lines in thickness, and 12 pounds in weight.

Grenades whose calibre is equal to that of a 16 pounder, contain 4 French inches 9 lines diameter, 5 lines in thickness and 8 pounds in weight.

Those that weigh 6 pounds, have 3 French inches 5 lines diameter, and are 5 lines thick.

Those that weigh 5 pounds, have 3 French inches 2¹⁄₄ lines diameter, and are 5 lines thick.

Those that weigh 3 pounds, have 2 French inches 8 lines diameter, and are 4¹⁄₂ lines thick.

Those that weigh 2 pounds, have 2 French inches 4 lines diameter, and are 4 lines thick.

Those that weigh 1 pound, have 1 French inch ten lines diameter, and are 3 lines thick.

Those that weigh three quarters of a pound, have 1 French inch 8 lines diameter, and are 3 lines thick.

Those that weigh half a pound, have 1 French inch 8 lines diameter, and are 3 lines thick.

Those that weigh a quarter of a pound, have 1 French inch 6 lines diameter, and are 2¹⁄₂ lines thick.

These proportions were formerly attended to in the old French service, with occasional deviations from the strict measurement of the lines; as it was supposed to be of little consequence whether the grenades fitted the mortars exactly. It was, indeed, generally thought advisable to adapt their sizes, so that they might be thrown out without the least resistance or compression.

Grenades were directed to be thicker at the breech than elsewhere, in proportion to their several diameters.

Durtubie, in his Manuel de l’Artilleur, gives the following succinct account of grenades. That writer observes, “that besides bombs or shells, and howitzers, hollow vessels made of iron in globular shapes, which are called grenades, are frequently used; gunpowder is poured in through the cavity or vent, called in French lumiere, into which a fuse loaded with a composition of combustible materials is introduced.”

There are two sorts of grenades. Those distinguished by the name of grenades de rampart, are rolled from the top of the parapet into the ditch; they are equal in calibre to that of a 33 and a 16 pounder; and they weigh 16, 11, and 8 ounces.

The other species is called grenades à main. These are thrown into the covert way, and the trenches, &c. Their calibre is that of a 4 pounder, and they weigh 2 pounds. The ordinary thickness of grenades is four lines throughout.

It will occur to our military readers, that by this account a considerable alteration has taken place in the casting of grenades, as the intermediate differences have been consolidated; hand-grenades, instead of being thicker at the breach, are uniformly of the same consistency. It cannot, however, be thought superfluous to preserve an account of the original dimensions.

GRENADES—Hand grenades may be thrown to the distance of 13 fathoms. For their dimensions see the word [Shell].

Grenades Turques. Fr. Turkish grenades. A sort of grenade which is made by the Turks. Their grenades are extremely defective, and do little execution.

GRENADIER,		-
GRANADIER,

a foot soldier armed with firelock, bayonet, and in some services with a hanger; grenadiers carry, besides their arms, a cartridge box that will hold 36 rounds. They are always the tallest and stoutest men, consequently the first upon all attacks. Every battalion of foot in the British army has generally a company of grenadiers belonging to it, which takes the right of the battalion. Grenadiers were first instituted in France in 1667, by having 4 or 5 to each company; but in the year 1670, they were formed into companies, and in 1685, were first known in the British service.

Horse Grenadiers, called by the French grenadiers volans, or flying grenadiers, are such as are mounted on horseback, but fight both on foot and horseback. They were first established in France by Lewis XIV. in 1676, and formed into squadrons.

Grenadiers auxiliaries, Fr. Auxiliary grenadiers. During a siege, and when a place was closely invested, a certain number of grenadiers were chosen out of the battalions belonging to the trenches, for the purpose of making head against the besieged, whenever they might risk a sally, or insult the works. It was the peculiar duty of these men to stand forward on every occasion, to set fire to the gabions attached to the batteries, and to crush every attempt which might be made by the garrison to annoy the men that were posted in the trenches, &c.

It was customary among the French to increase the number of those grenadiers, who went first into danger and did the duty of the trenches. These were called grenadiers postiches, or extra grenadiers.

Grenadieres, ou Gibernes, the bags or haversacks which hold the grenades. They were worn like powder-flasks.

GRENIER, Fr. (mettre en grenier.) To stow any thing loosely.

GRENOIR. Fr. (Une espece de crible.) A sort of sieve through which gunpowder was passed, and formed into grains of different sizes.

GREVE, Fr. Any flat space of ground on the bank of a river, or near the sea. A place in Paris is so called, where during the old government of France, all criminals were executed. Greve is also used to signify the gallows.

Greve, Fr. armor, or covers for the legs. They were anciently worn by the French; and generally consisted of a piece of steel or stiff leather, which protected the front part of the leg.

GRIFFE, Fr. means literally a claw, but in a military sense, as accepted by the French, it signifies an iron instrument which is made like a hook, and is used by miners to pick out the small stones that are incorporated with cement, &c.

GRIGNON, Fr. broken biscuit.

GRISONS, a people formerly in alliance with the British but since annexed to Swisserland. They inhabit the mountainous parts of the Alps in Italy, and supported a well organised army, called the army of the Grisons, under general Macdonald during the war.

GROS, Fr. A body of soldiers; a detachment. The French frequently say—Un gros de cavalerie, a body of cavalry; un gros d’infanterie, a body of infantry.

GROUND. The field or place of action.

Ground-work, in military architecture. See [Foundation].

Ground arms, an old word of command on which the soldiers laid down their arms upon the ground.

This word of command has been exploded since the introduction of the new exercise. Soldiers are now ordered to pile or stack arms.

To take Ground. A battalion or company is said to take ground when it extends in any given direction. This term is likewise used in duelling, as—They took their ground at eight or ten paces from one another.

GRUE, Fr. A crane. It is frequently used in the embarkation and debarkation of cannon, &c.

GUARANTEE. Any person or power who undertakes for the performance of any stipulations agreed on between two other powers or parties.

GUARD, in the military art, is a duty performed by a body of men to secure an army or place from being surprised by an enemy. In garrison the guards are relieved every day; hence it comes that every soldier mounts guard once every three or four days in time of peace, and much oftener in time of war. See [Honors].

Guards, also imply the troops kept to guard generals and other public officers, and sometimes consist of both horse and foot.

Horse-grenadier Guards. The first troop was raised in the year 1693 in England; the second in 1702. Each troop had a colonel, lieutenant colonel, 1 guidon or major, three exempts and captains, 3 lieutenants, 1 adjutant, 3 cornets, and 60 private men, they have been abolished.

British life Guards. In consequence of the reduction of the horse grenadier guards, two regiments have been raised for the specific purpose of guarding the metropolis, and of royal escorts. They are generally called the first and second life-guards. Each regiment consists of six troops of 53 men and 1 kettle drum.

Royal Regiment of Horse Guards. This regiment which is commonly called the Oxford Blues, from having originally been raised by the earl of Oxford, consists of nine troops.

Yeomen of the Guards, a kind of foot guards to the British king’s person, and are generally called by a nick-name—the beefeaters. They were first raised by Henry VII. in the year 1485, consisting of 250 men of the first rank, under gentry, and of a larger stature than ordinary, each being required to be 6 feet high. At present there are but 100 on constant duty, and 70 more not on duty; and when any one of the 100 dies, his place is supplied out of the 70. They go dressed after the manner of Henry VIII.’s time. Their pay is 2 shillings and 6 pence per day.

Foot Guards, are regiments of foot appointed for the guard of the British king and his palace, and for general service. There are three regiments of them, called the 1st, 2d, and 3d regiment of foot-guards. They were raised in the year 1660. The first regiment is at present commanded by 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 3 majors, 27 captains, 1 captain-lieutenant, 62 lieutenants, 24 ensigns, and 3 adjutants, and consists of 3 battalions. The second regiment, or Coldstream, has 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 2 majors, 16 captains, 1 captain lieutenant, 42 lieutenants, 14 ensigns, and 2 adjutants, and consists of two battalions. The third regiment is the same as the second. The first regiment of French guards was raised in the reign of Charles IX. in the year 1563.

Imperial Guards, the name of a body of select troops organised by the French emperor, which greatly distinguished themselves at the battle of Austerlitz.

Trench Guard only mounts in the time of a siege, and consists sometimes of 3, 4, or 6 battalions, according to the importance of the siege. This guard must oppose the besieged when they sally out, protect the workmen, &c.

Provost Guard, is always an officer’s guard that attends the provost in his rounds, to prevent desertion, marauding, rioting, &c. See [Provost].

Guard-magazine. See [Store-Keeper].

Advanced Guard, is a party of either horse or foot, or both, that marches before a more considerable body, to give notice of any approaching danger. These guards are either made stronger or weaker, according to the situation or danger that may be apprehended from the enemy, or the country you are to march through.

Van Guard. See [Advanced Guard].

Artillery Guard, is a detachment from the army to secure the artillery when in the field. Their corps de garde is in the front of the artillery park, and their sentries distributed round it. This is generally a 48-hours guard; and upon a march this guard marches in the front and rear of the artillery, and must be sure to leave nothing behind. If a gun or waggon breaks down, the officer that commands the guard is to leave a sufficient number of men to assist the gunners and aids in getting it up again.

Artillery quarter-Guard, is frequently a non-commissioned officer’s guard from the regiment of artillery, whose corps de garde is always in the front of their encampment.

Artillery rear-Guard, consists in a corporal and 6 men, posted in the rear of the park.

Corps de Guard, are soldiers entrusted with the guard of a post, under the command of one or more officers. This word also signifies the place where the guard mounts.

Counter Guard. See [Fortification].

Grand Guard. A guard composed of three or four squadrons of horse, commanded by a field officer, posted about a mile, or a mile and a half from the camp, on the right and left wings, towards the enemy, for the better security of the camp.

Forage Guard, a detachment sent out to secure the foragers, who are posted at all places, where either the enemy’s party may come to disturb the foragers, or where they may be spread too near the enemy, so as to be in danger of being taken. This guard consists both of horse and foot, who must remain on their posts till the foragers are all come off the ground.

Main Guard, is that from whence all other guards are detached. Those who are for mounting guard assemble at their respective private parades, and march from thence to the general parade in good order, where, after the whole guard is drawn up, the small guards are detached to their respective posts: then the subalterns cast lots for their guards, who are all under the command of the captain of the main guard. This guard mounts in garrison at different hours, according to the pleasure of the governor.

Picquet Guard, a good number of horse and foot, always in readiness in case of an alarm: the horses are generally saddled all the time, and the riders booted.

The foot draw up at the head of the battalion, frequently at the beating of the tat-too; but afterwards return to their tents, where they hold themselves in readiness to march upon any sudden alarm. This guard is to make resistance, in case of an attack, until the army can get ready.

Baggage Guard, is always an officer’s guard, who has the care of the baggage on a march. The waggons should be numbered by companies, and follow one another regularly; vigilance and attention in the passage of hollow-ways, woods, and thickets, must be strictly observed by this guard.

Ordinary Guards, such as are fixed during the campaign, or in garrison towns, and which are relieved daily.

Extraordinary Guards, or detachments, such as are only commanded on particular occasions; either for the further security of the camp, to cover the foragers, or for convoys, escorts, or expeditions.

Soldiers are sometimes ordered to take extraordinary guards, as a punishment for slight misconduct.

Quarter Guard, is a small guard commanded by a subaltern officer, posted in the front of each battalion, at 200 feet or more before the front of the regiment.

Rear Guard, that part of the army which brings up the rear on a march, generally composed of all the old grand-guards of the camp.

The rear guard of a party is frequently 8 or 10 horse, about 500 paces behind the party. Hence the advanced guard going out upon a party forms the rear guard in a retreat.

Rear Guard, is also a corporal’s guard placed in the rear of a regiment, to keep good order in that part of the camp.

Standard Guard, a small guard under a corporal, which is taken out of each regiment of horse, and mounts on foot in front of each regiment, at the distance of 20 feet from the streets, opposite to the main street.

To be upon Guard. See [Mounting Guard].

To relieve Guard. See [Relieve].

Turn out the Guard. A phrase used when it is necessary for the guard to form for the purpose of receiving a general or commanding officer; on the approach of an armed party; on the beat of drum or sound of trumpet, or any alarm.

Port Guard. A guard detached from the main guard. All officers on port or detached guards are to send a report, night and morning, to the captain of the main guard, and at all other times, when any thing extraordinary occurs. Those who command at the ports are to draw up the bridges, or shut the barriers, on the approach of any body of armed men, of which they are to give notice to the officer of the main guard, and not to suffer any of them to come into the garrison, without leave from the governor or commander.

Out Guards. Under this head may not improperly be considered outposts, advanced picquets, and detachments. The duties of outposts are so various as usually to require detailed instructions according to circumstances. The following directions are generally applicable, and must be strictly attended to should there be any occasion for it to act upon home-service. The duty of outposts, &c. is chiefly confined to light troops, who are occasionally assisted and relieved by the line. They are always, in that case, under the immediate direction of some general. But when circumstances render it necessary, that this duty should be done from the line, the outposts fall under the command of the officers of the day, unless some particular officer be put in orders for that specific command.

All outguards march off without trumpets sounding, or drums beating. They pay no compliments of any kind; neither do their sentries take any complimentary notice of officers passing near their posts. No guards are to presume to stop any persons coming to camp with provisions (unless they be particularly ordered so to do,) and are on no account to exact or receive any thing for their free passage.

Any officer, trumpeter, or other person, who comes from an enemy’s camp, is to be secured by the first guard he arrives at, till the commander in chief’s, or the general’s pleasure is known. When a deserter comes in from the enemy, the officer commanding a post, or guard, at which he arrives, is immediately to send him under a proper escort, (without permitting him to be delayed or examined, or any questions asked him) to the officer commanding the outposts, who, after inquiring whether he brings any intelligence immediately relating to his own post, will forward him to head-quarters.

The sentries on the outposts are always to be doubled. No officers, soldiers, or followers of the camp, are on any account to be suffered to pass the outposts, without they are on duty, or present a regular pass from head-quarters.

The men on advanced picquets are to carry their provisions with them, ready cooked, when circumstances will permit. The cavalry to carry sufficient forage for the time they are to be out.

It is the duty of officers on all guards to inspect every relief of sentries, both when they go on, and come off their posts; to call the rolls frequently, and by every means in their power to keep the men under their command in the most perfect state of vigilance and preparation.

Officers commanding outposts are to send guides, or orderly men, to the major of brigade of the day, or to the brigade-major of their own brigades, as circumstances require, in order to conduct the new guards, and to carry such orders as may be necessary.

When the army is on a march, the officers must apprize the brigade-majors of the situation of their posts, as soon as they arrive at them. All detachments of brigades, which are ordered to march immediately, are to be taken from the picquets, and replaced directly from the line.

Whenever detachments exceed 200 men, or upwards, a surgeon or surgeon’s mate is to be sent from the corps of the officer who commands. On particular duties, the attendance of a surgeon or mate may be requisite with smaller detachments. Detachments of cavalry, of 50 or upwards, will be attended by a farrier.

As soon as an officer commanding an outpost, or advanced picquet, (whether of cavalry or infantry) arrives on his ground, he must endeavor to make himself master of his situation, by carefully examining, not only the space he actually occupies, but the heights within musquet-shot; the roads and paths leading to or near his post, ascertaining their breadth and practicability for cavalry and cannon. He should examine the hollow ways that cover the approach of an enemy; and, in short, consider all the points from which he is most likely to be attacked, either by cavalry or infantry. He will, by these means, be enabled to take measures to prevent the possibility of being surprized; and should he be attacked during the night, from the previous knowlege he has obtained of the ground, he will at once form a just estimate of the nature of the attack, and make his arrangements for defence with promptitude and decision. In order to convey the same alacrity to his men, and to prepare the most inexperienced for sudden and unexpected attacks, an officer upon an outpost will do well to put them upon the alert, by skilfully occasioning false alarms. But these must not be often repeated, nor when practised be made known to his men as having proceeded from himself; since supineness and inactivity might by degrees be the consequence of such a discovery.

An intelligent officer upon an outpost, even unprovided with entrenching tools, will materially strengthen his post, when the unobserver would remain inactive.

A tree felled with judgment; brushwood cut to a certain distance; pointed stakes, about breast high, placed on the points most assailable by an enemy, may be attended with the greatest advantages, and can be effected with the common hatchets, which the men carry to cut fire-wood. In short, every impediment which an officer, acting on the defensive, can throw in an enemy’s way, ought to be scrupulously attended to. Independently, therefore, of the means which he adopts for the immediate protection of his posts, he must look beyond that point; and as nothing checks the ardour of troops more than an unexpected obstacle, within an hundred yards, more or less, of the place attacked, he must, on his arrival at the outpost, throw up some temporary impediment at that distance. See Am. Mil. Library.

Mounting Guards. It is indispensibly necessary, that every officer should know how to mount and come off guard.

All guards parade with ordered arms, and unfixed bayonets, without any intervals between them, the ranks open. The officer brings the guard to a shoulder; and the officers with their swords drawn, and non-commissioned officers commanding guards, are formed about forty paces in front of the centre, in two ranks, facing the line, where they are to receive the old parole and such orders as may be given them.

The major or commanding officer gives the word of command.

“Officers and non-commissioned officers—Take post in front of your respective guards!—Outward face—March!”

As soon as they have taken post, fronting their respective guards, the word of command will be given—

“Officers and non-commissioned officers—to your guards—March!—Front!—Halt!”

“Officers and non-commissioned officers, inspect your guards!”

The several officers and non-commissioned officers then inspect their guard as quick as possible. When there is a captain’s guard, each officer is to take a rank, the serjeants accompanying them.

As soon as the inspection is over, the adjutant goes down the line and receives the report of each guard; the officers return to their posts; and the major, or commanding officer, commands—“Fix bayonets!—Shoulder!”

When the colours are brought on the parade, the drum is beat; and the drummer’s call on the right.

The captain will face inwards, and the lieutenant and ensign will face to the right, and march, quick time, to the head of the grenadiers. The captain goes to the head of the right of his remaining men. The field officer then orders the grenadiers to close their ranks, and to march off in quick time, the lieutenant being three paces advanced in front of his men, and the ensign one. The colours are received as usual. And the color party on their arrival on the left flank of the guards, will file at the slow time, through the ranks: the lieutenant, and the colors, in front of the front rank. The guards are to march off at the slow time, and by divisions, taking care, that when they open their ranks, the front rank of each keeps its exact distance from the front rank preceding it. When there are more officers than one belonging to the same guard, the second in rank is to take post, and to march past the commanding officer on the parade, at the head of the last division, instead of being in the rear of it. When there is an officer, senior to the field officer of the day, on the parade, the guards are to march by and salute him: the field officer of the day, in that case, marching at their head.

Guard-rooms. The following articles should properly come under the heads of furniture and utensils.

Cavalry and infantry Guard-rooms are allowed a water bucket, candlestick, tin can for drink, and drinking cups; they are also allowed fire irons, and coal tray.

The rooms of the quarter-masters and serjeants of cavalry, and the serjeant-major and quarter-master serjeant of infantry, to be furnished with the necessary bedding and utensils in the same manner as is allowed to the soldiers’ rooms.

Guard, in fencing, implies a posture proper to defend the body from the sword of the antagonist.

The word guard is seldom applied among small swordsmen to any position but those of carte and tierce, the other motions of defence are stiled parades. See [Fencing].

Guards of the broad sword. The positions of defence adopted with that weapon are generally termed guards, and may be comprised under the inside guard, half-circle guard, hanging guard, half-hanging guard, medium guard, outside guard, St. George’s guard, and spadroon guard. See [Broad-sword].

Prepare to Guard, in the cavalry sword exercise, is performed by bringing the extremity of the sword-hilt up to the pit of the stomach, with the back of the hand outwards; the blade of the sword to be carried perpendicularly, with the flat in front of the left eye. From this position the guard is taken by darting the sword hand smartly forward towards the left ear of the antagonist.

Guard, in the cavalry sword exercise, is used to denote one particular position, which consists in homing the sabre nearly horizontal across the face, the point rather higher than the hilt, the sword-hand directed towards the left ear of the antagonist. Although this be peculiarly denominated guard, yet it is not to be considered as a position calculated to meet every sort of attack, or an eligible position to charge an enemy; but as the central point from which the requisite change for attack or defence may be effected. The other position of defence in the cavalry exercise are stiled Protects.

GUASTADOURS, Fr. Turkish pioneers. Armenians and Greeks are generally employed in the Turkish armies, to do the fatigue-work that is necessary for the formation of a camp, or for conducting a siege.

GUDDA, an Indian term for a fool, a small fort erected upon a hill or eminence; it means literally an ass, metaphorically a fool.

GUDGE, an Indian measure 24 inches long.

GUERITE, Fr. Centry box, small turret. In fortified towns there are several small turrets of this denomination, which are sometimes made of wood and sometimes built with stone. They are generally fixed on the acute points of bastions and centinels are posted within them, for the purpose of watching the ditch, and of preventing any surprize in that quarter.

Those used upon the continent of Europe, particularly in France, contain from 3 to 4 French feet diameter within, and are 7 or 8 feet high. Their general shape or figure is round, pentagonal, hexagonal, &c.

There are apertures made on every side, through which the centinel can observe every thing that passes in the ditch. A path about 2 or 3 feet broad is cut through the parapet and the banquette, up to the entrance of the guerite. Wooden guerites are generally used where the rampart is lined with turf only.

The spots best adapted for guerites, are at the flanked angles of bastions, and at the angles of epaulements. Sometimes indeed, they are placed in the centre of the curtains. They must jut out at the point of the angle, and the ground floor should be upon a line with the cordon, which is a sort of fillet or trace that marks the separation of the rampart from the parapet. They must likewise project far enough to afford the centinel who is within, a full view of the faces, the flanks and the curtains, and, if possible, a thorough command of all the ditches.

Gagner la Guerite, Fr. A familiar phrase to express the escape of a person.

Enfiler la Guerite, Fr. To avoid the pursuit of another.

GUERRE, Fr. [War]; which see.

The word guerre is indeed so frequently used among the French, that we shall not be thought too minute in specifying some general terms under that head. The principal ones are,

Guerre civile, Fr. See [Civil War].

Homme de Guerre, Fr. a military man.

Nom de Guerre, Fr. a war name; a borrowed name; it was formerly common to assume a nom de guerre on entering the French army.

Petite Guerre, Fr. a harrassing species of warfare. A contest for plunder.

Place de Guerre, Fr. a fortified town or place.

Faire la Guerre à l’œil, in a figurative sense, signifies to watch stedfastly, and without taking off the eye from a particular object.

A la guerre comme á la Guerre. A familiar expression among the French, which implies, that things must be taken as they come.

On ne fait la Guerre que pour faire enfin la paix. War, after all, must end in peace.

La guerre nourrit la Guerre, figuratively means, that an army always subsists at the expence of the country in which it lies.

GUERRE de Secours, Fr. war of alliance or confederacy. This term is more especially applicable to that species of contest in which neighboring princes or countries embark to defend those with whom they are in alliance, against the aggression or exorbitant demands of a conqueror.

If such a contest or war be entered into upon the faith of settled treaties, the parties are bound not only to supply the stipulated number of soldiers, but even to augment their quota, if necessity should require, and sometimes to march in person against the common enemy.

If the object be to prevent any adjacent country from falling into the hands of a conqueror, who might afterwards molest the contracting party, the latter should observe many precautions before he withdraws from the contest; the principal one is to demand the possession of some strong places upon the frontiers, to prevent the inhabitants of the country that is attacked from making a separate peace.

The general selected to command an auxiliary army must be endued with wisdom and foresight. He must be wise and intelligent in order to preserve discipline and good order among his troops: and have foresight to provide for the wants of his army in a strange country, and to see that the men are not sent more into action than they ought, and that nothing is done contrary to the interest of his country.

Guerre de montagne, Fr. a war which is chiefly carried on in a mountainous part of the country. This species of warfare is extremely hazardous, as it cannot be pursued without a thorough knowlege of the country, and by means of able stratagems. Marshal Saxe, in his Reveries, lays it down as a rule, that no army or detachment must venture into passes or narrow ways, without having first secured the eminences round them; and if the enemy should defend the gorges or outlets, false attacks must be resorted to, in order to divert his attention from a real one which is made against a weak quarter. It frequently happens that bye-ways are found out, which have escaped the enemy’s observation, and through which detached bodies may penetrate for the purpose of turning his flanks. In a guerre de montagne, or mountain-contest, it is essentially necessary, that the advancing body should keep up a regular and safe communication with its rear, as well to secure a retreat if necessary, as to have a free intercourse with its convoys. See Am. Mil. Lib.

Guerre de chicane, Fr. See [War] of chicane or stratagem.

Guerre Sainte, Fr. a romantic expedition which was made by the Christians, against the Infidels in Palestine, for the purpose of re-conquering the Holy Land, from whence it was called holy war, or guerre sainte. See [Crusade].

Foudre de Guerre, a figurative expression among the French, to mark the character of a man who has distinguished himself in battle, and is acknowleged to possess a superior degree of valor.

Flambeau de la Guerre, Fr. the torch of war. Any person who causes war to be carried on with violence and animosity is so called.

Aller à la petite Guerre, Fr. to go out in detached parties for the direct purpose of plundering an enemy’s country.

Faire bonne Guerre, Fr. to carry on hostilities with as much humanity as the laws of war will permit.

Faire bonne Guerre, à quelqu’un, Fr. to treat with a man decently, but vigorously, on matters that require explanation and final arrangement.

Guerre et pitié ne s’accordent pas ensemble, Fr. a French proverb, signifying war and commiseration seldom go hand in hand.

Guerre juste, Fr. a just and necessary war, that is a war of defence, such as the war of resistance against the British, from 1775 to 1783; the war of the French against the first coalition, in 1792.

Guerre injuste, Fr. an unjust war.

Longue Guerre, Fr. a long war.

Guerre étrangère, Fr. a foreign war.

Guerre d’outre mer, Fr. a war beyond the seas.

Gens de Guerre. See [Gens].

Le metier de la Guerre, Fr. the profession of arms. Hence it is figuratively said, les Francois sont au fait du métier de la guerre de terre, et les Anglois sont au fait du métier de la guerre de mer. Frenchmen are at the top of the profession of arms on land, and Englishmen are unrivalled at sea.

Les lois de la Guerre, Fr. The laws of war.

Le droit de la Guerre, Fr. the rights of war.

Ruse de Guerre, Fr. a warlike stratagem.

En temps de Guerre, Fr. in time of war.

Munitions de la Guerre et de bouche, Fr. warlike stores, and provisions.

Préparatifs de Guerre, Fr. warlike preparations.

Place de Guerre, Fr. a fortified place.

Machine de Guerre, Fr. a warlike instrument or machine.

Conseil de Guerre, Fr. a council of war. It likewise means a court martial.

Vaisseau de Guerre, Fr. A ship of war.

Vaisseau armé en Guerre, Fr. an armed vessel.

C’est un grand homme de Guerre, Fr. he is a warlike character.

Les malheurs de la Guerre, Fr. the misfortunes of war.

Avoir Guerre, Fr. to commence hostilities.

Avoir la Guerre. Fr. to be in a state of warfare.

Les fruits de la Guerre, Fr. the fruits, or consequences of war.

Entreprendre la Guerre, Fr. to enter into a war.

Déclarer la Guerre, Fr. to declare war.

Soutenir la Guerre, Fr. to maintain the war.

Entretenir la Guerre, Fr. to support the war.

Ces deux princes sont en Guerre, Fr. these two potentates are at war.

Etre en Guerre ouverte, Fr. to be at open war.

Se faire la Guerre, Fr. to make war with one another.

Aller à la Guerre, Fr. to go to war.

Allumer la Guerre dans un ètat, Fr. to light up a war, or excite troubles in any state or country.

Porter la Guerre dans le cœur d’un pays, Fr. to carry war into the heart of a country.

Guerre entre les puissances egales, Fr. war between two powers which are nearly equal in point of strength, and do not act with auxiliary troops.

Qui terre a Guerre a, Fr. a French proverb, signifying, every man who has landed property is exposed to feuds and litigation.

GUERRIER, Fr. Warrior.

Un grand Guerrier, Fr. a great warrior.

Les plus fameux Guerriers, the most celebrated warriors.

It is also used as a substantive in the feminine gender, when speaking of an amazon; as, la vaillante guerriere.

Guerrier, Fr. as an adjective is variously used, viz. warlike, any thing appertaining to war.

Actions Guerrieres, Fr. warlike actions.

Travaux Guerriers, Fr. works of a military or warlike nature.

Exploits Guerriers, Fr. warlike exploits.

Courage Guerrier, Fr. a warlike disposition.

Humeur Guerriere, Fr. a warlike spirit or temper.

Nation Guerriere, Fr. a warlike nation.

Il a l’air Guerrier, Fr. he has a warlike look or appearance.

Il a la mine Guerriere, Fr. he has a warlike aspect.

GUERROYER, Fr. to make war.

GUERROYEUR, Fr. a warrior.

GUET, Fr. This term was particularly attached to those persons belonging to the French body-guards, that did duty during the night.

Guet de la mer, Fr. the watch which the inhabitants belonging to parishes, towns, or fortified places, situated on the sea coast, were bound to keep for its security. On occasions of this sort, the signal of alarm was made during the day by smoke, and during the night by lighted combustibles.

GUET, Fr. in a military sense, signifies rounds, or those duties of a soldier, or patroling party, which are prescribed for the security of a town, &c. and to prevent surprises.

Faire le Guet au haut du belfroi, Fr. to be put upon duty, or stand watch at the top of a church belfry.

Asseoir le Guet, Fr. to set the watch.

Poser le Guet, to post the watch.

Etre au Guet, Fr. to be upon the watch.

Guet à pied, Fr. foot patrole.

Guet à cheval, Fr. horse patrole.

Ce sont les bourgeois qui font le Guet, Fr. the inhabitants of the place go the rounds.

Cri au Guet, Fr. the hue and cry.

Le Guet vient de passer, the patrole has just passed.

Avoir l’œil au Guet, Fr. to be minutely watchful and observing.

Avoir l’oreille au Guet, Fr. to be listening for the direct purpose of acquiring information.

Maison de Guet, Fr. round-house.

Mot du Guet, Fr. watch-word.

Donner le mot de Guet, to give the watch-word.

Se donner le mot de Guet, Fr. to understand one another. In familiar intercourse it means likewise to play booty together.

Guet apens, Fr. Ambush; any premeditated design to injure another in a clandestine manner. The French frequently use this expression; as

Ce n’est point un rencontre ni un duel, c’est un Guet apens, Fr. it is neither an accidental meeting, nor a duel, it is a downright plot to murder him.

Droit du Guet et garde, Fr. a right which was formerly enjoyed in feudal France, by some lords of the manor, and by which they were authorised to call upon their vassals to watch and patrole for the security of their castles, and to silence the frogs.

GUETRE. See [Gaiter].

Tirer vos Guetres, Fr. Go about your business: a familiar phrase which is used among the french, when a person is discarded, or turned away in a summary manner.

Il y a laissé ses Guetres, Fr. a figurative expression among French soldiers, signifying that a person died in such a place.

GUETRER, Fr. to put on gaiters.

GUETTE, Fr. a name given by the French carpenters to a stake that is fixed sideways and which serves for various purposes.

GUETTER, Fr. a familiar phrase, signifying to watch the motions of any body, for the purpose of circumvention or surprize.

Guetter likewise means to watch for a fit opportunity to get access to any person.

Il y a des sergens qui le Guettent, Fr. he is closely watched by some serjeants.

Le soldat Guettoit sou colonel pour lui presenter un placet, Fr. the soldier watched his colonel, in order to lay his petition before him.

GUEUSE, Fr. a rough piece of iron, which has been melted, and has not gone through any further process or purification.

GUICHET, Fr. a small door or outlet, which is made in the gates of fortified towns. It is generally four feet high, and two broad; so that a man must stoop to get through. In 1669, the high town of the city of Albuquerque, in Spain, escaped being surprized by means of one of these outlets. In garrison towns, the guichet is left open for the space of one quarter of an hour after the retreat, in order to give the inhabitants time to enter.

Guichet d’une porte d’écluse, an opening which is made in the gate of a sluice, and which closes by means of a flood-gate. It serves to let in water when wanted.

GUIDES, (guides, Fr.) are generally the country people in the neighborhood where an army encamps: they are to give you intelligence concerning the country, the roads by which you are to march, and the route by which the enemy may approach you. Guides should be faithful, because, in giving you false intelligence, or guiding you wrong, they may greatly endanger the army. Several guides are requisite, as every corps that marches by night should have one at least. There is sometimes a captain, or chief of the guides, who should be a man of intelligence, active, and attentive to the diligence and fidelity of his people. He should always have a sufficient number with him, and who are well acquainted with the country.

In time of war, particularly in the seat of it, the guides invariably accompany head-quarters, and a certain number is allotted not only to general officers, but to all detachments made from the main body, either for the purpose of combating the advanced posts of an enemy, of protecting escorts, or securing convoys. Guides, in an army, may be justly called its principal outsets. They are to a body of men what the eyes are to the human frame. They cannot, however, be too jealously watched.

Guides, the name given to the non-commissioned officers who take positions to mark the pivots, marches, formations, and alignements in modern discipline; it is expressed in French by the word jaloneur, from jalon a post. See [Jalon].

Guides of manœuvre, the name given to those which the French call jaloneur, and the British markers. The use of guides, is perhaps one of the best conceived and ingenious methods which could be devised to perfect the art of manœuvring troops; and one of its happiest advantages is its fitness for raw or undisciplined troops, which by the aid of guides of manœuvre, may be brought to comprehend and execute every species of movement in company, platoons, divisions, or battalions, in one third of the time formerly required; and in a manner much more perfect than was formerly considered as the utmost excellence. See Am. Mil. Lib.

GUIDES, corps of, under the new French dynasty have a new organization of which we hear only by some decisive effects.

Corps des Guides, Fr. The corps of guides. This body was originally formed in France in the year 1756, and consisted of one captain, one 1st lieutenant, one 2d lieutenant, two serjeants, two corporals, one anspessade, and twenty privates, called fusiliers-guides.—Twelve out of the twenty-five (which was the effective number) were mounted. These consisted of one Serjeant, one corporal, and ten fusiliers. Their particular duty was to carry orders that required dispatch; and on this account they were always attached to head-quarters. The twelve fusiliers were mounted on small active horses, about four French feet, five or six inches high. They were supplied with a saddle, blue saddle-cloth trimmed with white, holster-caps the same; and they were armed with a fusil and cut-and-thrust bayonet, a pistol, sabre, with a cartouch-box, containing 20 rounds. They wore half-boots, or bottines.—Each man carried, moreover, one field utensil out of the twelve belonging to the company. These utensils consisted of four hatchets, four shovels, and four pick-axes. The thirteen fusilier guides on foot were armed with a fusil six inches shorter than the regular musquet, with a blade-bayonet and a cartouch-box, holding twenty rounds of ball cartridges. Their uniform was a blue coat, waistcoat, and breeches, with flat white metal buttons. The hat was bordered with common white lace for the soldiers, and of a superior quality for the serjeants; which latter had three silver brandenburgs hanging from each shoulder. The corporals had three made of white worsted, and the anspessade two ditto. The daily pay of the captain was 4 livres, or 6s. 8d., the 1st lieutenant 1 livre, 7 sols and 6 deniers, equal to 2s. 4d., the 2d lieutenant 1 livre, or 10d., each serjeant 13 sols, or 6¹⁄₂d., each corporal 10 sols, or 6d., each anspessade 8 sols, 6 deniers, or 4¹⁄₂d. and each private 6 sols, 6 deniers, or 3¹⁄₂d.

GUIDON, Fr. See [Sight].

Guidon, in ancient military history, the name of a sort of standard broad at one extreme and almost pointed at the other, and slit or divided into two.

Guidon also implies the officer who carries the guidon or standard.

Guidons, in the French service, were exclusively attached to the Gendarmerie; and among them the word formerly meant not only the standard but likewise the officer who carried it.

GUIGNEAU, Fr. This word means the same thing as chevétre. It is a piece of wood which joins the joists of a floor, that are cut to make room for the hearth of a chimney-piece.

GUILLAUME, Fr. a tool somewhat like a plane which is used by carpenters, and of which there are several sorts according to the nature of the work.

GUINDAS, Fr. All machines which by means of a wheel and its axis serve to raise heavy loads, are so called by the French.

GUINDER, Fr. to draw up any weight. Hence the term guindage, which is applied to the movement of loads that are raised and let down.

GUISARMIERS, Fr. a body of free archers, or bowmen, who took their name from an offensive weapon called guisarme, or jusarme, somewhat similar to the voulgue, a sort of javelin, which was used in hunting the wild boar. Its length was equal to that of the halbert, and it had a broad piece of sharp iron fixed to one end.

GULLY. Any hollow which has been made by running water. Ambuscades are frequently laid in such places.

GUN, a fire-arm, or weapon of offence, which forcibly discharges a bullet through a cylindrical barrel by means of gunpowder. The term is chiefly applied to cannon.

Somnerus derives gun from [mangon], a warlike machine, which was used before the invention of guns. He establishes his derivation by taking away the first syllable.

Curricle GUNS are small pieces of ordnance, mounted upon carriages of two wheels, and drawn by two horses. The artillery-man is seated on a box, and the whole can be moved forward into action with astonishing rapidity. The tumbrils belonging to curricle guns carry 60 rounds of ball cartridges. Great improvements are daily making in this machine on account of its acknowleged utility.

Great Gun. See [Cannon].

Evening Gun,		-
Morning Gun

is generally a 6 or 12-pounder, which is fired every night about sun-set, and every morning at sun-rise, to give notice to the drums and trumpets of the army, to beat and sound the retreat and the reveille.

Morning and evening, and other signal guns, by the United States regulations, are not to be fired from larger calibres than 6 or 12 pounders; which calibres are seldom mounted on permanent works.

Gun-fire. The time at which the morning or evening gun is fired.

Gun-boat, a boat which is generally used to form a kind of floating battery, to cover the landing of troops.

GUNNEL, or		-
GUNWALE,

the lower part of any port where ordnance is planted. It likewise means that beam in a pontoon which supports the main waste.

GUNNER, in the artillery, is the title of the first and second artillerist at a gun in battery; all the rest are called aids.

GUNNERY, the art of determining the motions of bodies shot from cannon, mortars, howitzers, &c. See the article [Projectile].

The late ingenious Mr. Robins, having concluded from experiments, that the force of fired gunpowder, at the instant of its explosion, is the same with that of an elastic fluid of a thousand times the density of common air, and that the elasticity of this fluid, like that of the air, is proportional to its density, proposes the following problem.

The dimensions of any piece of artillery, the weight of its ball, and the quantity of its charge being given; to determine the velocity which the shot will acquire from the explosion, supposing the elasticity or force of the powder at the first instant of its firing to be given.

In the solution of this important problem, he assumes the two following principles: 1. That the action of the powder on the shot ceases as soon as it is got out of the piece. 2. That all the powder of the charge is fired, and converted into an elastic fluid, before the shot is sensibly moved from its place.

These assumptions, and the conclusions above mentioned, make the action of fired gunpowder to be entirely similar to that of air condensed a thousand times; and from thence it will not be difficult to determine the velocity of the shot arising from the explosion: for the force of the fired powder diminishing in proportion to its expansion, and ceasing when it is got out of the piece; the total action of the powder may be represented by the area of a curve, the base of which represents the space through which the ball is accelerated, while the ordinates represent the force of the powder at every point of that space; and these ordinates being in reciprocal proportion to their distance from the breech of the gun, because when the spaces occupied by the fired powder are as 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. the ordinates representing it will be as 1, 1-half, ¹⁄₃d, ¹⁄₄th, &c. It appears that the curve will be a common parabola, and that the area intercepted between is an asymptote; and that the two ordinates representing the force of the powder at the first explosion, and at the muzzle of the piece, will represent the total action of the powder on the shot; but if the shot were urged through the same space by an uniform force equal to its gravity, the total action of this force would be represented by a rectangle, the base of which would be the base of the curve or intercepted portion of the asymptote above mentioned, and the height of which would represent the uniform force of gravity. Hence the square of the velocity of the shot resulting from gravity is given, being the velocity it would acquire from a height equal to the space through which the powder accelerates it; and the proportion between the hyperbola and the rectangle is given from the analogy between the hyperbolic paces and logarithms; therefore the velocity of the ball arising from the action of the fired gunpowder will be given.

Mr. Robins has also given us an ingenious way of determining, by experiments, the velocity with which any shot moves at any distance of the piece it is discharged from.

This may be effected by means of a pendulum made of iron, having a broad part at bottom, covered with a thick piece of wood, which is fastened to the iron by screws; then having a machine like a common artillery-gin, on two of its poles, towards their tops, are screwed sockets, on which the pendulum is hung by means of a cross piece, which becomes its axis of suspension, and on which it should vibrate with great freedom. Somewhat lower than the bottom of the pendulum there should be a brace, joining to which the pendulum is suspended; and to this brace there is fastened a contrivance made with two edges of steel, something in the manner of a drawing-pen; the strength with which these edges press on each other, being diminished or increased at pleasure by means of a screw. To the bottom of the pendulum should be fastened a narrow riband, which, passing between the steel edges, may hang closely down by means of an opening cut in the lower piece of steel.

The instrument being thus fitted, if the weight of the pendulum, the respective distances of its centre of gravity, and of its centre of oscillation from the axis of suspension, be known, it may from thence be found what motion will be communicated to this pendulum by the percussion of a body of a known weight, moving with a known degree of velocity, and sinking it into a given point; that is, if the pendulum be supposed to rest before the percussion, it will be known what vibration it should make in consequence of such a blow; and if the pendulum, being at rest, is struck by a body of a known weight, and the vibration which the pendulum makes after the stroke is known, the velocity of the striking body may from thence be determined.

Now the extent of the vibration made by the pendulum may be increased by the riband: for if the pressure of the steel edges on the riband be regulated by the screw, so as to be free and easy, though with some minute resistance to hinder it from slipping itself; then setting the pendulum at rest, let the part of the riband between the pendulum and the steel edges be down straight, but not strained, and fixing a pin in the part of the riband contiguous to the edges, the pendulum, swinging back by means of the impulse of the ball, will draw out the riband to the just extent of its vibration, which will be determined by the interval on the riband between the edges and the space of the pin.

The computation by which the velocity of the shot is determined from the vibration of the pendulum, after the stroke, is founded on the principle of mechanics; that if a body in motion strikes another at rest, and they are not separated after the stroke, but move on with one common motion, then that common motion is equal to the motion with which the first body moved before the stroke; whence, if that common motion and the masses of the two bodies are known, the motion of the first body before the stroke is thence determined. On this principle it follows, that the velocity of a shot may be diminished in any given ratio, by its being made to impinge on a body of weight properly proportioned to it.

It is to be observed, that the length to which the riband is drawn, is always near the chord of the arc described by the ascent; it being so placed, as to differ insensibly from those chords which must frequently occur: and these chords are known to be in the proportion of the velocities of the pendulum acquired from the stroke. Hence it follows, that the proportion between the lengths of the riband, drawn out at different times, will be the same with that of the velocities of the impinging shots.

Now from the computations delivered by Mr. Robins, it appears, that the velocity of the bullet was 1641 feet in one second of time, when the chord of the arc described by the ascent of the pendulum, in consequence of the blow, was 17¹⁄₄ inches, the proportion of the velocity with which the bullets impinge, to the known velocity of 1641 feet in one second, will be determined.

Mr. Robins was (till of late) the only author who attempted to ascertain the velocity of a military projectile by experiment; yet his conclusions seem to be unsatisfactory. Perhaps he was too much attached to the forming of a system, and warped his experiments a little in favor of it. The resisting power he assigns to the air is probably too great; and his notion of the tripling of this power when the velocity of the projectile exceeds that of sound, seems to be rather an ingenious theory than a well-grounded fact. However, experiment alone must decide these points.

The great importance of the art of gunnery is the reason that we distinguish it from the doctrine of projectiles in general; for in truth it is no more than an application of those laws which all bodies observe when cast into the air, to such as are put in motion by the explosion of guns or other engines of that sort: and it matters not whether we talk of projectiles in general, or of such only as belong to gunnery; for, from the moment the force is impressed, all distinction, with regard to the power which put the body first in motion is lost, and it can only be considered as a simple projectile.

Every body cast into the air moves under the influence of two distinct forces. By the one it is carried forward with an equal motion, and describes equal spaces in equal times, in the direction in which it was projected; and by the other, which we call gravity, is drawn downwards in lines perpendicular to the surface of the earth, with a motion continually accelerated, or whose velocity is always increasing. If either of these forces were destroyed, the body would move according to the direction of the other alone, so far as its motion was not hindered by the interposition of other bodies; but as both continue to act, the course of the projectile must be determined by a power compounded of those two forces.

Gunnery is also the province of the artillerist, and comprehends, in an active sense, the perfect knowlege of the power of the machine, and the proportions of powder to be employed in order to produce any required effect. It also comprehends a knowlege of the properties and composition of gunpowder, and the various kinds of shot, which are employed in the practice of gunnery; the metal best adapted to make guns, the proper weight and corresponding proportions between the calibre of the gun and the shot fired from it, and also the dimensions fitted for the various services in which gunnery is employed: for batteries of permanent works, for ships, for field service, and the light or flying artillery. Gunnery indeed comprehends all the duties of the able artillerist and bombardier.

Gunnery. By the assistance of good tables of practice, and the tables of amplitudes, sines, tangents, and secants, all the cases in gunnery in a nonresisting medium may be easily solved; and perhaps the solution may be sufficiently correct for practice, if the initial velocity of the projectile be not so great as to make the air’s resistance considerable.

For the tables of ranges with ordnance, see the different natures, as [Gun], [Mortar], &c. and for the tables of amplitudes, sines, tangents, and secants, see [pages 247] and [248].

Upon Horizontal Planes.

1. The greatest range is at 45° nearly.

2. The ranges with different elevations with the same charge, are as the double sines of the angles of elevation.

3. Any angle and its complement give the same range nearly.

4. The times of flight are as the sines of the angles of elevation.

5. The altitude of the curve, at any elevation is found by this proportion: as Radius : tangent of angle of elevation ∷ range4 : altitude.

6. The time of flight at 45° is equal the square root of the range in feet, divided by 4, or more nearly = √quotient² of the range in feet, divided by 16.1, or the space passed through in the first second by gravity.

Having the first graze with a given elevation and charge, to determine the charge for any other first graze and elevation, multiply the known charge and elevation into the proposed first graze; also the proposed elevation into the known first graze, and divide the first product by the last, for the charge required.

Upon inclined Planes, at 45° Elevation. Case 1st. Given the charge and inclination of the plane, to find the range.

Multiply the horizontal range with this given charge, (found in the tables of ranges) by the number found opposite the angle of inclination of the plane, in the first column of multiplyers, in the table of amplitudes, under the head Ascents, if it be inclined above the horizon; and Descents, if below the horizon, for the range required.

Case 2d. Given the range and inclination of the plane, to find the charge.

Multiply the number found in the above mentioned table opposite the angle or inclination of the plane, in the second column of multipliers, under the head Ascents, or Descents, according as it is above or below the horizon, by the given range; for the range on a horizontal plane at 45°, the charge for which may be found from the tables of ranges.

Upon inclined planes, at any elevation.

There are always two elevations with which any range, (less than the greatest) may be made; and these elevations are always the complements of each other. The greatest range upon a horizontal plane is at 45°; or when the direction bisects the angle formed by the horizontal and vertical plane; also the greatest change upon any plane is made with that direction which bisects the angle between the plane and the zenith; and all other directions which make equal angles with this direction, (on each side of it) will also make equal ranges on the said plane; for the direction that bisects the angle between any plane and the zenith is the same with respect to that plane as the direction at 45° is with respect to the plane of the horizon.

Rules.—1st. The elevation which gives the greatest range on a given ascent is equal to half the sum of 90° added to the ascent.

2d. The elevation which gives equal ranges on a given ascent, are the complements of each other added to the ascent.

3d. The elevation which gives the greatest range on a descent, is equal to half the complement of the descent.

If the range and inclination be given, the least charge that will reach the object, may be found as follows: multiply the tangent of the proper elevation into the proposed range, for the horizontal range whose charge is required.

Table of Amplitudes.

Degrees.	Ascents. Multip’rs.		Descents. Multip’rs.
	1st. cl.	2d. cl.	1st. cl.	2d. cl.
1	.983	1.02	1.02	.983
2	.966	1.03	1.04	.966
3	.949	1.06	1.05	.950
4	.932	1.07	1.07	.932
5	.916	1.09	1.09	.916
6	.900	1.11	1.11	.900
7	.884	1.13	1.13	.884
8	.868	1.15	1.15	.868
9	.852	1.18	1.17	.853
10	.836	1.20	1.19	.836
11	.821	1.22	1.22	.821
12	.805	1.24	1.24	.805
13	.789	1.27	1.27	.789
14	.774	1.29	1.29	.774
15	.758	1.32	1.31	.763
16	.742	1.35	1.34	.745
17	.726	1.38	1.37	.730
18	.711	1.40	1.39	.720
19	.693	1.45	1.42	.704
20	.677	1.48	1.45	.690
21	.660	1.52	1.48	.675
22	.643	1.56	1.52	.662
23	.625	1.60	1.55	.645
24	.607	1.64	1.58	.633
25	.589	1.70	1.62	.617
26	.570	1.76	1.66	.603
27	.550	1.82	1.69	.592
28	.530	1.86	1.73	.578
29	.510	1.96	1.78	.562
30	.488	2.05	1.82	.549
31	.466	2.14	1.87	.534
32	.442	2.26	1.92	.526
33	.418	2.41	1.97	.508
34	.393	2.55	2.02	.495
35	.366	2.73	2.08	.488
36	.338	2.96	2.13	.470
37	.309	3.24	2.20	.455
38	.278	3.60	2.26	.443
39	.245	4.09	2.33	.430
40	.210	4.80	2.40	.417
41	.173	5.78	2.48	.404
42	.134	7.46	2.56	.390
43	.092	10.90	2.64	.380
44	.045	22.22	2.73	.370
45	.000	infi- nite.	2.88	.360

Table of Natural Sines, Tangents, and Secants.

Degrees.	Sines.	Tangents.	Secants.
1	.018	.018	1.000
2	.035	.035	1.000
3	.052	.052	1.001
4	.070	.070	1.002
5	.087	.087	1.004
6	.105	.105	1.006
7	.122	.123	1.008
8	.139	.141	1.010
9	.156	.158	1.012
10	.174	.176	1.015
11	.191	.194	1.019
12	.208	.213	1.022
13	.225	.231	1.026
14	.242	.249	1.031
15	.259	.268	1.035
16	.276	.287	1.040
17	.292	.306	1.046
18	.309	.325	1.051
19	.326	.344	1.058
20	.342	.364	1.064
21	.358	.384	1.071
22	.375	.404	1.079
23	.391	.424	1.086
24	.407	.445	1.095
25	.423	.466	1.103
26	.438	.488	1.112
27	.454	.510	1.122
28	.469	.532	1.133
29	.485	.554	1.143
30	.500	.577	1.155
31	.515	.601	1.167
32	.530	.625	1.179
33	.545	.649	1.192
34	.559	.675	1.206
35	.574	.700	1.221
36	.588	.727	1.236
37	.602	.754	1.252
38	.616	.781	1.269
39	.629	.810	1.287
40	.643	.839	1.305
41	.656	.869	1.325
42	.669	.900	1.346
43	.682	.933	1.367
44	.695	.966	1.390
45	.707	1.000	1.414
46	.719	1.036	1.440
47	.731	1.072	1.466
48	.743	1.111	1.494
49	.755	1.150	1.524
50	.766	1.192	1.556
51	.777	1.235	1.589
52	.788	1.280	1.624
53	.799	1.327	1.662
54	.809	1.376	1.701
55	.819	1.428	1.743
56	.829	1.483	1.788
57	.839	1.540	1.836
58	.848	1.600	1.887
59	.857	1.664	1.942
60	.866	1.732	2.000
61	.875	1.80	2.063
62	.883	1.881	2.130
63	.891	1.963	2.203
64	.899	2.050	2.281
65	.906	2.145	2.366
66	.914	2.246	2.459
67	.921	2.356	2.559
68	.927	2.475	2.669
69	.934	2.605	2.790
70	.940	2.747	2.924
71	.946	2.904	3.072
72	.951	3.078	3.236
73	.956	3.271	3.420
74	.961	3.487	3.628
75	.966	3.732	3.864
76	.970	4.011	4.134
77	.974	4.331	4.445
78	.978	4.705	4.810
79	.982	5.145	5.241
80	.985	5.671	5.759
81	.988	6.314	6.392
82	.990	7.115	7.185
83	.993	8.144	8.206
84	.995	9.514	9.567
85	.996	11.430	11.474
86	.998	14.301	14.336
87	.999	19.081	19.107
88	.999	28.636	28.654
89	.999	57.290	57.299
90	1.000	infi- nite.	——

Guns.—Calibres of European Guns, expressed in inches.

English.		French.		Spanish.		Dutch.		Russian.		Portug.
pr.	inch.	pr.	inch.	pr.	inch.	pr.	inch.	pr.	inch.	pr.	inch.
42	7.018	—	—	—	—	—	—	36	6.86	48	7.49
32	6.41	36	6.9	36	6.84	32	6.4	30	6.47	36	6.8
24	5.823	24	6.03	24	6.03	24	5.92	24	6.	24	5.93
18	5.292	16	5.26	18	5.52	18	5.45	18	5.45	18	5.4
12	4.623	12	4.78	12	4.8	12	4.76	12	4.76	12	4.7
9	4.200	8	4.18	9	4.2	8	4.13	8	4.17	9	4.3
6	3.668	—	—	—	—	6	3.78	6	3.78	6	3.75
4	3.204	4	3.315	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
3	3.913	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
1	2.019	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—

Length and weight of English Brass guns.

Kind.								Length in			Weight.
								Calib.	ft.	in.	ct.	qr.	lb.
	42	Pounders						16.244	9	6	66	—	—
	32	——						18.721	10	0	55	2	—
	24	-		Heavy				19.574	9	6	53	0	9
				Medium				16.483	8	0	41	3	2
				Light				10.302	5	0	16	3	13
				Do. new				13.000	6	3	24	0	—
	18	Light do.						13.000	5	9	18	0	—
	12	-		Heavy				24.659	9	0	31	2	8
				Desagulier’s				19.468	7	6	22	1	21
				Medium, old				16.872	6	6	21	3	—
				Medium, new				16.872	6	6	18	—	—
				Light				12.978	5	0	8	3	4
*				Do. new				13.000	5	0	12	—	—
	6	-		Heavy				26.112	8	0	19	1	6
*				Desag’s. Med.				22.876	7	0	12	—	24
				Med.	-		new	18.500	6	0	8	3	27
							reduced	17.000	5	6	8	0	22
*				Gen. Belford’s				16.342	5	0	5	2	21
				Light, common				14.706	4	6	5	-	18
	3	-		Heavy				28.836	7	0	11	3	19
*				Desagulier’s				24.717	6	0	6	—	—
*				Light, common				14.418	3	6	2	2	27
				Light infantry				12.358	3	0	1	3	16
				Gen. Pattison’s				12.358	3	0	1	2	19
	1	Pr. Amuzette						29.7	5	0	2	2	12
		Do.						35.6	6	0	3	0	11
		Do.						41.5	7	0	3	1	12

The guns marked (*) are the only ones used by the British since 1795, on general service.

Length and weight of French brass guns, in their old weights and measures.[9]

Kind.								Length in				W’t.
								Calib.	ft.	in.	li.	lbs.
24	Prs.		-	Siege	-			—	9	11	5	5628
16	—							—	9	7	—	4111
12	—		-	Garrison	-			—	—	—	—	3184
8	—							—	—	—	—	2175
12	—		-	Field	-			18.0	6	6	—	1808
8	—							18.	5	8	—	1196
4	—							18.	4	6	—	590
1	—							—	—	—	—	266

[9] The French weights and measures have assumed new names, and are reduced to strict proportions since the revolution. The weights here referred to are the old. For the new French system of weights and measures, see the word [Weights].

Length and weight of English iron guns.

Kind.					Length in				Wt.		[10] Pro- portion between shot and gun.
					Calib.		ft.	in.	ct.	qr.
42	Prs.	-			17	.098	10	—	67	—
					16	.244	9	6	65	—	170
32	—	-			18	.721	10	—	58	—
					17	.725	9	6	55	—	193
24	—	-			20	.604	10	—	52	—
					19	.574	9	6	49	2	231
					18	.542	9	—	47	2
18	—	-			21	.542	9	6	42	—
					20	.408	9	—	40	—	249
12	—	-			24	.659	9	6	34	—
					23	.361	9	—	32	—
					22	.063	8	6	31	2
					19	.468	7	6	29	1	294
9	—	-			21	.4	7	6	24	2	305
					19	.9	7	—	23	—
6	—	-			26	.2	8	—	22	—
					19	.6	6	—	16	2	411
4	—	-			22	.4	6	—	22	1	343
					20	.6	5	6	11	1
3	—				18	.6	4	6	7	1	270

[10] This column expresses the number of English pounds of metal in the guns, to each pound in the shot.

French iron guns, in English weights, &c.

Kind.					Length in				Weight.
					Calib.	ft.	in.		ct.	qr.	lbs.
36	Pounders				16.18	9	8		74	3	—
24	——				18.18	9	1	¹⁄₂	51	—	—
16	——	-			21.01	9	7		42	—	—
					18.45	8	4		43	2	—
					16.92	7	8	¹⁄₂	35	—	—
12	——	-			21.54	8	7		31	2	—
					20.5	8	2		20	3	—
					17.14	6	10		28	—	—
8	——	-			24.64	8	7		24	1	—
					17.22	6	—		16	—	—
4	——				17.19	4	9		—	—	—

Ranges of brass guns, with one shot. 1793.

Kind.				Charge.		To the first graze of the shot.
						PB	1°	2°	3°	4°	5°
				lbs.	oz.	yds.	yds.	yds.	yds.	yds.	yds.
24	-		Heavy	8	0	473	781	1032	1405	1585	1710
			Medium	8	0	488	757	1103	1425	1557	1745
			Light	3	0	162	364	606	722		1399
12	-		Heavy
			Medium	4	0		705	973	1189
			Light	3	0		601	816	1063
6	-		Desagulier’s	2	0		646	966	1325
			6 Feet	2	0		683	948	1327
			5 : 6 Med.	2	0		775	1003	1444
			5 : 6 Red’d.	2	0		642	976	1150
			5 Feet	1	8		587	825	950
			4 : 6 Feet.	1	8		628	804	991
3 Desagulier’s				1	0		679	883	918
Amuzette of 5 feet				0	8		604	800
Do. 7 feet				0	8		656	830	1000

Ranges from Brass Guns, with Two Shot. 1793.

Kind.		Charge.		Eleva- tion.				Medium first Graze. in yards.
		lbs.	oz.	1	°	30	′	1st Shot.	2d Shot.
12	Pounder, Medium	4	—	1		30		607	706
6	: Desagulier’s	2	—	1		30		621	739
6	: of 5 feet	1	8	1		30		586	732
3	: Desagulier’s	1	—	1		30		523	638

Ranges from Brass Field Guns, with small charges. 1798.

Kind.				Charge.		First Graze with different elevations.								Extreme range.
Pr.						1°	2°	3°	4°	5°	6°	7°	8°
12	-			10	oz.	199	290	390	385	597	716	695	788	from  800 to 1000
				1	lb.	280	416	729	777	966	1090	1054	1295	from 1200 to 1500
6 Pr.	-			5	oz.	111	222	376	432	618	625	650	788	from  800 to 1000
				8	oz.	277	401	754	826	925	980	1103	1100	from 1000 to 1300

N. B. The above was a 12 Pr. Medium, and a 6 Pr. Desagulier’s. The distances are given in yards.

Effects of case shot from a battalion gun—Light 6 Pr. length 5 feet—Weight 5 cwt. 3 qrs. 21 lbs. against a target 8 feet high, and 90 feet long.

Distance of Target.				Kind of charge.				Eleva- tion.		No. put into the height of 6 feet, or the height of Infantry.	No. put into the height of 8 feet, or the height of Cavalry.
Y’ds.								deg.
500	-			12 balls, 8 oz. each, 3 in a tier, 1¹⁄₄ lb. powder	-			1		3	3
								1	¹⁄₂	3	4
								2		3	4
400	-			same ch’ge	-			1		6	6
								1	¹⁄₂	4	5
								2		4	5
300	-			same ch’ge	-				¹⁄₂	6	7
								1		3	3
								1	¹⁄₂	4	6
400	-			34 balls. 3 oz. each, 7 in a tier, 1¹⁄₄ lb. powder	-			P B		10	12
									¹⁄₂	9	10
								1		6	8
300	-			same ch’ge	-			P B		11	13
									¹⁄₂	12	15
								1		7	9

N. B. There were three rounds fired at each charge, but they were all so nearly alike, that it has been thought necessary to put down only one of them. 1802.

Ranges with sea service iron guns. 1796.

Kind of Guns, 32, 24, and 18 Pounders.
Eleva- tion.	Pro- portion of powder.	Kind of shot.	Range.
deg.			Yards.
2	¹⁄₃	With single shot to the first graze	1200
2	¹⁄₄	Do.Do.	1000
2	¹⁄₄	2 shot, ranged close together, to	500
4	¹⁄₃	Single shot	1600
4	¹⁄₄	Do.	1500
7	¹⁄₃	Do.	2150
7	¹⁄₄	Do.	2020
2	¹⁄₄	1 round shot and 1 r’d. of grape range with effect together, to	600
4	¹⁄₄	One round of grape shot, alone, to	1000
2	¹⁄₄	One double headed, or bar shot will range to the first graze	800

Ranges with 5¹⁄₂ inch shells, from a 24 Pr. iron Gun. Length of Gun 9¹⁄₂ ft. Wt. 49 ct. 26lb.

Eleva- tion.		2 Pounds.				2 lbs. 8 oz.				3 Pounds.
		Flight.		Range to		Flight.		Range to		Flight.		Range to
				First Graze	Ex- treme			First Graze	Ex- treme			First Graze	Ex- treme
deg.		Sec.		Yards.	Yards.	Sec.		Yards.	Yards.	Sec.		Yards.	Yards.
1		1		213	1139	2	³⁄₄	562	1456	1		277	1424
2		1	³⁄₄	384	1267	1	¹⁄₂	442	1413	1	³⁄₄	526	1464
3		2	³⁄₄	565	1413	2		647	1553	2	¹⁄₄	740	1600
4		2	¹⁄₄	750	1479	3	³⁄₄	896	1639	3	¹⁄₂	880	1679
5		3	³⁄₄	836	1670	4		915	1510	5		1182	1733
6		4		896	1495	5		1140	1657	6	¹⁄₄	1384	1787
7		6	¹⁄₂	1180	1492	6		1205	1481	6	¹⁄₄	1410	1749
8		6	³⁄₄	1305	1526	6	¹⁄₂	1259	1544	7		1520	1744
9		7	¹⁄₂	1329	1527	7		1341	1561	7	³⁄₄	1722	1938
9	¹⁄₂	6	³⁄₄	1229	1453	—		—	—	8	¹⁄₂	1748	1881

Ranges with 4²⁄₅ Shells from a 12 Pounder, Medium.

Eleva- tion.	8 Ounces.						12 Ounces.						1 lb. 8oz.
	Flight.		First Graze.			Ex- treme Range.	Flight.		First Graze.			Ex- treme Range.	Flight.	First Graze.			Ex- treme Range.
deg.	Sec.		Yards.			Yards.	Sec.		Yards.			Yards.	Sec.	Yards.			Yards.
1	1	¹⁄₂	156		-	From 800 to 1200
2	2		293				2	¹⁄₂	350		-	From 1100 to 1300		707		-	From 1400 to 1600
3	2	¹⁄₂	363				3	¹⁄₂	355					758
4	3	¹⁄₂	462				4		679					849
5	4		587				3	¹⁄₂	641					1075
6	4		621				5		941					1150
7	4	¹⁄₂	898				6		1020					1300
8	5		781

Ranges with French brass field guns, with round shot.

Kind.	Charge.				Elevation.			Range in Toises.
					Lines of Tan. Scale.	Deg.	M.
12 Pr.	4 lbs.	-			L. M.	—	58	300
					2	1	3	350
					10	1	39	400
					14	1	49	450
					16	1	56	480
8 Pr.	2¹⁄₂ lbs.	-			L. M.	—	58	300
					6	1	24	350
					12	1	51	400
					16	2	8	450
					20	2	24	480
4 Pr.	1¹⁄₂ lbs.	-			L. M.	—	58	250
					4	1	20	300
					8	1	40	350
					12	2	—	400
					16	2	20	450
					18	2	40	480

The above are in old French weights and measures.

Definitions of Gunnery. 1. The impetus at any point of the curve is the perpendicular height to which a projectile could ascend, by the force it has at that point; or the perpendicular height from which a body must fall to acquire the velocity it has at that point.

2. The diameter to any point of the curve is a line drawn through that point perpendicular to the horizon.

3. The points where the diameters cut the curve are called vertexes to these diameters.

4. The axis is that diameter which cuts the curve in its highest or principal vertex, and is perpendicular to the tangent at that point or vertex.

5. The ordinates to any diameter are lines drawn parallel to the tangent at the point where that diameter cuts the curve, and intercepted between the diameter and curve.

6. The absciss is that part of the diameter which is intercepted between the ordinate and the curve.

7. The altitude of the curve is the perpendicular height of the principal vertex above the horizon.

8. The amplitude, random, or range, is the distance between the point of projection and the object aimed at.

9. The elevation of the piece is the angle its axis (produced) makes with the horizon, and the axis itself is called the direction.

10. The horizontal distance to which a mortar, elevated to a given angle, and loaded with a given quantity of powder, throws a shell of a given weight, is called the range of that mortar, with that charge and elevation.

11. The inclination of a plane is the angle it makes with the horizon either above or below.

12. The directrix is the line of motion, along which the describing line or surface is carried in the genesis of any plane or solid figure.

Laws of motion in Gunnery.

1. Spaces equally run through with equal velocities, are to one another as the times in which they are run through, and conversely.

2. Spaces equally run through in the same or equal times, are to one another as the velocities with which they are run through, and conversely.

3. Spaces run through are in the same proportion to one another, as their times multiplied into their velocities, and conversely.

4. A body urged by two distinct forces in two different directions, will in any given time be found at the point where two lines meet that are drawn parallel to these directions, and through the points to which the body could have moved in the same time, had these forces acted separately.

5. The velocities of bodies, which by the action of gravity begin to fall from the rest, are in the same proportion as the times from their beginning of their falling.

6. The spaces run through by the descent of a body which began to fall from rest, are as the squares of the times, from the beginning of the fall.

7. The motion of a military projectile is in a curve.

Gun-powder, a composition of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, well mixed together and granulated, which easily takes fire, and expands with amazing force, being one of the strongest propellents known.

Gun-powder.—Proportions of the different ingredients for making gunpowder, by different powers in Europe:

	Eng.		Fran.		Sweden.		Poland.		Italy.		Russia.
Nitre	75		75		75		80		76	¹⁄₂	70
Sulphur	10		9	¹⁄₂	9		8		12	¹⁄₂	11	¹⁄₂
Charcoal	15		15	¹⁄₂	16		12		12	¹⁄₂	18	¹⁄₂
Pounds	100		100		100		100		100		100

Gunpowder. This well known powder is composed of seventy five parts, by weight, of nitre, sixteen of charcoal, and nine of sulphur, intimately blended together by long pounding in wooden mortars, with a small quantity of water. This proportion of the materials is the most effectual. But the variations of strength in different samples of gunpowder are generally occasioned by the more or less intimate division and mixture of the parts. The reason of this may be easily deduced from the consideration, that nitre does not detonate until in contact with inflammable matter; whence the whole detonation will be more speedy, the more numerous the surfaces of the contact. The same cause demands, that the ingredients should be very pure, because the mixture of foreign matter not only diminishes the quantity of effective ingredients which it represents, but likewise prevents the contacts by its interposition.

The nitre of the third boiling is usually chosen for making gunpowder, and the charcoal of light woods is preferred to that of those which are heavier, most probably because this last, being harder, is less pulverable. An improvement in the method of making the charcoal has lately been adopted, which consists in putting the wood, cut into pieces about nine inches long, into an iron cylinder laid horizontally, closed at one end, and furnished with small pipes at the other, that the pyroligneous acid and carburetted hidrogen may escape, and thus exposed to the heat of a fire made underneath. It is said, this charcoal improves the strength of gunpowder so much, that only two thirds of the old charge of gunpowder for ordnance are now used in our navy. The requisite pounding of the materials is performed in the large way by a mill, in which wooden mortars are disposed in rows, and in each of which a pestle is moved by the arbor of a water-wheel: it is necessary to moisten the mixture from time to time with water, which serves to prevent its being dissipated in the pulverulent form, and likewise obviates the danger of explosion from the heat occasioned by the blows. Twelve hours pounding is in general required to complete the mixture; and when this is done, the gunpowder is in fact made, and only requires to be dried to render it fit for use.

Proofs of powder.—The first examination of powder in the British mills, is by rubbing it in the hands to find whether it contains any irregular hard lumps. The second is by blasting 2 drams of each sort on a copper plate, and in this comparing it with an approved powder; in this proof it should nor emit any sparks, nor leave any beads or foulness on the copper. It is then compared with an approved powder, in projecting an iron ball of 64 lbs. from an 8 inch mortar, with a charge of 2 ounces. The best cylinder powder generally gives about 180 feet range, and pit 150; but the weakest powder, or powder that has been redried, &c. only from 107 to 117 feet.

The merchants’ powder, before it is received into the government service, is tried against powder of the same kind made at the royal mills; and it is received if it gives a range of ¹⁄₂₀ less than the king’s powder with which it is compared. In this comparison both sorts are tried on the same day, and at the same time, and under exactly the same circumstances.

The proof of fine grained, or musquet powder, is with a charge of 4 drams from a musquet barrel, to perforate with a steel ball a certain number of ¹⁄₂ inch wet elm boards, placed ³⁄₄ inch asunder, and the first 39 feet 10 inches from the barrel: the king’s powder generally passes through 15 or 16, and restoved powder from 9 to 12. The last trial of powder is by exposing about 1 pound of each sort, accurately weighed, to the atmosphere for 17 or 18 days; during which time, if the materials are pure, it will not increase any thing material in weight, by attracting moisture from the atmosphere.

In this exposure 100 lbs. of good gunpowder should not absorb more than 12 oz. or somewhat less than one per cent.

Different modes of trying gunpowder have been adopted. A ready one is, to lay two or three small heaps on separate pieces of writing paper, and fire one with a red hot wire. If the flame ascend quickly, with a good report, leaving the paper free from white specks, and not burnt into holes; and at the same time the other heaps be not fired by the sparks, the powder is well made, and the ingredients are good.

There are experiments which seem to show, that gunpowder is stronger in the fine impalpable form, than when granulated. This appears to be true with regard to gunpowder originally made, or pounded till it assumes that form; but it may be doubted, whether it have any foundation in general, or indeed that the greater strength depends at all upon this form.

British Powder Marks.—The different sorts of powder are distinguished by the following marks on the heads of the barrels.

No.	¹⁄₂		-	Cylinder		-	Marked in Red.
L	G
——
No.	2		-	Cylinder
S	G
——
No.	3		-	Cylinder
F	G
——

S A	—The dust from No. 3, and F G cylinder.
R A	—For rifle arms.

⁴⁄₇ Cylinder		-	mixed—Marked white L G.
³⁄₇ Restoved

L G or F G in blue, is powder made of pitcoal.

	-		No. ¹⁄₂ L G		-	Marked in yellow, is restoved.
			No. 3 F G

This red L G, F G, or S G, denotes powder entirely made of the cylinder charcoal, and is that which is now always used on service. The white L G being a mixed powder, is not so uniform as the other, and is therefore generally used in filling shells, or for such other purposes as do not require much accuracy. All powder for service is mixed in proportions according to its strength, so as to bring it as much as possible to a mean and uniform force.

French Gunpowder.—The French proof ball is of brass, and weighs 60 lbs. French: the diameter of the mortar 7 inches 9 points, or ³⁄₄ of a line, and has one line of windage. The chamber holds exactly 3 ounces; and their best powder must give a range of 90 toises, and their restoved powder a range of 80 toises, to be received into the service. But the powder they now make, when new, will give range of 100 and 120 toises; and Mr. Lombard calculates all his tables from experiments made with powder giving 125 toises with the eprouvette. The above dimensions and weights are all of old French standard.

Invention of Gun-powder, is usually ascribed to one Bartholdus Schwartz, a German monk, who discovered it about the year 1320; it is said to have been first used in war by the Venetians against the Genoese in the year 1380. Thevel says its inventor was one Constantine Anelzen, a monk of Friburg. Peter Mexia says it was first used by Alphonsus XI. king of Castile, in the year 1342. Ducange adds, that there is mention made of this powder in the registers of the chambers of accounts of France, so early as the year 1338; and friar Bacon, expressly mentions the composition in his treatise De Nullitate Magiæ, published at Oxford in the year 1216. Some indeed are of opinion, that the Arabians or the latter Greeks were the first inventors of gunpowder, about the middle ages of our æra; because its Arabic name is said to be expressive of its explosive quality.

Considerable improvements have lately been made in the composition of gunpowder by the Chinese.

Method of making Gunpowder. Take nitre, sulphur, and charcoal; reduce these to a fine powder, and continue to beat them for some time in a stone mortar with a wooden pestle, wetting the mixture occasionally with water, so as to form the whole into an uniform paste, which is afterwards reduced to grains, by passing it through a sieve; and in this form, being carefully dried, it becomes the common gunpowder. For greater quantities mills are used, by means of which more work may be performed in one day than a man can do in a hundred. See [Mill].

This destructive powder is composed of 75 parts nitre, 9 sulphur, and 16 of charcoal, in the 100.

The granulation of gunpowder is performed by placing the mass, while in the form of a stiff paste, in a wire sieve, covering it with a board, and agitating the whole: by this means it is cut into small grains or parts, which, when of a requisite dryness, may be rendered smooth or glossy by rolling them in a cylindrical vessel or cask. Gunpowder in this form takes fire more speedily than if it be afterward reduced to powder, as may be easily accounted for from the circumstance, that the inflamation is more speedily propagated through the interstices of the grains. But the process of granulation does itself, in all probability, weaken the gunpowder, in the same manner as it is weakened by suffering it to become damp; for in this last case, the nitre, which is the only soluble ingredient, suffers a partial solution in the water, and a separation in crystals of greater or less magnitude; and accordingly the surfaces of contact are rendered less numerous.

The detonation of gunpowder has been always an interesting problem in chemistry. Numerous theories have been offered, to account for this striking fact. But it is now very well settled, that the nitric acid is decomposed by the heat of ignition; that is oxigen, combines with the charcoal, and forms carbonic acid, while the nitrogen, or other component part, with steam from the water of crystallization, becomes disengaged in the elastic form. Berthollet found, that the elastic product, afforded by the detonation of gunpowder, consisted of two parts nitrogen gas, and one carbonic acid gas. The sudden extrication and expansion of these airs are the cause of the effects of gunpowder.

The muriat afforded by combining the oxigenized muriatic acid and potash, affords gunpowder of much greater strength than the common nitre, but too dangerous for use. For the method of making this salt, See Acid (Muriatic, oxigenized).

How to refine nitre. Put into a copper, or any other vessel, 100 weight of rough nitre, with about 14 gallons of clean water, and let it boil gently for half an hour, and as it boils take off the scum; then stir it about in the copper, and before it settles put it into your filtering-bags, which must be hung on a rack, with glazed earthen pans under them, in which sticks must be laid across for the crystals to adhere to: it must stand in the pans for two or three days to shoot; then take out the crystals and let them dry. The water that remains in the pans boil again for an hour, and strain it into the pans as before, and the nitre will be quite clear and transparent; if not, it wants more refining; to effect which proceed as usual, till it is well cleansed of all its earthy parts.

How to pulverize nitre. Take a copper kettle, whose bottom must be spherical, and put into it 14lb, of refined nitre, with 2 quarts or 5 pints of clean water; then put the kettle on a slow fire; and when the nitre is dissolved, if any impurities arise, skim them off; and keep constantly stirring it with 2 large spattles till all the water exhales; and when done enough, it will appear like white sand, and as fine as flour; but if it should boil too fast, take the kettle off the fire, and set it on some wet sand, by which means the nitre will be prevented from sticking to the kettle. When you have pulverised a quantity of nitre, be careful to keep it in a dry place.

Different kinds of Gunpowder. It being proper that every one who makes use of gun-powder should know of what it is composed, we shall give a brief account of its origin and use. Gunpowder, for some time after the invention of artillery, was of a composition much weaker than what we now use, or than that ancient one mentioned by Marcus Græcus: but this, it is presumed, was owing to the weakness of their first pieces, rather than to their ignorance of a better mixture: for the first pieces of artillery were of a very clumsy, inconvenient make, being usually framed of several pieces of iron bars, fitted together lengthways, and then hooped together with iron rings; and as they were first employed in throwing stone shot of a prodigious weight, in imitation of the ancient machines, to which they succeeded, they were of an enormous bore. When Mahomed II. besieged Constantinople in the year 1453, he battered the walls with stone bullets, and his pieces were some of them of the calibre of 1200lb. but they never could be fired more than four times in the 24 hours, and sometimes they burst by the first discharge. Powder at first was not grained, but in the form of fine meal, such as it was reduced to by grinding the materials together; and it is doubtful, whether the first grain of it was intended to increase its strength, or only to render it more convenient for the filling it into small charges, and the loading of small arms, to which alone it was applied for many years, whilst meal-powder was still made use of in cannon. But at last the additional strength, which the grained powder was found to acquire from the free passage of the fire between the grains, occasioned the meal-powder to be entirely laid aside. The coal for making gunpowder is either that of willow or hazle; but the lightest kind of willow is found to be the best, well charred in the usual manner, and reduced to powder. Corned powder was in use in Germany as early as the year 1568; but it was first generally used in England in the reign of Charles I.

Government powder,		-
Ordnance-powder,

such powder, as having undergone the customary proof, is so called, and received into the public magazines.

It has been recommended by a French writer to preserve gunpowder at sea by means of boxes, which should be lined with sheets of lead. M. de Gentien, a naval officer tried the experiment by lodging a quantity of gunpowder, and parchment cartridges, in a quarter of the ship which was sheathed in this manner. After they had been stowed for a considerable time, the gunpowder and cartridges were found to have suffered little from the moisture; whilst the same quantity, when lodged in wooden cases, became nearly half rotted.

Proof of Gunpowder, first take out of the several barrels of gunpowder a measure full, of about the size of a thimble, which spread upon a sheet of fine writing paper, and then fire it, if the inflammation be very rapid, the smoke rise perpendicular, and the paper be neither burnt nor spotted, it is then to be judged good powder.

Then 2 drams of the same powder are exactly weighed, and put into an eprouvette; which if it raises a weight of 24 pounds to the height of 3¹⁄₂ inches, it may be received into the public magazine as proof.

Gun-powder prover. See [Eprouvette].

GUNSHOT, the reach or range of a gun. The space through which a shot can be thrown.

Gunshot-wound. Any wound received from the discharge of cannon or fire-arms.

GUNSMITH, a man who makes fire-arms.

GUNSTICK. The rammer or stick with which the charge is driven into the gun.

GUNSTOCK. The wood to which the barrel of the gun is fixed.

GUNSTONE. Such materials, chiefly stone, as were formerly discharged from artillery.

GUR, a house or dwelling in India.

GURRIES, mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are sometimes surrounded with ditches.

GURRY, an indian term to express a certain division of time, comprehending 24 minutes; but the word among the Europeans is generally understood to mean an hour. A watch is called a gurry.

GUALIOR, a stupendous military fortification on the summit of a rocky eminence in India, south of Jumma, 28 coss, or 56 English miles, from Agra. It was once taken by a daring enterprize by Col. Popham.

GHYRETTY, cantonments seven coss (14 English miles) from Calcutta. It is a palace built by Mr. Dupleix, which the British took by force in 1797, and imprisoned the principal French colonists of Chandernagore there. This was two years before the war in Europe.

GYMNASTIC, (gymnastique, Fr.) pertaining to athletic exercises, such as leaping, wrestling, drawing the cross bow, fencing, &c. The Greeks, among whom the art originated, were accustomed to strip whenever they performed any part of it.