M.
MAALER, Ind. A certificate, which is attested by the principal inhabitants of a town or village.
MACE. A heavy blunt weapon, having a metal head: a club.
MACHICOULIS, or Masse-coulis, Fr. In ancient, and sometimes in modern fortification, that upper part of the wall which is sustained by brackets or corbels, jets out and overlooks the gate or ditch.
When a place is besieged, detached parties of the garrison may be posted in the several machicoulises. Through the intervals of the corbels, or supporting brackets, they may easily observe every thing that passes at the foot of the wall; and if the besiegers should be hardy enough to penetrate as far, they may easily overwhelm them by throwing down large stones, combustible materials, hand-grenades or bombs. These brackets or supporters, which in ancient fortification were of a slight construction, might be made of solid materials. The machicoulis, in fact, is susceptible of great improvement; and in many instances might be adopted in order to defend the lower parts of angular forts or turrets.
MACHINES. Machines, Fr.
Machines used in war by the ancients. Every species of instrument or machine, which was employed before the invention of fire-arms, for the purpose of demolishing the fortifications of an enemy, or of rendering them accessible to the besieger, came under the denomination of machine. For a full and elaborate explanation of the different machines that were adopted by the ancients, we refer our military readers to the second volume of the Recueil Alphabetique, page 73.
Machines Infernales, Fr. Infernal machines. Although the first idea of these machines has been attributed to France, the invention, nevertheless, is by no means new. Frederic Jambelli, an Italian engineer, was the first that used them, when Alexander, of Parma, besieged Antwerp. The prince of Orange likewise had recourse to the destructive effects of an infernal machine, in order to bombard Havre-de-Grace, and to set it on fire. The Dutch and English, in conjunction, attempted to destroy St. Malo by the same means. The first instance, however, upon record, in which the French made use of this machine, was when Louis the XIVth ordered a vessel, carrying an enormous shell, full of every species of combustible matter, to be dispatched to Algiers, for the purpose of demolishing its harbor. This, the English say, suggested to other nations the adoption of fire-ships, and other destructive machines, which have frequently been used against maritime places, although they had been in use a century before.
The author of Oeuvres Militaires, tom. xxii. page 222, speaking of the infernal machines, observes, that if he were to be in a situation which required the use of so dreadful an explosion, especially to destroy a bridge, he would prefer having the machine made simply with different strong pieces of wood joined together, so as to be in the shape of an egg, or of a cone reversed. The whole must then be made compact with cords twisted round it. This method, in his opinion, is not only the best, but can be executed in the most easy and expeditious manner. He further adds, that in order to burn and blow up wooden bridges, and even to destroy such as are constructed upon arches, several sorts of barges or boats might be used, which should be filled with fireworks, bombs, petards, &c. It would likewise be extremely easy to construct these machines upon floating rafters, carrying several thousand pounds weight of gunpowder, which might be confined within strong pieces of wood, put together in the manner already described.
These machines should be piled one above the other, and long iron bars must be thrown across the floats, or be fixed like masts, so that when the whole of the combustible materials is beneath the centre of the bridge, the rafters may be stopped. Great care must be taken to dispose the matches in such a manner that no fire may be communicated to the gunpowder before the machine reaches the exact spot which is to be destroyed.
MACHINE, in general, whatever hath force sufficient to raise or stop the motion of a heavy body.
Machines are either simple or compound: the simple ones are the seven mechanical powers, viz. lever, balance, pully, axis, and wheel, screw, and inclined plane. See [Mechanical Powers].
If the given power is not able to overcome the given resistance when directly applied, that is, when the power applied is less than the weight or resonance given; then the thing is to be performed by the help of a machine, made with levers, wheels, pullies, screws, &c. so adjusted, that when the weight and power are put in motion on the machine, the velocity of the power may be at least so much greater than that of the weight, as the weight and friction of the machine, taken together, is greater than the power; for on this principle depends the mechanism or contrivance of all mechanical engines used to draw or raise heavy bodies, or overcome any other force; the whole design of these being to give such a velocity to the power, in respect of the weight, as that the momentum of the power may exceed the momentum of the weight: for if machines are so contrived, that the velocity of the agent and resistant are reciprocally as their forces, the agent will just sustain the resistant, but with a greater degree of velocity will overcome it. So that if the excess of motion or velocity in the power is so great as to overcome all that resistance which commonly arises from the friction or attraction of contiguous bodies, as they slide by one another, or from the cohesion of bodies that are to be separated, or from the weights of bodies that are to be raised: the excess of the force remaining, after all these resistances are overcome, will produce an acceleration of motion thereto, as well in the parts of the machine, as in the resisting body.
Compound Machines, are formed by various combinations, and serve for different purposes; in all which the same general law takes place, viz. that the power and weight sustain each other, when they are in the inverse proportion of the velocities they would have in the directions wherein they act, if they were put in motion. Now, to apply this law to any compound machine, there are four things to be considered: 1. The moving power, or the force that puts the machine in motion; which may be either men or other animals, weights, springs, the wind, a stream of water, &c. 2. The velocity of this power, or the space it moves over in a given time. 3. The resistance, or quantity of weight to be removed. 4. The velocity of this weight, or the space it moves over in the same given time.
The two first of these quantities are always in the reciprocal proportion of the two last; that is, the product of the first two must always be equal to that of the last; hence, three of these quantities being given, it is easy to find the fourth; for example, if the quantity of the power be 4, its velocity 15, and the velocity of the weight 2, then the resistance, or quantity of the weight, will be equal to 4 × 152 = 602 = 30.
The following rules will direct the mechanic how he may contrive his machine, that it may answer the intended purpose, to the best advantage.
1. Having assigned the proportion of your power, and the weight to be raised, the next thing is to consider how to combine levers, wheels, pullies, &c. so that working together they may be able to give a velocity to the power, which shall be to that of the weight something greater than in the proportion of the weight to the power. This done, you must estimate your quantity of friction; and if the velocity of the power be to that of the weight still in a greater proportion than the weight and friction taken together are to the power; then your machine will be able to raise the weight. And note, this proportion must be so much greater, as you would have your engine work faster.
2. But the proportion of the velocity of the power and weight must not be made too great: for it is a fault to give a machine too much power, as well as too little; for if the power can raise the weight and overcome the resistance, and the engine perform its proper effect in a convenient time and work well, it is sufficient for the end proposed; and it is in vain to make additions to the engine to increase the power any farther; for that would not only be a needless expence, but the engine would lose time in working.
3. As to the power applied to work the engine, it may either be a living power, as men, horses, &c. or an artificial power, as a spring, &c. or a natural power, as wind, water, fire, weights, &c.
When the quantity of the power is known, it matters not, as to the effect, what kind of power it is; for the same quantity of any sort will produce the same effect; and different sorts of powers may be applied in an equal quantity a great variety of ways.
The most easy power applied to a machine is weight, if it be capable of effecting the thing designed. If not, then wind, water, &c. if that can be conveniently had, and without much expence.
A spring is also a convenient moving power for several machines: but it never acts equally as the weight does; but is stronger when much bent, than when but a little bent, and that in proportion to the bending, or the distance it is forced to; but springs grow weaker by often bending or remaining long bent: yet they recover part of their strength by lying unbent.
The natural powers, wind and water, may be applied to vast advantage in working great engines, when managed with skill and judgment.—The due application of these has much abridged the labors of men; for there is scarce any labor to be performed, but an ingenious artificer can tell how to apply these powers to execute his design, and answer his purpose; for any constant motion being given, it may, by due application, be made to produce any other motions we desire. Therefore these powers are the most easy and useful, and of the greatest benefit to mankind. Besides, they cost nothing, and do not require any repetition nor renewing, like a weight or a spring, which require to be wound up. When these cannot be had, or cannot serve our end, we have recourse to some living power, as men, horses, &c.
4. Men may apply their strength several ways in working a machine. A man of ordinary strength, turning a roller by the handle, can act for a whole day against a resistance equal to 30 pounds weight; and if he works ten hours in a day, he will raise a weight 30lb. 3¹⁄₂ feet in a second; or if the weight be greater, he will raise it so much less in proportion.
But a man may act, for a small time, against a resistance of 50lb. or more.
If two men work at a windlass or roller, they can more easily draw up 70lb. than one man 30lb. provided the elbow of one of the handles be at right angles to that of the other: and with a fly or heavy wheel applied to it, a man may do ¹⁄₃d part more work; and for a little while act with a force, or overcome a continual resistance of 80lb. and work a whole day when the resistance is but 40lb.
Men used to carrying weighty burdens, such as porters, will carry some 150lb. others 200lb. or 250lb. according to their strength.
A man can draw but about 70 or 80lb. horizontally; for he can but apply half his weight.
If the weight of a man be 140lb. he can act with no greater force in thrusting horizontally, at the height of his shoulders, than 27lb.
A horse draws to greatest advantage, when the line of direction is a little elevated above the horizon, and the power acts against his breast: and can draw 200lb. for eight hours in a day, at two miles and an half an hour. If he draws 240lb. he can work but six hours, and not quite so fast; and, in both cases, if he carries some weight he will draw better than if he carried none. And this is the weight a horse is supposed to be able to draw over a pully out of a well. In a cart a horse may draw 1000lb. The most force a horse can exert is when he draws something above a horizontal direction.
The worst way of applying the strength of a horse, is to make him draw or carry up a hill: and three men with 100lb. on their backs, will climb up a steep hill faster than a horse with 300lb.
A round walk for a horse to draw in at a mill, &c. should not be less than 40 feet diameter.
5. Every machine should be made of as few parts, and those as simple as possible, to answer its purpose; not only because the expence of making and repairing will be less, but it will also be less liable to be put out of order.
6. If a weight is to be raised but a very little way, the lever is the most simple, easy, and ready machine; or, if the weight be very great, the common screw is most proper; but if the weight is to be raised a great way, the wheel and axle is a proper power, but blocks and pullies render the labor still more easy: the same may be done by the perpetual screw.
Great wheels, to be wrought by men or cattle, are of most use and convenience when their axles are perpendicular to the horizon; but if by water, &c. then it is best to have their axles horizontal.
7. As to the combination of simple machines to make a compound one, though the lever when simple cannot raise a weight to any great height, and in this case is but of little service; yet it is of great use when compounded with others. Thus the spokes of a great wheel are all levers perpetually acting; and a beam fixed to the axis to draw the wheel about by men or horses, is a lever. The lever also may be combined with the screw, but not conveniently with pullies or with the wedge. The wheel and axle is combined to great advantage with pullies: but the perpetual screw, with the wheel is very serviceable. The wedge cannot be combined with any other mechanical power; and it only performs its effect by percussion; but this force of percussion may be increased by engines.
Pullies may be combined with pullies, and wheels with wheels. Therefore if any single wheel would be too large, and take up too much room, it may be divided into two or three more wheels and trundles, or wheels and pinions, as in clock work, so as to have the same power, and perform the same effect.
In wheels with teeth, the number of teeth that play together in two wheels, should be prime to each other, that the same teeth may not meet at every revolution: for when different teeth meet, they by degrees wear themselves into a proper figure: therefore they should so be contrived that the same teeth meet as seldom as possible.
8. The strength of every part of the machine should be made proportional to the stress it is to bear: and therefore let every lever be made so much stronger, as its length and the weight it is to support are greater; and let its strength diminish proportionally from the fulcrum, or point where the greatest stress is to each end. The axles of wheels and pullies must be so much stronger as they are to bear greater weight. The teeth of wheels, and the wheels themselves, which act with greater force, must be proportionally stronger; and in any combination of wheels and axles, make their strength diminish gradually from the weight to the power, so that the strength of every part be reciprocally as its velocity. The strength of ropes must be according to their tension; that is, as the squares of their diameters: and, in general, whatever parts a machine is composed of, the strength of every particular part of it must be adjusted to the stress upon the whole; therefore in square beams the cubes of the diameters must be made proportional to the stress they bear: and let no part be stronger or bigger than is necessary for the stress upon it; not only for the ease and well going of the machine, but for diminishing the friction; for all superfluous matter in any part of it, is a dead weight upon the machine, and serves only to impede its motion: hence he is the most perfect mechanic, who not only adjusts the strength to the stress, but who also contrives all the parts to last equally well, so that the whole machine may fall together.
9. To have the friction as little as possible, the machine should be made of the fewest and simplest parts. The diameters of the wheels and pullies should be large, and the diameters of the arbors or spindles they run on, as small as can be consistent with their strength. All ropes and cords must be as pliable as possible, and for that end rubbed with tar or grease: the teeth of wheels must be made to fit and fill up the openings, and cut into the form of epicycloids. All the axles, where the motion is, and all teeth where they work, and all parts that in working rub upon one another, must be made smooth: and when the machine goes, must be oiled or greased.
10. When any motion is to be long continued, contrive the power to move or act always one way, if it can be done, for this is better and easier performed than when the motion is interrupted, and the power is forced to move first one way, and then another; because every change of motion requires a new additional force to effect it. Besides, a body in motion cannot suddenly receive a contrary motion, without great violence: and the moving any part of the machine contrary ways by turns, with sudden jerks, tends only to shake the machine to pieces.
11. In a machine that moves always one way, endeavor to have the motion uniform.
12. But when the nature of the thing requires that a motion is to be suddenly communicated to a body, or suddenly stopped: to prevent any damage or violence to the engine by a sudden jolt, let the force act against some spring, or beam of wood, which may supply the place of a spring.
13. In regard to the size of the machine, let it be made as large as it can conveniently; the greater the machine, the more exact it will work, and perform all its motions the better; for there will always be some errors in the making, as well as in the materials, and consequently in the working of the machine. The resistance of the medium in some machines has a sensible effect; but all these mechanical errors bear a less proportion in the motion of great machines, than in that of little ones; being nearly reciprocally as their diameters, supposing they are made of the same matter, and with the same accuracy, and are equally well finished.
14. For engines that go by water, it is necessary to measure the velocity, drop in pieces of sticks, &c. and observe how far they are carried in a second, or any given time.
But if it flows through a hole in a reservoir, or standing receptacle of water, the velocity will be found from the depth of the whole below the surface.
Thus let s = 16¹⁄₁₂; v = velocity of the fluid per second; B = the area of the hole; H = the height of the water; all in feet. Then the velocity of v = √2 s H; and its force = the weight of the quantity vv2sB or H B of water, or = 62¹⁄₂112H B hundred weight: because a cubic foot = 62¹⁄₂ lb. avoirdup. Also a hogshead is about 8¹⁄₂ feet, or 531lb. and a tun is 4 hogsheads.
When you have but a small quantity of water, you must contrive it to fall as high as you can, to have the greater velocity, and consequently more force upon the engine.
15. If water is to be conveyed through pipes to a great distance, and the descent be but small, much larger pipes must be used because the water will come slow.
Water should not be driven through pipes faster than four feet per second, by reason of the friction of the tubes; nor should it be too much wire-drawn, that is, squeezed through smaller pipes, for that creates a resistance, as water-way is less in narrow pipes.
16. When any thing is to be performed by a water-wheel, moved by the water running under it and striking the paddles or ladle-boards, the channel it moves in ought to be something wider than the hole of the adjutage, and so close to the floats on every side as to let little or no water pass; and when past the wheel, to open a little, that the water may spread. It is of no advantage to have a great number of floats or paddles; for those past the perpendicular are resisted by the back water, and those before it are struck obliquely. The greatest effect that such a wheel can perform, in communicating any motion, is when the paddles of the wheel move with one-third the velocity of the water; in which case, the force upon the paddle is four-ninths only; supposing the absolute force of the water against the paddle, when the wheel stands still, to be 1: so that the utmost motion which the wheel can generate, is but ⁴⁄₂₇ths of that which the force of the water against the paddles at rest would produce.
MADRAS. Fort St. George. A town and fort on the Coromandel coast, in the East Indies, belonging to the English. The town is called Madras by the inhabitants, but by the natives, Chilipatam. It is divided into two towns, the one called the White, and the other the Black town; the former being inhabited by Europeans, and the latter by Gentoos. The diamond mines of Golconda are a week’s journey from this place. The town is governed by a mayor and aldermen, with other officers. It is 63 miles north of Pondicherry, lat. 13, 5, N. long. 80, 34, E. It may not be irrelevant to state, that the establishments belonging to Great Britain, on the coast of Coromandel, is divided into several governments, independent of each other. Bombay commands the factories on the western side of the peninsula, commonly called the Malabar coast; together with those in Guzzerat: the establishments and possessions on the eastern or Coromandel coast, are under the government of Madras; and those in Bengal depend on Calcutta.
MADRIERS, are long planks of broad wood, used for supporting the earth in mining, carrying on a sap, making coffers, caponiers, galleries, and various other purposes at a siege; also to cover the mouth of petards after they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the gates or other places designed to be forced open. When the planks are not strong enough, they are doubled with plates of iron.
MAGAZIN, Fr. magazine.
Petit-Magazin. Fr. This was a sort of intermediate building, called entrepot, where stores, provisions, &c. to answer daily consumptions were deposited.
Magazin d’approvisionnement, Fr. magazine of stores.
Magazin d’artillerie, Fr. gunpowder magazines.
MAGAZINE, a place in which stores are kept, or arms, ammunition, provisions, &c. Every fortified town ought to be furnished with a large magazine, which should contain stores of all kinds, sufficient to enable the garrison and inhabitants to hold out a long siege, and in which smiths, carpenters, wheel-wrights, bakers, &c. may be employed in making every thing belonging to the artillery, as carriages, waggons, &c.
Powder-Magazine, is that place where the powder is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ greatly both in regard to situation and construction; but all agree, that they ought to be arched, and bomb-proof. In fortifications they are frequently placed in the rampart; but of late they have been built in different parts of the town. The first powder magazines were made with gothic arches; but M. Vauban, finding them too weak, constructed them in a semicircular form, whose dimensions are, 60 feet long, within; 25 broad; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick, and eight feet high from the foundation to the spring of the arch; the floor is 2 feet from the ground, which keeps it from dampness.
An engineer of great experience some time since, had observed, that after the centres of semicircular arches are struck, they settle at the crown and rise up at the hances, even with a straight horizontal extrados, and still much more so in powder magazines, whose outside at top is formed like the roof of a house, by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top of the arch, to give a proper descent to the rain; which effects are exactly what might be expected agreeable to the true theory of arches. Now, as this shrinking of the arches must be attended with very ill consequences, by breaking the texture of the cement, after it has been in some degree dried, and also by opening the joints of the voussoirs, at one end, so a remedy is provided for this inconvenience, with regard to bridges, by the arch of equilibration in Mr. Hutton’s book on bridges; but as the ill effect is much greater in powder magazines, the same ingenious gentleman proposed to find an arch of equilibration for them also, and to construct it when the span is 20 feet the pich or height 10, (which are the same dimensions as the semicircle) the inclined exterior walls at top forming an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their angular point above the top of the arch, equal to seven feet: this very curious question was answered in 1775 by the Rev. Mr. Wildbore, to be found in Mr. Hutton’s Miscellanea Mathematica.
Artillery-Magazine, in a siege, the magazine is made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, towards the parallels, and at least 3 feet under ground, to hold the powder, loaded shells, port-fires, &c. Its sides and roof must be well secured with boards to prevent the earth from falling in: a door is made to it, and a double trench or passage is sunk from the magazine to the battery, one to go in and the other to come out at, to prevent confusion. Sometimes traverses are made in the passages to prevent ricochet shot from plunging into them.
Magazines. The present practice is not to make large powder magazines for batteries, but to disperse the barrels of powder, or cartridges here and there in small magazines, about 6 or 7 fathoms, in the rear of the battery; as it appears better to lose a small quantity from time to time, than to run the risk of the whole being destroyed, by a single shell falling into the magazine. These small magazines or entrenchments, will hold about one or two tons of powder; and are about eight or 9 feet square. They ought to be well covered from the fire of the place, and always in the rear of one of the merlons. When they cannot be sunk in the ground, they should be secured by sand bags or gabions. They should be made with attention, as should the communication from them to the battery. Two magazines of this kind will be required for a battery of six pieces.
Permanent powder magazines. According to Vauban’s plan, powder magazines are commonly made 10 fathoms long, and 25 feet wide, in the clear. The foundation of the longest sides, is 9 or 10 feet thick, and 6 feet or more deep, according to the nature of the ground. The side walls raised upon these are 8 or 9 feet thick; and if there is not to be an upper story, 8 feet will be sufficient height above the foundation. By this means the flooring may be raised above the ground, free from damp, and there will remain 6 feet from the floor to the spring of the arch. The arch is formed of layers of bricks, arched one over the other, and ought to be 3 feet thick at the top. The exterior surface of the arch terminates with an angle at top, like a roof; which angle must be of such magnitude as to make a thickness of 8 feet over the key stone of the arch. The foundation at the gable ends is 5 feet thick, and the same depth as the sides; these ends are built up 4 feet thick, from the foundation to the top of the roof. The long sides are supported by counterforts, 6 feet thick and 4 feet long; and placed 12 feet asunder. The ventilators are placed, one in the centre of each space between the counterforts, and are made with a die across them of 1¹⁄₂ feet. These ventilators are also closed with plates of iron. The magazine is lighted by a window in each end, high up, which are opened and shut by means of a ladder. These windows are secured, each by two shutters, made of plank 2 or 3 inches thick; and the outer one covered with sheet iron, and both fastened with strong bolts. The entrance to the magazine is closed by two doors, one of which opens inwards, and the other outwards; the outward one is covered with sheet iron. The entrance of the magazine should, if possible, be placed towards the south. A wall of 1¹⁄₂ feet thick, and 10 feet high, is built round the magazine at 12 feet distance. A magazine of the above dimensions will contain about 94,800 lbs. of powder, in piles of 3 barrels each; for a greater number piled above each other destroys the barrels, damages the powder, and occasions accidents.
MAGNITUDE, or quantity, any thing locally continued, or that has several dimensions. Its origin is a point, which though void of parts, yet its flux forms a line, the flux of that a surface, and of that a body, &c.
MAGNA CHARTA, the great charter of liberties granted to the people of England in the 9th year of Henry III. and confirmed by Edward I. It is so called on account of the supposed excellence of the laws therein contained; or according to some writers, because another lesser charter, called Charter de Foresta, was established with it; or because it contained more than any other charter, &c. or in regard of the remarkable solemnity in the denouncing excommunications against the infringers of it. It is nevertheless a code of barbarity characteristic of the age; and to which imposture has given it all the consequence which ignorance ascribes to it.
MAHONNE, Fr. a species of galeas or double galley which the Turks use. The Venetian galeasses are larger and stronger built.
MAIDEN, an edged instrument used at Edinburgh in former times for the decapitation of criminals. The original invention is by some attributed to an inhabitant of Halifax, in Yorkshire. The guillotine, so called from a French physician of that name, and by which the unfortunate Louis the Sixteenth was executed, January 21st, 1793, owes its origin to the Maiden.
MAIL, primarily denotes the holes or meshes in a net: it likewise signifies a round iron ring. Hence
Coat of Mail, a coat of armor or steel net-work, anciently worn for defence.
MAILLET, Fr. a mallet. The French formerly made use of this instrument as an offensive weapon in their engagements.
In 1351 the mallet was used at the famous battle des Trente (of thirty) which derived its name from the number of combatants that fought on each side.
This extraordinary combat, holds a distinguished place in the history of Britanny, and was entered into by the partisans of Charles of Blois, and the king of France on one side, and by the count Montfort and the king of England on the other.
Under the reign of Charles VI. a Parisian mob forced the arsenal, took out a large quantity of mallets, with which they armed themselves for the purpose of murdering the custom-house officers. The persons who assembled on this occasion were afterwards called Maillotins.
In the days of Louis XII. the English archers carried mallets as offensive weapons.
MAILLOTIN, Fr. an old French term; which signified, an ancient weapon that was used to attack men who wore helmets and cuirasses. A faction in France was distinguished by the appellation of Maillotins.
MAIN Armée, Fr. Armed force.—Entrer a main armée dans un pays, is to enter into a country with armed men.
Main. Venir aux mains, Fr. To come to close action.
MAIN-BATTLE. See [Battle-Array].
MAIN-BODY of the army, the body of troops that march between the advance and rear-guards. In a camp, that part of the army encamped between the right and left wings.
MAIN-GUARD, or grand-guard, a body of horse posted before a camp for the security of an army. In garrison, it is a guard generally mounted by a subaltern officer and about 24 men. See [Guard].
Main-Guard. The French observed the following general maxims, with respect to their Grandes-Gardes or main-guards. In the first place, every main-guard on foot or horseback, must be so posted as to remain secure of not being surprised and carried off, nor easily forced to abandon its position. In order to accomplish these two objects, it must constantly be within the reach of the different piquets; and, if necessary, those piquets should be readily supported by the army itself.
MAINTAIN, when any body of men defend a place or post, against the attacks of an adverse party, they are said to maintain it.
MAJOR. A superior officer in the army, whose functions vary according to the nature of the service on which he is employed.
Major of a regiment of foot, the next officer to the lieutenant-colonel, generally promoted from the eldest captain: he is to take care that the regiment be well exercised, to see it march in good order, and to rally it in case of being broke in action: he is the only officer among the infantry that is allowed to be on horseback in time of action, that he may the more readily execute the colonel’s orders.
The Major of a regiment of horse as well as foot, ought to be a man of honor, integrity, understanding, courage, activity, experience, and address: he should be master of arithmetic, and keep a detail of the regiment in every particular: he should be skilled in horsemanship, and ever attentive to his business: one of his principal functions is, to keep an exact roster of the officers for duty; he should have a perfect knowlege in all the military evolutions, as he is obliged by his post to instruct others, &c.
Town-Major, the third officer in order in a garrison, and next to the deputy-governor. He should understand fortification, and has a particular charge of the guards, rounds, patroles, and centinels.
Brigade-Major, is a particular officer appointed for that purpose, only in camp: or attached to a brigade when an army is brigaded; he goes every day to head quarters to receive orders from the adjutant general: from thence he goes and gives the orders, at the place appointed for that purpose, to the different majors or adjutants of the regiments which compose his brigade, and regulates with them the number of officers and men which each are to furnish for the duty of the army; taking care to keep an exact roster, that one may not give more than another, and that each march in their tour; in short, the major of brigade is charged with the particular detail in his own brigade, in much the same way as the adjutant-general is charged with the general detail of the duty of the army. He sends every morning to the adjutant-general an exact return, by battalion and company, of the men of his brigade missing at the retreat, or a report, expressing that none are absent: he also mentions the officers absent with or without leave.
As all orders pass through the hands of the majors of brigade, they have infinite occasions of making known their talents and exactness.
Major of Artillery, is also the next officer to the lieutenant-colonel. His post is very laborious, as the whole detail of the corps particularly rests with him; and for this reason all the non-commissioned officers are subordinate to him, as his title of serjeant-major imports; in this quality they must render him an exact account of every thing which comes to their knowlege, either regarding the duty or wants of the artillery and soldiers. He should possess a perfect knowlege of the power of artillery, together with all its evolutions. In the field he goes daily to receive orders from the brigade-major, and communicates them with the parole to his superiors, and then dictates them to the adjutant. He should be a very good mathematician, and be well acquainted with every thing belonging to the train of artillery, &c.
Major of engineers, should be very well skilled in military architecture, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He should know how to fortify in the field, to attack and defend all sorts of posts, and to conduct the works in a siege, &c. See [Engineer].
Aid-Major, is on sundry occasions appointed to act as major, who has a pre-eminence above others of the same denomination. Our horse and foot guards have their guidons, or second and third majors.
Serjeant-Major, is a non-commissioned officer, of great merit and capacity, subordinate to the adjutant, as he is to the major. See [Serjeant].
Drum-Major, is not only the first drummer in the regiment, but has the same authority over his drummers as the corporal has over his squad. He instructs them in their different beats; is daily at orders with the serjeants, to know the number of drummers for duty. He marches at their head when they beat in a body. In the day of battle, or at exercise, he must be very attentive to the orders given him, that he may regulate his beats according to the movements ordered.
Fife-Major, is he that plays the best on that instrument, and has the same authority over the fifers as the drum-major has over the drummers. He teaches them their duty, and appoints them for guards, &c.
Major-General. See [General].
MAJOR, Fr. The French considered this term, in a military sense, under the following heads:—
Major-Général d’une Armée, Fr. [Major-general] generally so called, which see.
Major-Général de l’Infanterie Francoise, Fr. Major-general of the French infantry. This appointment was made under Francis the 1st in 1515.
Major-Général des Dragons, Fr. a major-general of dragoons. His functions were similar to those exercised by the Maréchal-géneral des logis de la Cavalerie; and nearly the same as those of the major-general of infantry.
Major de Brigade, Fr. Brigade-major.
Major d’un Régiment de Cavalerie, Fr. Major in a regiment of cavalry.
Major d’un Régiment d’Infanterie, Fr. Major of a regiment of infantry. Under the old government of France all majors of infantry regiments, were styled sergent-majors, or serjeant-majors in their commissions. They were not permitted to have any company of their own: because it was reasonably judged, that their own interest might render them more partial to that company, and the service be thereby injured.
Major d’une Place de Guerre, Fr. Town-major.
Major, des quatres compagnies des Gardes du corps, Fr. A rank which was exclusively given to an officer belonging to the old French guards. This was an appointment of considerable trust under the old government of France. He was lieutenant in each of the companies; and had the right of seniority over all lieutenants younger than himself in date of commission.
Major sur un vaisseau de guerre, Fr. An officer on board a ship of war, whose duty it was to see the guard regularly mounted, and the sentries posted.
Etat-Major, Fr. A comprehensive French term, in which is included every thing that can be conveyed under the word staff, as applicable to the British service. In a very recent publication, intituled, Manuel des Adjudans-Généraux et leurs Adjoints, the particular duties of the etat-major are accurately explained, of which an entire translation is incorporated with the American Military Library. Another work on the same subject, was published in 1809, by general Grimoard, entitled Traité sur le Service des Armées contenant son organisation, et ses fonctions sous les rapports administratifs et Militaires, with plates. The author began this work in 1778, and part of it was published in 1797, in the Encyclopédie Methodique. This work has superceded the work of Thiebault, only on account of its being more comprehensive; their views and principles are the same.
Major-Dome, Fr. An officer belonging to the gallies, who has the chief superintendance of provisions.
MAJORITY, the office, charge, or appointment of a regimental major.
MAIRE, Fr. Under the old government of France the person so called was invested with the first dignity of the kingdom. Charles Martel, of whom so much is said in the history of the French kings, was Maire of the palace. He was, in fact, grand master of the king’s household, and had an entire control over the officers belonging to that establishment.
The appellation of Maire du Palais, or mayor of the palace, was given in lieu of Maitre du Palais, or master of the palace. This name was borrowed from the Roman emperors, who had each a grand master of the palace. Du Tillet, a French author, in page 12 of his book, pretends that the word is derived from Mer, which signifies Præfect. At first he had only the care and superintendance of the king’s household, so that his functions were nearly similar to those that were exercised by the grand master of the king’s household previous to the Revolution. During the reign of Clotaire the Second, the power of the Maires increased very considerably. Their influence grew greater through the weakness and effeminacy of the last kings of the second race; so much so, that they maintained an uncontroled power over the royal expenditure, and had the sole management of the king’s affairs. Pepin added the dignity and functions or Maire to the royal prerogative; but he did not suppress them wholly. He merely limited his functions to what they were originally; which however were soon restored, in consequence of the fall and extinction of the second race. As the Maires possessed an unlimited control over the finances and judicature of the country, and had more over the entire management of the war department, they found little difficulty in assuming a superiority over all the officers belonging to the crown. They took precedence of all dukes and counts who were the governors of provinces. On which account they were called Ducs des Ducs, or dukes of France. Hugh Capet was duke of France at the time he proclaimed himself king of the country; but the kings belonging to the third race, being convinced that the authority which was thus vested in one person, must eventually prove extremely dangerous, abolished the office of Maire du Palais, or duke of France. They divided the functions, and created the four great officers that were immediately attached to the crown. The command and superintendance of the army, were entrusted to the constable; the administration of civil justice was vested in the chancellor; the management of the finances was given to the grand treasurer, and the care of the king’s household devolved upon the seneschal, who was afterwards styled grand master.
MAISON-du-Roi, Fr. The king’s household. Certain select bodies of troops were so called during the monarchy of France, and consisted of the gardes du corps or body-guards, the Gendarmes, Chevaux legers or light horse, Mousquetaires or musqueteers, la gendarmerie, grenadiers à cheval or horse-grenadiers, the regiments belonging to the French and Swiss guards, and the cent Suisses or hundred Swiss guards. The Maison-du-Roi or king’s household, was not considered as a separate establishment from the rest of the army, until the reign of Louis IV. This establishment was successively formed by different kings out of militia companies, which they took into their body guard.
Maison Meurtriere, Fr. This term was formerly given to casemates.
MAITRE des armes, Fr. Master at arms. An officer, during the existence of the Grecian empire, who took precedence of the Maitre de la milice, or commander of the militia.
Maitre d’armes, Fr. A term in general use among the French, signifying a fencing master. Every regiment has a maitre d’armes attached to it.
MAKE-Ready, a word of command in the firing, on which the soldier brings his piece to the recover, at the same time cocking it ready for firing.
MAL d’armée, Fr. A sort of contagious disorder which sometimes rages in an army, and is occasioned by too much fatigue, or by bad food.
Mal-de-Mer, Fr. Sea-sickness.
Mal-de-Terre, Fr. The scurvy is so called by the French.
MALABAR GUNS, Ind. Heavy pieces of ordnance, which are made in the Malabar country, and are formed by means of iron bars joined together with hoops. They are very long, and extremely unwieldy.
MALADES, Fr. The sick.
Soldats-Malades, Fr. Soldiers on the sick list.
MALANDRINS, Fr. a set of free-booters, who under the reign of Charles V. infested France. During the 14th century, these plunderers made their appearance twice in considerable bodies. They consisted chiefly of discharged soldiers who formed themselves into marauding parties, and pillaged with impunity all the travellers they met. Abbé de Choisi, relates that it was extremely hazardous to oppose them in their first onset. These pillagers, whom the inhabitants called Malandrins, assembled in different cantons, chose their own leaders, and observed a sort of discipline in their depredations.
They usually contrived to station themselves in such a manner, that it was impossible to attack them.
They plundered or destroyed many places and buildings through which they passed, and paid no regard to church or state. Their principal and most notorious leaders, were the Chevalier de Vert, brother to the count d’Auxerre, Hugues de Caurelée, Mathieu de Gournar, Hugues de Varennes, Gauthier Huet, and Robert Lescot, who all belonged to some order of knighthood. Bertrand du Guesclin cleared the country of these dangerous and unprincipled men, by leading them into Spain under a pretence of fighting the Moors, when in reality his object was to attack Peter the cruel. See French Hist. de Charles V. liv. 1. page 86.
MALINGERER, (from the French) one who feigns illness to avoid his duty.
MALINGRE, Fr. peaking, sickly.
MALL. See [Maul].
MALLET, a wooden hammer, to drive the pegs into the ground, by which a tent is fastened; it is likewise used on various other occasions, especially in fortification and artillery.
MALLEABLE, in the art of founding, a property of metals, whereby they are capable of being extended under the hammer.
MALTA. The strongest place in the Mediterranean, taken by the French troops during the present war, from the knights of that order, and since re-taken by the British. The island of Malta may be considered as a key to the Levant. See [Military orders].
MAMMILLIARIA, (Mammellieres, Fr.) a word corrupted from the Latin, signifying a sort of armor, or that part of armor which formerly covered the chest and nipples. Etienne de la fontaine, who was silver smith to the French court, mentions among other articles two sets of Mammillieries, in an account which was delivered in the year 1352.
MAMALUKES, (Mammelucs, Fr.) Some writers assert that they were Turkish and Circassian slaves, originally purchased from the wandering tartars by Meliesaheh, and amounting in number to one thousand men. They were trained and disciplined to war, and some were raised to the first places of trust in the empire. Other writers say that the mamelukes were generally chosen out of christian slaves, and may be considered in the same light as the Turkish janizaries are; others again assert, that they originally came from Circassia, and attracted public notice by their valor, &c. in 869. See D’Herbelot, page 545. The mamelukes have made a considerable figure during the present war, especially in their contest against Bonaparte, for the defence of Egypt. They afterwards joined the French, and formed a considerable part of their cavalry.
MAN, to man the works, is to post the soldiers on the lines so as to be ready for their defence, &c. In the plural number it means soldiers, as an army consisting of 12,000 men.
Flank-front-rank-Man. Each soldier upon the right and left extremity of the first line or rank of any given body of troops is so called.
Flank-rear-rank-Man. Each soldier upon the right and left extremity of the last line or rank of any given body of troops.
When a company or battalion is drawn up three deep, the two men who stand at the extremities of the centre line may be called flank-centre-rank-men.
MANCELLE, Fr. a small chain which is fixed to the collars of carriage or dray horses, and which terminates in a large iron ring, that is attached to the shaft. It likewise means the ring itself.
MANCHE d’un Bataillon, Fr. literally means the sleeve of a battalion.—This word originally signified any small body consisting of 40 or 60 men, which were drawn out of the main-body of a battalion, and were posted by files upon the corners or angles of the same battalion.
At present the word manches means the wings of a battalion, the centre of which was composed of pikemen, whilst pikes were in use. Thus there were right and left wings, which were again divided into half-wings, quarter-wings, and half-quarter-wings.
Any battalion may defile or break off by wings, half-wings, or by the other proportions.
The term manche, or wing, was undoubtedly adopted for the express purpose of distinguishing several small corps, which, though at times connected and standing together, could suddenly detach themselves, and act against the enemy without occasioning the most trifling fluctuation or movement in the main body. The Greeks and Romans must have had a term synonimous to manche, in order to shew the several little portions into which the phalanx of the former, and the legion of the latter, were at times divided, when there was occasion for either to manœuvre upon the same principles that we do by wings.
Gardes de la Manche, Fr. Men belonging to the old French body guards, who on particular occasions, as at the Royal Chapel, &c. stood on each side of the king, dressed in hoquetons, and armed with pertuisanes or lances.
La Manche, Fr. The channel.
La Manche Britannique, Fr. The British channel.
La Manche de Bristol, Fr. The Bristol channel.
Manche d’outil, Fr. The handle of any utensil.
MANDARIN. A name which the Portuguese originally gave to the Chinese nobility. According to a French author, the Mandarins are divided into nine orders, each having a peculiar mark of distinction to ascertain its rank.
Civil Mandarins. (Mandarins lettrés, Fr.) These were able and scientific men who had the management of the different branches belonging to civil government.
Military Mandarins. (Mandarins militaires, Fr.) A certain proportion of the body of mandarins is selected by the emperor of China, to superintend and command the militia of the country, these are called military mandarins.
The mandarins are considered as noblemen, but their rank is not hereditary. Every mandarin undergoes a severe and close examination respecting his natural and acquired talents, before he receives a civil or military appointment; and there are public schools or seminaries to which the natives of the empire may repair to obtain the requisite qualifications for such important and honorable stations.
MANDILION, (Mandille, Fr.) the soldier’s coat is so called by the Italians. It does not, however, bear that meaning either amongst us or among the French; Mandilion and Mandille signifying a footman’s great coat.
MANEGE, in horsemanship, the exercise of riding the great horse, or the ground set apart for that purpose; which is sometimes covered, for continuing the exercise in bad weather; and sometimes open, in order to give more liberty and freedom both to the horseman and horse.
MANGAN, Fr. This word is sometimes written MANGON, (See [Gun]). A warlike machine which was formerly used. The term itself, indeed, was generally adopted to signify any species of warlike machine. But it more particularly meant the largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike purposes; whether it was practised to throw enormous stones against besieged places, or to cast javelins, &c. It was likewise called balista, from the Greek; tormentum from the Latin à torquendo; and sometimes petraria, because stones weighing upwards of three hundred and sixty pounds, were thrown from it. This machine answered the double purpose of defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea. According to a French writer, one of these machines may still be seen at Basle.
MANGANELLE, Fr. See [Mangonneau].
MANGONNEAU, Fr. A word originally derived from the Greek, which, according to Potter, seems to signify any engine designed to cast missive weapons. With respect to that particular engine, which the French have called mangan, manganelle, and mangonneau, there is not any specific term for that famous engine, out of which, stones of a size not less than mill-stones, were thrown with such violence, as to dash whole houses in pieces at a blow:—it was called indeed by the Romans, balista; but this name though of Grecian original, appears not to have been used in Greece; this engine, however, was known there, and was the same with that used by the Romans, the force of which is thus expressed by Lucan:—
At faxum quoties ingenti verberis ictu
Excutitur, qualis rupes, quam vertice montis
Abscidit impulsu ventorum adjuta vetustas;
Frangit cunctaruens, nec tantum corpora pressa
Exanimas, totos cum sanguine dissipat artus.
MANIEMENT des armes, Fr. manual exercise. Although it might be thought superfluous to enter into a minute explanation of the manual as practised by the French, it will not be deemed entirely useless to the military man, to make him master of the different terms. With this view, we shall likewise give the words of command used in the platoon exercise &c. The French manual differed from the English in many points; essentially so in the commencement of it, as, (extreme bad weather excepted) the soldiers in the former service, regularly appeared upon parade with fixed bayonets; so that the first word of command was,
Presentez vos armes.—Present arms.
Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.
Reposez sur vos armes.—Order arms.
Posez vos armes à terre.—Ground arms.
Relevez vos armes.—Take up arms.
Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.
L’arme au bras.—Support arms.
Portez vos armes.—Carry arms.
Presentez la baïonnette.—Charge bayonet.
Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.
The other words of command which do not belong to the manual, but are occasionally practised, consist of
Baïonnette au canon.—Fix bayonet.
Tirez la baguette.—Draw ramrod.
Baguette dans le canon.—Spring ramrod.
L’arme à volonté.—Slope arms.
L’arme au bras gauche.—Secure arms.
Armes au faisceau.—Pile arms.
Repos.—Rest.
Portez les armes comme sergent.—Advance arms.
Remettez la baguette.—Return ramrod.
Remettez la baïonnette.—Return or unfix bayonet.
Ouvrez le bassinet.—Open pan.
Fermez le bassinet.—Shut pan.
Port arms is not practised among the Trench. When a guard is dismissed, instead of porting arms, the soldier receives the following word of command, haut les armes! which is somewhat similar to recover arms.
MANIEMENT des armes, Fr. The platoon exercise is so called in the French service, and is distinguished from their manual by the additional caution of charge en douze tems, or prime and load in twelve motions.
Chargez vos armes.—Prime and load.
Ouvrez le bassinet.—Open pan.
Prenez le cartouche.—Handle cartridge.
Déchirez la cartouche.—Bite cartridge.
Amorcez.—Prime.
Fermez le bassinet.—Shut pan.
L’arme à gauche.—Cast over.
Cartouche dans le canon.—Load.
Tirez la baguette.—Draw ramrod.
Bourez.—Ram down cartridge.
Remettez la baguette.—Return ramrod.
Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.
Firing after the manual.
Apprétez vos armes.—Make ready.
Joue.—Aim.
Feu.—Fire.
Chargez.—Prime and load.
Le chien au repos.—Half-cock firelock.
Portez vos armes.—Carry arms.
Presentez vos armes.—Present arms.
Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.
Reposez sur vos armes.—Order arms.
Repos.—Rest.
Inspection d’armes.—Inspection of arms.
Baïonnette au canon.—Fix bayonet.
Baguette dans le canon.—Spring ramrod.
In the British service the ramrod is rammed down the barrel without any further word of command.
Vos armes à terre.—Ground arms.
Relevez vos armes.—Take up arms.
Portez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.
L’arme au bras.—Support arms.
L’arme à volonté.—Slope arms.
L’arme au bras.—Support arms.
Portez vos armes.—Carry arms.
L’arme sous le bras gauche.—Secure arms.
Rortez vos armes.—Shoulder arms.
Croisez la baïonnette.—Charge bayonet.
Croiser la baïonnette likewise signifies to cross bayonet in such a manner as to form a sort of cheval de frise to resist the attack of cavalry from either flank. This has been adopted since the French revolution, and consists in placing the shoulder of the bayonet of the second man behind the shoulder of the first man’s bayonet; and so of every succeeding two from right to left.
Portez vos armes.—Carry arms.
Charge précipitée.—Prime and load quick; in four motions.
Chargez vos armes.—Load.
Deux.—Two.
Trois.—Three.
Quatre.—Four.
Charge à volonté.—Independent or running fire.
Chargez vos armes.—Prime and load.
Platoon Firing.
Peloton.—Platoon.
Armes.—Ready.
Joue.—Aim.
Feu.—Fire.
Charges.—Prime and load.
Roulement.—Roll.
Fin de roulement.—Cease to roll.
Feu à volonté.—Independent firing.
Peloton.—Platoon.
Armes.—Ready.
Commencez le feu.—Commence firing.
Roulement.—Roll.
It is here necessary to explain to the English reader, that the words of command Roulement and Fin de Roulement are only used in the drill, or when there is not any drum to beat the prescribed roll.
MANIER, Fr. to handle. This word is generally used among the French, in a military sense, whenever they speak of portable fire-arms, &c. Hence maniement des armes.
Manier les armes, Fr. To handle the fire-lock, or handle arms.
Manier la hallebarde, Fr. To handle, or salute with the halbert.
Manier le sponton, Fr. To handle, or salute with the spontoon.
Manier l’épée, Fr. To be a swordsman.
Manier le drapeau, Fr. To furl or unfurl the colors.
Manier l’épée à deux mains, Fr. To be able to use your sword with either hand.
MANIFESTO (manifeste, Fr.) A public declaration which is made by a prince or state, containing motives and reasons for entering into a war. The formality of a manifesto has been considerably reduced in modern times. Among the ancients, on the contrary, it was particularly attended to. Potter, in his Grecian Antiquities, observes, that invasions without notice were looked upon rather as robberies than lawful wars, as designed rather to despoil and make a prey of persons innocent and unprovided, than to repair any losses, or damages sustained, which for ought the invaders knew, might have been satisfied for in an easier way. It is therefore no wonder, as Polybius (lib. iv.) relates of the Ætolians, that they were held as common outlaws and robbers in Greece, it being their manner to strike without warning, and to make war without any previous and public declaration, whenever they had an opportunity of enriching themselves, with the spoil and booty of their neighbors. Yet there want not instances of wars begun without previous notice, even by nations of better repute for justice and humanity: but this was only done upon provocations so great and exasperating, that no recompence was thought sufficient to atone for them: whence it came to pass, that such wars were of all others the most bloody and pernicious, and fought with excess of rage and fury; the contesting parties being resolved to extirpate each other, if possible, out of the world.
Before the Grecians engaged themselves in war, it was usual to publish a declaration of the injuries they had received, and to demand satisfaction by ambassadors; for however prepared, or excellently skilled, they were in the affairs of war, yet peace, if to be procured upon honorable terms, was thought more eligible: which custom was observed, even in the most early ages, as appears from the story of Tydeus, whom Polynices sent to compose matters with his brother Eteocles king of Thebes, before he proceeded to invest that city, as we are informed by Statius, (Thebaid. lib. ii. v. 368.) and several others. See Potter, page 64 and 65.
The Romans, on the other hand, used abundance of superstition in entering upon any hostility, or closing in any league or confederacy; the public ministers who performed the ceremonial part of both these were the Feciales, or heralds. The ceremonies were of this nature. When any neighboring state had given sufficient reason for the senate to suspect a design of breaking with them; or had offered any violence or injustice to the citizens of Rome, which was enough to give them the repute of enemies; one of the Feciales, chosen out of the college upon this occasion, and habited in the vest belonging to his order, together with his other ensigns, and habiliments, set forward for the enemy’s country. As soon as he reached the confines, he pronounced a formal declaration of the cause of his arrival, calling all the Gods to witness, and imprecating the divine vengeance on himself, and his country if his reasons were not just. When he came to the chief city of the enemy, he again repeated the same declaration, with some addition, and withal desired satisfaction. If they delivered into his power the authors of the injury, or gave hostages for security, he returned satisfied to Rome: if otherwise they desired time to consider; he went away for ten days, and then came again to hear their resolution, and this he did, in some cases, three times: but, if nothing was done towards an accommodation in about thirty days, he declared that the Romans would endeavor to assert their right by their arms. After this the herald was obliged to return, and to make a true report of his embassy before the senate, assuring them of the legality of the war, which they were now consulting to undertake; and was then again dispatched to perform the last part of the ceremony, which was to throw a spear into (or towards the enemy’s country) in token of defiance, and, as a summons to war, pronouncing at the same time a set form of words to the like purpose. Kennett’s Roman Antiquities, book iv. page 229.
The British have within the last century totally changed the usages of war; and appear to court the opprobrium bestowed by history upon the Carthaginians for their perfidiousness and cruelty; and upon the Ætolians for their treachery and rapacity; by making war first, and issuing their manifesto afterwards; as in the attack on Copenhagen in 1806.
MANIGLIONS, the two handles on the back of a piece of ordnance. See [Cannon].
MANIPLE. See [Manipulus].
MANIPULARIS (manipulaire,) Fr. from Maniple, a handful or bottle of straw. The chief officer in a part of the Roman infantry called manipulus, was so called. This officer was likewise ordinary, ordinaire, Fr.
MANIPULA, Fr.. See [Manipulus].
Manipule Pyrotechnique, Fr. a certain quantity of iron or brass petards, which may be thrown by the hand upon an enemy. These petards and the method of making them, are particularly described by Casini in his work on artillery. See [Petards].
MANIPULUS (manipule, Fr.) A small body of infantry originally so called among the Romans, during the reign of Romulus. Their ensign was a hand on the end of a staff.
It consisted of one hundred men, and in the days of the consuls and first Cæsars, of two hundred. Three manipuli constituted a Roman cohort. Each manipulus was commanded by two officers called centurions, one of whom acted as lieutenant to the other. A centurion among the Romans, may be considered in the same light, as we view a captain of a company in modern service. Every manipulus made two centuries or Ordines. This, however, cannot be said to have been the uniform establishment or formation of the manipulus; for according to Varro and Vegetius, it was the smallest body of men employed in the Roman armies, and composed the tenth part of a century. Spartian in his life of Sexennius Niger, says, it consisted only of ten soldiers. We have already observed, that it takes its name from manipulus, which signifies a handful of straw; the latter having been fixed to a long pole to serve as a rallying signal, before the eagles were adopted. This circumstance has given rise to the modern expression, a handful of men, une poignée de gens. Vegetius, on the other hand says, it comes from manus, which signified a small body or handful of men collected together, and following the same standard; and Modestus as well as Varro, state it to have been so called, because, when they went into action, they took one another by the hand, or fought all together. A French writer conceives, that manipulus may be considered as one of those parts of a modern battalion, which are distributed in different rooms, &c. and which is called une chambrée, or a company that messes together.
Manipulus, so called from its standard or flag, which was made of cloth, and hung suspended on a staff with a hand. The manipulus was distinguished in this manner from the chief standard of each legion, which was an eagle of massive metal.
MANOEUVRE, (Manoeuvre, Fr.) Manœuvres of war consist chiefly in habituating the soldier to a variety of evolutions, to accustom him to different movements, and to render his mind familiar with the nature of every principle of offensive or defensive operation. The regular manœuvres of the British army have been reduced to nineteen, though these are not competent to every exigency of service the skilful officer will know how to manœuvre as the ground he is upon requires.
The word manœuvre is frequently used in the French artillery to express the method with which a piece of ordnance or mortar is raised and placed upon its carriage by several hands, assisted by the crab or any other machine. In a general acceptation of the term, manœuvre means that mechanical process by which any weight is lifted.
To Manœuvre, is to manage any body or armed force in such a manner as to derive sudden and unexpected advantages before the enemy, from a superior talent in military movements. It consists in distributing equal motion to every part of a body of troops, to enable the whole to form, or change their position, in the most expeditious and best method, to answer the purposes required of a battalion, brigade, or line of cavalry, infantry, or artillery.
The use of all manœuvres and of all discipline is the same, to habituate men to the word of command, to perform what is commanded, and in the shortest time, in the best manner. The idea therefore of reducing manœuvres to 18 or 19, or any given number, manifests a misconception of the military art, that is truly surprizing; for it must be perceived by a practical man, that the principles of all manœuvres are few and simple; although manœuvres are as susceptible of infinite variety and of real use, as arithmetical numbers. The ability of the officer is shewn in the choice of manœuvre, and its adaptation to the ground manœuvred upon, the end proposed to be obtained by the manœuvre, the position of the enemy, and the exactness and celerity with which it is performed. The great perfection of manœuvre is when troops at a single word of command perform movements of different kinds at the same instant, but all to accomplish the same object; that is to accomplish together the end proposed by the commander. Soldiers should be so exercised as to be competent to move in any manner or direction on the instant; a fixt number of manœuvres is calculated to defeat this end. The Austrians have attempted to follow the French, and practise their methods of manœuvre, which are not so much for parade as for practice. In the United States, the prejudice against, or the ignorance of manœuvre is excessive.
It has always been lamented, that men have been brought on service without being acquainted with the uses of the different manœuvres they have been practising; and having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of the parade, instantly fall into disorder and confusion when they lose the step, or see a deviation from the straight lines they have been accustomed to at exercise. It is a pity to see so much attention confined to show, and so little given to instruct the troops in what may be of use to them on real service.
Manœuvre when executed in the presence of the enemy, must be protected by some light troops, riflemen or horse artillery.
Grand Manœuvre de Guerre, Fr. This expression is peculiarly French, and may be said to signify the dispositions of war upon a large scale. According to marshal Saxe these dispositions consist chiefly in drawing troops up in such a manner, that the cavalry and infantry may support each other; but he objects to that arrangement by which companies or platoons of infantry are intermixed with squadrons of horse; for, as he justly observes, if the latter should be beaten, the foot soldiers must unavoidably be thrown into confusion by the enemy’s cavalry, and be cut to pieces. For further particulars on this important article, see Saxe’s Reveries, where he treats of La Grande Manœuvre de Guerre, and the supplement to them by baron d’Espagnac, page 69.
Warlike Manoeuvres, (Manoeuvres de Guerre, Fr.) Warlike manoeuvres, or the different exercises, &c. by which men are taught the military profession: these exercises, from the earliest periods of history, have been infinitely diversified. Vegetius, an ancient writer, remarks, that the Romans, in order to enure their raw troops to the fatigues of war, had specific regulations drawn up, by which every recruit was regularly practised in martial exercises. These regulations were originally formed during the existence of their republic, and were afterwards confirmed by the emperors Augustus and Adrian.
It was particularly ordained, that the cavalry as well as the infantry should be walked out (être mené à la promenade) three times every month. The foot were obliged to go ten miles beyond the lines of their encampment. On these occasions they were originally drawn up. But their movements both in going and returning were frequently altered; being sometimes obliged to march at a moderate rate, and at others to increase their pace and run. The same regulation held good with respect to the cavalry, which was armed and divided into certain proportions, called turmæ. The troops on horseback went the same distance, and practised different evolutions on the road. Sometimes advancing to attack, and at others suddenly wheeling round, to return to the charge with greater impetuosity. These exercises were not, however, confined to open roads, or a level country: both horse and foot were frequently ordered to make their way through intricate passes, over cragged hills, &c. and to accustom themselves to every possible obstacle that might occur in military movements.
This species of manoeuvre or practising exercise, has at last obtained in modern times. It was till lately thought sufficient to teach a raw recruit the use of the firelock, and to make him master of a certain number of movements, by the knowlege of which he was held fit to make a part of a well disciplined corps. How to march against and attack an enemy, or to meet his attack with skill and steadiness; these principally constituted the system of modern manoeuvres, and are better understood by the name of evolutions. In the British service there is a specific number of manoeuvres or evolutions to which every regiment must conform, and with the particular practice of which every officer and soldier must be made intimately acquainted. See Am. Mil. Library.
MANOEUVRER, Fr. To manoeuvre. This verb in the French language may be applied two ways; as, manoeuvrer les voiles, to manage the sails and tackle of a vessel.
Manoeuvrer des Troupes, to make soldiers go through their different manoeuvres. Ces troupes ont bien manoeuvré, those soldiers have ably manoeuvred.
Bien ou mal MANOEUVRER, Fr. signifies to manoeuvre well or ill; as, un tel gênéral ou officier a bien manoeuvré à tel passage, à tel endroit, such a general manoeuvred well at such a passage or quarter: mais un tel à mal manoeuvré à la defense ou à l’attaque de tel poste, but such an officer manoeuvred extremely ill in his defence or attack of such a post. The word manoeuvre is originally derived from the Latin Manûs Opus.
MANOEUVRIER, Fr. any officer who is perfectly acquainted with the art of manoeuvring.
Manoeuvrier, Fr. A sea phrase, which is frequently used among the French, to signify that an officer not only understands all the different words of command, but can thoroughly manoeuvre his ship. It is common to say, il est un des meilleurs manoeuvriers qui soient sur mer, he is one of the ablest sea officers in the service.
MANTEAU, Fr. This word, which literally signifies a cloak, is frequently used among the French to express the covering that hussars or light infantry troops carry for the double purpose of shielding their bodies from the inclemencies of the weather in outposts, &c. and for spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when they occasionally halt, and take a position.
MANTELETS, in a military sense, are either single or double, composed of great planks of wood, of about 5 feet high, and 3 inches thick. The single ones are sometimes covered with tin, made musquet-proof, which the pioneers generally roll before them, being fixed upon wheels, to cover them from the enemy’s fire, in opening the trenches, or carrying on the sap, &c. The double ones form an angle, and stand square, making two fronts, which cover both the front and flank of the sappers, &c. when at work: these have double planks with earth rammed in between them: they are 5 feet high and 3 in breadth, sometimes covered with plates of iron; they may with propriety be called a moving parapet, having a shaft to guide them by.
MANTONET, Fr. A small piece of wood or iron, which is notched, for the purpose of hanging any thing upon it. The pegs in soldier’s rooms are sometimes so called.
MANUAL.—In a general acceptation of the word, means any thing done by the hand.
MANUAL Exercise, in the British service, is the exercise of the musquet, independent of powder and ball, and consists in seven motions of the firelock; 5 of which are essentially different from each other, viz. order arms, fix bayonets, shoulder arms, present arms, shoulder arms, charge bayonets, and shoulder arms.
I. Order Arms. (3 motions.) Bring the firelock to the trail in two motions as usual, seizing it at the first at the lower loop, just at the swell, at the 2d, bring it down to the right side, the butt within an inch of the ground: at the 3d, drop the butt on the ground, placing the muzzle against the hollow of the right shoulder, and the hand flat upon the sling; the thumb behind the barrel.
II. Fix Bayonets.—At the word, fix, grip the firelock; as soon as the word of command is fully out, push the firelock a little forward, at the same time drawing out the bayonet with the left hand, and fixing it with the utmost celerity. The instant this is done, return as quick as possible, to the order, as above described, and stand perfectly steady.
III. Shoulder Arms.—As soon as the word shoulder is given, grip the firelock with the right hand, as in fixing bayonets, and, at the last word, arms, the firelock must be thrown, with the right hand, in one motion, and with as little appearance of effort as possible, into its proper position on the left shoulder; the hand crosses the body in so doing, but must instantly be withdrawn.
IV. Present Arms. (3 motions.)—1st. Seize the firelock with the right hand, under the guard, turning the lock to the front, but without moving it from the shoulder.
2d. Bring it to the poize, seizing it with the left hand, the fingers easily round the stock, the wrist upon the guard, and the point of the left thumb of equal height with the eyes.
3d. Bring down the firelock with a quick motion, as low as the right hand will admit without constraint, drawing back the right foot at the same instant, so that the hollow of it may touch the left heel. The firelock in this position is to be totally supported in the left hand; the body to rest intirely on the left foot; both knees to be straight; the firelock in front of the left eye, and the butt in front of the left thigh.
V. Shoulder Arms. (2 motions.)—1st. By a turn of the right wrist, bring the firelock to its proper position on the shoulder, as described above, the left hand grasping the butt.
2d. Quit the right hand, bring it briskly down to its place by the side.
VI. Charge Bayonets. (2 motions.)—1st. At one motion throw the firelock from the shoulder across the body, to a low diagonal recover, a position known by the name of porting arms, or preparing for the charge, in which the lock is to be turned to the front, and at the height of the breast; the muzzle slanting upwards, so that the barrel may cross opposite the point of the left shoulder, with the butt proportionally depressed; the right hand grasps the small of the butt, and the left holds the piece at the swell, close to the lower pipe, the thumbs of both hands pointing towards the muzzle.
2d. Make a half-face to the right, and bring down the firelock to nearly a horizontal position, with the muzzle inclining a little upwards, and the right wrist resting against the hollow of the thigh, just below the hip.
N. B. The first motion of the charge is the position which the soldier will either, from the shoulder, or after firing, take, in order to advance on an enemy, whom it is intended to attack with fixed bayonets; and the word of command for that purpose is “prepare to charge.” The second position of the charge is that which the front rank takes when arrived at a few yards distance only from the body to be attacked. The first motion of the charge is also that which sentries are to take when challenging any persons who approach their posts.
VII. Shoulder Arms. (2 motions.)—1st. Face to the front, and throw up the piece into its position on the shoulder, by a turn of the right wrist, instantly grasping the butt, as before described, with the left hand.
2d. Quit the firelock briskly with the right hand, bringing it to its proper place by the side.
The men are taught likewise to support arms at three motions, throwing the first and second nearly into one: at the first motion they seize the small of the butt, under the lock, with the right hand, bringing the butt in the front of the groin, and keeping the lock somewhat turned out: at the second, they bring the left arm under the cock: at the third, they quit the right hand. In carrying arms from the support, the motions are exactly reversed.
In marching any distance, or in standing at ease, when supported, the men are allowed to bring their right hand across the body, to the small of the butt, which latter must in that case, be thrown still more forward; the fingers of the left hand being uppermost, must be placed between the body and the right elbow; the right hands are to be instantly removed when the division halts, or is ordered to dress by the right.
Time.—The motions in the manual exercise to be performed slow, leaving three seconds between each motion, except that of fixing bayonets, in which a longer time must be given.
The manual is not to be executed by one word, or signal, but each separate word of command is to be given by the officer who commands the body performing it.
In regard to the motions of securing, grounding, and trailing, as well as those of piling, &c. it will be sufficient for the soldiers to be taught to perform them in the most convenient and quickest method. Returning bayonets is to be done from the order; in the same manner as fixing them.
Sentries.—Sentries posted with shouldered arms, are permitted afterwards to support, but not to slope them. On the approach of an officer, they immediately carry their arms, and put themselves into their proper position; which is not to be done at the instant he passes, but by the time he is within twenty yards of their post, so that they may be perfectly steady before he comes up.
Corporals.—Corporals marching with reliefs, or commanding detachments, or divisions, carry their arms advanced, as formerly: for which purpose a soldier, when promoted to that rank, must be taught the position of advanced arms.
Explanation of the several Motions of the Platoon Exercise, as taught at the drill in the British service.
I. Make Ready.—As usual, bringing the firelock to the recover, and instantly cocking.
II. Aim.—1st. Slip the left hand along the sling, as far as the swell of the firelock, and bring the piece down to the present, stepping back about six inches to the rear with the right foot.
III. Fire.—After firing drop the firelock briskly to the priming position.
2d. Half cock.
IV. Handle Cartridge.—1st. Draw the cartridge from the pouch.
2d. Bring it to the mouth, holding it between the fore finger and thumb, and bite off the top of it.
V. Prime.—1st. Shake some powder into the pan.
2d. Shut the pan with the three last fingers.
3d. Seize the small of the butt with the above three fingers.
VI. Load.—1st. Face to the left on both heels, so that the right toe may point directly to the front, and the body be a very little faced to the left, bringing at the same time the firelock round to the left side without sinking it. It should, in this momentary position, be almost perpendicular (having the muzzle only a small degree brought forward), and as soon as it is steady there, it must instantly be forced down within two inches of the ground, the butt nearly opposite the left heel, and the firelock itself somewhat sloped, and directly to the front; the right hand at the same instant catches the muzzle, in order to steady it.
2d. Shake the powder into the barrel, putting in after it the paper and ball.
3d. Seize the top of the ramrod, with the fore finger and thumb.
VII. Draw ramrods.—1st. Draw the ramrod half out, and seize it back-handed exactly in the middle.
2d. Draw it entirely out, and turning it with the whole hand and arm extended from you, put it one inch into the barrel.
VIII. Ram down cartridge.—1st. Push the ramrod down, holding it as before, exactly in the middle, till the hand touches the muzzle.
2d. Slip the fore finger and thumb to the upper end, without letting the ramrod fall farther into the barrel.
3d. Push the cartridge well down to the bottom.
4th. Strike it two very quick strokes with the ramrod.
IX. Return ramrod.—1st. Draw the ramrod half out, catching it back-handed.
2d. Draw it entirely out, turning it very briskly from you, with the arm extended, and put it into the loops, forcing it as quick as possible to the bottom; then face to the proper front, the finger and thumb of the right hand holding the ramrod, as in the position immediately previous to drawing it, and the butt raised two inches from the ground.
X. Shoulder Arms.—Strike the top of the muzzle smartly with the right hand, in order to fix the bayonet and ramrod more firmly, and at the same time throw it nimbly up, at one motion to the shoulder.
N. B. Though the butts are not to come to the ground in casting about, as accidents may happen from it, yet they are permitted, while loading, to be so rested; but it must be done without noise, and in a manner imperceptible in the front.
Explanation of priming and loading quick.
Prime and Load.—1st. Bring the firelock down in one brisk motion to the priming position, the thumb of the right hand placed against the pan-cover, or steel: the fingers clenched; and the elbow a little turned out, so that the wrist may be clear of the cock.
2d. Open the pan by throwing up the steel, with a strong motion of the right arm, turning the elbow in, and keeping the firelock steady in the left hand.
3d. Bring your hand round to the pouch, and draw out the cartridge.
The rest as above described, excepting that, in the quick loading, all the motions are to be done with as much dispatch as possible; the soldiers taking their time, from the flugel man in front, for casting over and shouldering only.
Priming position.—In firing three deep the priming position for the front rank is the height of the waistband of the breeches: for the centre rank, about the middle of the stomach; and for the rear rank, close to the breast: the firelock, in all these positions, is to be kept perfectly horizontal.
Explanation of the Positions of each Rank in the Firings.
Front Rank, kneeling.—Bring the firelock briskly up to the recover, catching it in the left hand; and, without stopping, sink down with a quick motion upon the right knee, keeping the left foot fast, the butt end of the firelock, at the same moment, falling upon the ground; then cock, and instantly seize the cock and steel together in the right hand, holding the piece firm in the left, about the middle of that part which is between the lock and the swell of the stock: the point of the left thumb to be close to the swell, and pointing upwards.
As the body is sinking, the right knee is to be thrown so far back that the left leg may be right up and down, the right foot a little turned out, the body straight, and the head as much up as if shouldered; the firelock must be upright, and the butt about four inches to the right of the inside of the left foot.
Aim.—Bring the firelock down firmly to the aim, by sliding the left hand, to the full extent of the arm, along the sling, without letting the motion tell: the right hand at the same time springing up the butt by the cock so high against the right shoulder, that the head may not be too much lowered in taking aim; the right cheek to be close to the butt; the left eye shut, and the middle finger of the right hand on the trigger, look along the barrel with the right eye from the breech-pin to the muzzle, and remain steady.
Fire.—Pull the trigger strong with the middle finger, and, as soon as fired, spring up nimbly upon the left leg, keeping the body erect, and the left foot fast, and bringing the right heel to the hollow of the left; at the same instant drop the firelock to the priming position, the height of the right hip; half cock, handle cartridge, and go on with the loading motions, as before described.
Centre rank.—Make ready.—Spring the firelock briskly to the recover: as soon as the left hand seizes the firelock above the lock, raise the right elbow a little, placing the thumb of that hand upon the cock, with the fingers open on the plate of the lock, and then, as quick as possible, cock the piece, by dropping the elbow, and forcing down the cock with the thumb, step at the same time with the right foot a moderate pace to the right, and keeping the left fast, seize the small of the butt with the right hand: the piece must be held in this position perpendicular, and opposite the left side of the face, the butt close to the breast, but not pressed, the body straight and full to the front, and the head erect.
Aim.—As in the foregoing explanation for the front rank.
Fire.—Pull the trigger strong with the middle finger, and, as soon as fired, bring the firelock to the priming position, about the height of the stomach: the rest, as in the explanation of priming and loading, with this difference only, that the left foot is to be drawn up to the right, at the same time that the firelock is brought down to the priming position, and that immediately after the firelock is thrown up to the shoulder, the men spring to the left again, and cover their file leaders.
Rear rank.—Make ready.—Recover and cock, as before directed for the centre rank, and, as the firelock is brought to recover, step briskly to the right a full pace, at the same time placing the left heel about six inches before the point of the right foot. The body to be kept straight, and as square to the front as possible.
Aim.—As in explanation for the centre rank.
Fire.—As in explanation for the centre rank; after firing and shouldering, the men step as the centre rank does.
In firing with the front rank standing, that rank makes ready, &c. as specified in the article relative to the [platoon exercise].
Officers.—In giving words of command, as well in as out of the ranks, officers are to stand perfectly steady, and in their proper position; their swords held firmly in the full of the right hand, with the upper part of the blade resting against the shoulder, the right wrist against the hip, and the elbow drawn back.
Firing by platoons.—Officers, &c.—The officers, instead of giving the words platoon, make ready, aim, fire, are to pronounce the words short, as for instance, ’toon, ready, aim, fire.
In firing by platoons, or divisions, the officers commanding them are to step out one pace, on the close of the preparative, and face to the left towards their men; they there stand perfectly steady till the last part of the general, when they step back again into their proper intervals, all at the same time. After a division has fired, the right hand man of it steps out one pace, in front of the officer, but still keeping his own proper front, and gives the time for casting about and shouldering, after which he falls back again into his place in the front rank.
The flugle man of a battalion is also to keep his front, in giving the time of exercise.
In firing by grand divisions, the centre officer falls back, on the preparative, into the fourth rank, and is replaced by the covering serjeant.
MANUBALISTE, Fr. From the Latin manubalista. A cross bow.
MANUFACTURES d’armes, Fr. Places appropriated for the manufacturing of arms. During the old government of France, three places were appropriated for the manufacturing of arms; one at Maubeuge, one at Charleville and Nourzon, and the third at St. Etienne en Foret. These were called royal manufactories of arms for public service. A director general superintended the whole, to whom every person concerned in the undertaking was subject, and who was himself subordinate to those artillery inspectors and comptrollers, that were severally appointed by the grand master of the ordnance and the secretary at war.
The United States have manufactories of arms at Harpers ferry, on Potomac; at Springfield, Massachusetts; at Washington City; and at Rocky Mount, S. Carolina.
MAP, in a military and geographical sense, is a plane figure, representing the surface of the earth, or a part thereof, according to the laws of perspective; distinguishing the situation of cities, mountains, rivers, roads, &c.
In maps these three things are essentially necessary. 1. That all places have the same situation and distance from the great circles therein, as on the globe, to show their parallels, longitudes, zones, climates, and celestial appearances. 2. That their magnitudes be proportionable to the real magnitudes on the globes. 3. That all places have the same situation, bearing, and distance, as on the earth itself.
Maps are either universal, which exhibit the whole surface of the earth; or partial, which exhibit some particular part thereof: each kind is called geographical or land-maps, in contradistinction to hydrographical or sea-maps, representing the seas and sea-coasts, properly called charts.
As a map is a representation of some part of the surface of the earth delineated upon a plane, the earth, being round, no part of the spherical surface of it can be accurately exhibited upon a plane; and therefore some have proposed globular maps. For this purpose a plate of brass might be hammered, or at a less expence a piece of paste-board might be formed into a segment of a sphere, and covered on its convex side with a map projected in the same manner as the papers of the common globe are. A map made in this method would show every thing in the same manner, as it would be seen upon a globe of the same diameter with the sphere upon the segment of which it was delineated: and, indeed, maps of this sort would in effect be segments of such a globe; but they are not in common use.
The ancients described all parts of the known earth in one general map. In this view one of them compares the shape of the earth to the leather of a sling, whose length exceeds its breadth: the length of the then known parts of the earth from east to west was considerably greater than from north to south; for which reason, the former of these was called the longitude, and the other the latitude.
The modern general maps are such as give us a view of an entire hemisphere, or half of the globe; and are projected upon the plane of some great circle, which terminates the projected hemisphere, and divides it from the other half of the globe, at the equator, the meridian, or horizon of some place. From the circle the projection is denominated, and said to be equatorial, meridionial, or horizontal.
Particular maps are such as exhibit to us less than an hemisphere; of this sort are maps of the great quarters into which the earth is divided, as Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; or maps of particular nations, provinces, countries, or of lesser districts.
A particular map is a part of a general one, and may be made upon the same principles, as by projecting a large hemisphere, and taking so much of it as the map is designed to contain. When we are to delineate a map of the smaller part of the earth, if it be near the equator, the meridians and parallels may be represented by equi-distant straight lines; if at some distance from the equator, the parallels may be equi-distant straight lines, and the meridian straight lines, a little converging towards the nearest pole; or the meridians may be straight lines, converging towards the nearest pole, and the parallels circular.
When we are to make a map of a very small district, as of a county or town, whatever part of the earth it be in, the meridians and parallels may be equidistant straight lines, drawn through every minute, &c. of longitude, in proportion as the largeness of the map will allow. See Plotting and [Surveying].
The use of maps is obvious from their construction. The degrees of the meridians and parallels shew the longitude and latitude of places; their bearings from each other appear from inspection; and their distance from each other may be measured by the divisions on the meridian, equator, or scales. [Geography].
MARAUDE, Fr. The act of marauding. This word specifically means the theft or depredation which a soldier commits against the peasantry of the country, and for which offence, he is punished with death in all foreign services.
MARAUDEUR, Fr. A marauder. This term is now strictly English. Its signification, however, is generally the same in all services. Any soldier that steals out of camp, armed or unarmed, for the purpose of pillaging the country, is a marauder, and is liable, upon conviction, to be punished with death, or such other punishment as by a general court-martial shall be awarded.
Aller en Maraude, means to go out marauding.
MARAUDING, in a military sense, the act of plundering, which is generally committed by a party of soldiers, who, without any order, go into the neighboring houses or villages, when the army is either in camp or in garrison, to pilfer and destroy, &c. Marauders are a disgrace to the camp, to the military profession, and deserve no better quarters from their officers than they give to poor peasants, &c. Marauding is also applied to plundering at sea; thus the Barbary Corsairs, and the British navy are systematic marauders.
MARC, Fr. A weight equal to eight ounces. In France, it is usual for silversmiths and jewellers to take a marc at that standard, but when articles of greater bulk and grosser quality than those they deal in, are brought to the scale, the marc contains 16 ounces to the pound. All stores and ammunition were appreciated by this measure.
A MARCH, (une Marche, Fr.) is the moving of a body of men from one place to another. Care must be taken, in marching troops, that they are not liable to be flanked or intercepted; for of all operations none is more difficult, because they must not only be directed to the objects they have in view, but according to the movements the enemy may have made.
Of all the mechanical parts of war, none is more essential than that of marching. It may be justly called the key which leads to all important motions and manœuvres of an army; for they depend entirely on this point. A man can be attacked in four different ways; in the front, on both flanks, and in the rear: but he can defend himself, and annoy the enemy, only when placed with his face towards him. Hence it follows, that the general object of marching, is reduced to three points only; to march forwards, and on both sides, because it is impossible to do it for any time backwards, and by that means face the enemy wherever he presents himself. The different steps to be made use of are three: slow, quick, and accelerated. The first is used only at reviews, for parade, or in mounting guard. The second is proper in advancing, when at a considerable distance from the enemy, and when the ground is unequal, that the line may not be broken, and that a regular fire may be kept up without intermission. The third is chiefly necessary, when you want to anticipate the enemy in occupying some post, in passing a defile, and, above all, in attacking an intrenchment, to avoid being a long while exposed to the fire of the artillery and small arms, &c. Columns may be opened and formed into lines, and vice versa, lines into columns, by all these steps. In coming out of a defile, you may instantly form the line without presenting the flank to the enemy. The line may be formed, though ever so near to the enemy, with safety, because you face him, and can with ease and safety protect and cover the motion of the troops, while they are coming out of the defiles and forming. The same thing may be equally executed, when a column is to be formed, in order to advance or retreat; which is a point of infinite consequence, and should be established as an axiom.
The order of march of the troops must be so disposed, that each should arrive at their rendezvous, if possible, on the same day. The quarter-master-general, or his deputy, with an able engineer, should sufficiently reconnoitre the country, to obtain a perfect knowlege both of that and of the enemy, before he forms his routes.
Before a march, the army generally receives several days bread. The quarter-masters, camp-color men, and pioneers, parade according to orders, and march immediately after, commanded by the quarter-master-general, or his deputy. They are to clear the roads, level the ways, make preparations for the march of the army, &c. The general, for instance, beats at 2, the assembly at 3, and the army to march in 30 minutes after. Upon beating the general, the village, and general officer’s guards, quarter and rear-guards, join their respective corps; and the army pack up their baggage. Upon beating the assembly, the tents are to be struck, and sent with the baggage to the place appointed, &c.
The companies draw up in their several streets, and the rolls are called. At the time appointed, the drummers are to beat a march, and fifers play at the head of the line; upon which the companies march out from their several streets, form battalions as they advanced to the head of the line and then halt.
The several battalions will be formed into columns by the adjutant-general, and the order of march, &c., be given to the general officers who lead the columns.
The cavalry generally march by regiments or squadrons. The heavy artillery always keep the great roads, in the centre of the columns, escorted by a strong party of infantry and cavalry.—The field-pieces move with the columns.
Each soldier generally marches with 60 rounds of powder and ball, and three good flints; one of which is to be fixed in the cock of his firelock. The routes must be so formed, that no column may cross another on the march. See American Military Library.
MARCH! (Marche! Fr.) as a word of command, whenever it is given singly, invariably denotes that ordinary or triple time is to be taken; when the slow time is meant, that word will precede the other. The word march, marks the beginning of movements from the halt; but it is not given when the body is in previous motion. It should be sharp, clear, and distinct.
The usual rate of marching for cavalry is 17 miles in 6 hours; but this may be extended to 21, or even 28 miles in that time.
Rates paid for English carriages on the march.
| One shilling per mile for every carriage | - | with 5 horses, or | |
| with 6 oxen, or | |||
| with 4 oxen & 2 horses; |
nine pence per mile for any cart with 4 horses, and so in proportion for less carriages; or a further sum, not exceeding 4d per mile for every carriage with 5 horses, or with 6 oxen, or with 4 oxen and 2 horses; or 3d per mile for every cart with 4 horses; and so in proportion for less carriages, as the same shall be fixed and ordered by the justices of the peace. The waggons, &c. not to carry more than 30 cwt.
Regular ferries in England are only to be paid for on the march at half the ordinary rate.
Marching money.—Innkeepers in the British dominions, are obliged to furnish troops on the march with diet and small beer, for the day of their marching in, and two days afterwards; unless one of the days be a market day. For which the publican by the king’s warrant, 17th of March, 1800, is to receive 16d, and which is paid in the following manner:
| Paid | by government, | Cav. | 9d. | — | Inf. | 11d. |
| — | by the soldier | — | 6d. | — | 4d. | |
| Soldiers beer money | — | 1d. | — | 1d. | ||
| Total | 16 | 16 | ||||
In Marching every soldier must be well balanced on his limbs: his arms and hands, without stiffness, must be kept steady by his sides, and not suffered to vibrate. He must not be allowed to stoop forward, still less to lean back. His body must be kept square to the front, and thrown rather more forward in marching than when halted, that it may accompany the movement of the leg and thigh: the ham must be stretched, but without stiffening the knee: the toe a little pointed, and kept near the ground, so that the shoe-soles may not be visible to a person in front: the head to be kept well up, straight to the front, and the eyes not suffered to be cast down: the foot, without being drawn back, must be placed flat on the ground.
The object so generally recommended, of keeping the body erect, and the legs well stretched and pointed, would be effectually gained, were recruits, when they are first placed under the moulding hand of the drill serjeant, taught and gradually accustomed to step well out from the haunches. This method is invariably practised among the French, who are unquestionably not only the best dancers, but the most expert movers on foot in the world.
Quick-March. Ordinary time. A movement by which troops advance at the rate of 75 steps in the minute, each of 24 inches, making 150 feet or 50 yards in a minute.
Quick-March. As a word of command, signifies, that the troops should move in quick time.
Slow-March. A movement by which troops advance at the rate of 60 steps in the minute.
In order to teach a recruit the just length of pace, accurate distances must be marked out on the ground, along which, he should be practised.
Wheeling-March, or accelerated pace is 120 steps of 24 inches each, or 2880 inches, or 240 feet in the minute.
This is the most rapid movement by which men under arms, or otherwise when formed, should go from line into column, or come from column into line. This is applied chiefly to the purpose of wheeling, and is the rate at which all bodies should accomplish their wheels, the outward file stepping 30 inches, whether the wheel be from line into column, during the march in column, or from column into line. In this time also should divisions double and move up, when passing obstacles in line; or when in the column of march, the front of divisions is increased or diminished.
A March, (La Marche, Fr.) a certain tune or concord of notes, which is adapted to the movement of any particular body of troops, as, the grenadier’s march, the march of the Marseillois, la marche des Janizaires, the march of the Janizaries.
Marching to the front or rear. This is one of the most difficult operations in military movements.
The person instructing a platoon will, before he puts it in motion to front or rear, indicate which flank is to direct by giving the word, mark time! and then forward or march. Should the right be the directing flank, the commander of the platoon himself, will fix on objects to march upon in a line truly perpendicular to the front of the platoon; and when the left flank is ordered to direct, he and his covering serjeant will shift to the left of the front rank, and take such objects to march upon.
The conductor of the platoon, before the word march is given, will endeavor to remark some distant object on the ground, in his own front, and perpendicular to the directing flank, he will then observe some nearer and intermediate point, in the same line, such as a stone, tuft of grass, &c. these he will move upon with accuracy, and as he approaches the nearest of these points, he must from time to time chuse fresh ones in the original direction, which he will by these means preserve, never having fewer than two such points to move upon. If no object in the true line can be ascertained, his own squareness of person must determine the direction of the march.
The same observations hold good in all movements to front or rear, or from either flank; and the only way to execute them with accuracy, is for the leader to look out for small intermediate points of march.
March of a battalion in file, is to advance from the right, left, or centre of any given number of men, for the purposes of countermarching, or of closing, or opening an interval in line. On these occasions the whole step off together at the word march, and dress at the word mark time, the whole front, and the officers and serjeants, resume their several posts in line and then receive the word halt. Whenever more than one company march in file, the officers are out of the ranks during the march, on the left of the leading file when the right is in front, and on the right when the left is in front. They are of use in preserving the line and step, as the rear officer necessarily keeps the pace, and marches on the exact perpendicular line of his coverer. When a company is marched off singly, or files into or out of column, the officer is invariably to be in front. It sometimes happens, that a battalion standing in narrow ground, may be obliged to form open column from its leading flank, either before or behind that flank, before or behind its other flank; or before or behind any central part of the line.
To March in file before the right flank. When the right platoon or company has moved on, the rest of the battalion face to the right, and march in file: the divisions then successively front, following each other, and taking the leading one for their regulating company.
To March in file behind the right flank.
The whole face to the right, and march by word of command; at which instant the right division countermarches to the rear, fronts, and moves forward; whilst every other division successively moves on in the same manner (having previously countermarched) and continues till the whole is in column.
To March before any central point or the left flank. The battalion makes a successive countermarch from the right flank towards the left, and when the right division is arrived at the point from whence it is to advance in column, it again countermarches to its right, a space equal to its front, then faces, moves on, and is thus successively followed by part of the battalion. The other part of the battalion, beyond the point of advancing, faces inwards, when necessary makes a progressive march in file, and then fronts. Each division belonging to this part of the battalion follows successively till the whole stand in column.
To March by files behind the centre or left flank. The right proportion of the battalion countermarches from the right by files successively by the rear, and the other proportion of the battalion, according to circumstances, makes a progressive march by files from its right to the central point, and there begins to countermarch; at that point the leading or head division fronts into column, and moves on, each successive division doing the same. When the left of a battalion is to be in front, the same operations take place by an inverse march of the several divisions.
This method, however, of marching by files into open column, should be resorted to as little as possible, and never when it can be conveniently avoided. The formation of open column from battalion and line is better done by the wheelings of companies, subdivisions, or sections.
To March up in charging order, is to advance towards the enemy’s line with a quick but firm and steady pace, till you get within a few paces of the opposing body, when an increased rapidity must be given to the whole, but not to run so as to lose breath, the officers on this occasion must be particularly attentive to the several divisions in their charge, keeping them well dressed to their centre, and thereby preventing dangerous openings and consequent confusion. The French call this the [pas de Charge].—Which see under [Pas]. See Am. Mil. Lib.
Points of March, one or more objects which ought always to be prepared for the direction of any considerable body, every leader of which who moves directly forward in front, must take care to conduct it in a line perpendicular to that front. But should a leader, either in file or front, have only one marked point of march, ascertained to him, he will himself instantly look out for small intermediate points.
To March in file to a flank, is to reduce a line by marching out from its several divisions towards a given flank, there to remain in close or open column, of brigades, regiments, grand divisions, companies, &c. Nothing is more essential in all deployments into line, and in the internal movements of the divisions of the battalion, than the accuracy of the march in file. After facing, and at the word march, the whole are directed to step off at the same instant, each man replacing, or rather overstepping the foot of his preceding comrade: that is the right foot of the second man comes within the left foot of the first, and thus of every one, more or less overlapping, according to the closeness, or openness of the files and the length of step. The front rank will march straight along the given line, each soldier of that rank must look along the necks of those before him, and never to right or left. The centre and rear ranks must look to, and regulate themselves by their leaders of the front rank, and always dress in their file. File marching is always made in quick time.
March of a battalion in line, is a regular continuity of files advancing forward in two or three ranks, each rear file preserving a perpendicular direction to its leader, and the ranks being kept parallel to each other at given distances; so that the whole line shall continue straight without being deformed by a concavity or convexity of figure. The march of the battalion in line, either to front or rear, being the most important and most difficult of all movements, every exertion of the commanding officer, and every attention of officers and men, become peculiarly necessary to attain this end. The great and indispensible requisites of this operation are, that the direction of the march be perpendicular to the front of the battalion as then standing; that the shoulders and body of each individual be perfectly square, that the files touch lightly at the elbow only, and finally, that an accurate equality of cadence and length of step be given by the advanced guides or serjeants, whom the battalion in every respect must cover, and which equality of cadence and length of step every individual must follow and comply with. If these essential rules are not observed, its direction will be lost, the different parts will open and attempt to close, and by so doing, a floating of the whole will ensue, and disorder will arise at a time when the remedy is so difficult, and perfect order so imperiously wanted.
In order to ensure these essential requisites, and to produce perfect correctness, the serjeants must be trained to this peculiar object, on whose exactness of cadence, regularity of step, squareness of body, and precision of movement, the greatest dependance can be placed, these are the proper guides of manoeuvre. The habitual post of the two principal directing serjeants, is to be in the centre of the battalion, betwixt the colors. One of them is posted in the front rank, and one in the rear, that they thereby may be ready to move out when the battalion is to march; another also covers them in the supernumerary rank.
Whenever the battalion is formed in line and halted, the front directing serjeant or guide, after having placed himself perfectly and squarely in the rank, must instantly cast his eyes down the centre of his body, from the junction of his two heels, and by repeated trials endeavor to, take up and prolong a line perpendicular to himself, and to the battalion; for this purpose he is by no means to begin with looking out for a distant object, but if such by chance should present itself in the prolongation of the line, extending from his own person, he may remark it. He is therefore rather to observe and take up any accidental small point on the ground within 100 or 150 paces. Intermediate ones cannot be wanting, nor the renewal of such as he afterwards successively approaches to in his march. In this manner he is prepared, subject to the future correction of the commanding officer, to conduct the march.
To March forward or advance in line, when the battalion has been halted and correctly dressed—Is to step off, according to any given word of command, in quick or ordinary time, and to march over a perpendicular line of direction, without deviating to the right or left, or unnecessarily opening or closing during the movement; the commanding officer having previously placed himself 10 or 12 paces behind the exact line of the directing serjeant, will, if such file could be depended on, as standing truly perpendicular to the battalion, (and great care must be taken to place it so) remark the line of its prolongation, and thereby ascertain the direction in which it should march; but, as such precision cannot be relied on, he will from his own eye and from having the square of the battalion before him, with promptitude make such correction, and observe such object to the right or left, as may appear to him the true one; and in doing this, he will not at once look out for a distant object, but will hit on it, by prolonging the line from the person of the directing serjeant to the front; or he will order the covering serjeant to run out 20 paces, and will place him in the line in which he thinks the battalion ought to advance. The directing serjeant then takes his direction along the line which passes from himself, betwixt the heels of the advanced serjeant, and preserves such line in advancing, by constantly keeping his object in view.
When the commanding officer gives the caution, (the battalion will advance) the front directing serjeant moves out 6 accurate and exact paces in ordinary time, halts; the two other guides who were behind him, move up on each side of him, and an officer from the rear, replaces in the front rank, the leading serjeant. The centre serjeant, in moving out marches and halts on his own observed points, and the two other serjeants dress and square themselves exactly by him. If the commanding officer is satisfied, that the centre serjeant has moved out in the true direction, he will intimate as much; if he thinks he has swerved to right or left, he will direct him to incline to that side, the smallest degree possible, in order thereby to change his direction, and to take new points on the ground, towards the opposite hand.
The line of direction being thus ascertained, at the word march, the whole battalion instantly step off, and without turning the head, eyes are glanced towards the colors in the front rank; the replacing officer betwixt the colors, preserves, during the movement, his exact distance of 6 paces from the advanced serjeant, and is the guide of the battalion. The centre advanced serjeant is answerable for the direction, and the equal cadence and length of step; to these objects he alone attends, while the other two, scrupulously conforming to his position, maintain their parallelism to the front of the battalion, and thereby present an object, to which it ought to move square: they are not to suffer any other considerations to distract their attention. They must notice and conform to the direction of the commander only, and if any small alteration in their position be ordered, the alteration must be gradually and cooly made.
These are the essential points, which the guiding serjeants must be rendered perfect in, and to which every commanding officer will pay the most minute attention. With respect to the officers in the ranks, they can only be observant of their own personal exactness of march, and must consider themselves, as forming part with the aggregate of the men, subject to the same principles of movement, and in no shape or sense independent of them. They may attend to dress their companies by looking along the front, or by calling to the individuals who compose it. By so doing they must not destroy the exact parallelism of the rank they stand in, nor derange the march: the care of correcting any errors in the front line, belongs to the officers in the rear.
Well-trained soldiers, indeed, know the remedy that is required, and will gradually apply it.
The colors, as far as their natural weight and casualties of the weather will admit, must be carried uniformly and upright, thereby to facilitate the moving and dressing of the line. But it frequently happens in windy weather, and in movements over rough ground, that very little dependence can be placed on the officer who carries them, for a true direction, or an equal and cadence step. On these occasions, and indeed on all others, the men must on no account turn their heads to the colors. They must, on the contrary, keep their shoulders square to the front, and depend principally on the light touch of the elbow, together with an occasional glance of the eye, and the accuracy of step, for their dressing. On the light touch of the elbow, and a regular cadenced step, the chief dependence must be placed: for if the men be often permitted to glance at the centre, they will, by so doing, insensibly contract that habit, abandon the touch of the elbow, shorten or perhaps lose the cadence step, and in proportion, as the files which are removed from the centre, adopt that method, the line itself will gradually assume a concave form, by the flanks bending inwards.
When any waving, or fluctuation in the march, is produced by an inequality of step, the major and adjutant, who from their situation are particularly calculated to correct the irregularity, will immediately apprize the companies in fault, and cooly caution the others that are well in their true line, not to participate of the error.
When a company has lost the step, (a circumstance which frequently happens) the supernumerary officer of that company must watch a seasonable moment to suggest a change of step, in which operation, he will be assisted by the supernumerary serjeants. For it must be an invariable rule among officers in the ranks, never to deviate from their own perpendicular line of march, to correct the errors of their several companies. That business belongs entirely to the major and adjutant, who are occasionally assisted by the supernumeraries, in the manner just mentioned.
It very often happens, that a central division by bulging out, may make a flank of a battalion appear to have lost ground, when the fault in reality arises from that division, either stepping out too far, or from it being warped towards the colors, and thereby preventing the flank from being seen.
All changes and corrections that are judged necessary to be made, in any part of a battalion, during its march in line, must be effected gradually. Any abrupt alteration would unavoidably produce a waving, which must be felt in every part. The mounted officers only, with the imperceptible aid of the supernumeraries, can alone point out and correct such faults.
The flanks are not, on any account, to be kept back; much less are they to be advanced before the centre, since in either case, the distance of files must be lost, and the battalion will not be covering its true ground. The commanding officer of every battalion, will easily perceive this defect, by casting his eye along the line, which must soon acquire a concave or convex shape, unless the beginning of each inaccuracy be studiously attended to, by the necessary officers.—The two officers who are on the two flanks of the battalion, being unconfined by the rank, and not liable to be influenced by any floating that may arise, by preserving an accurate step, and having a general attention to the colors, and to the proper line which the battalion should be in, with respect to the advanced directors, will very much contribute towards preserving the flanks in their due position. When either of them observes that a line, drawn from himself, through the centre of the battalion, passes considerably before the other flank, he may conclude, that he is himself too much retired; when such line passes behind that flank, he may be certain that he is too much advanced; he will, therefore, regulate himself accordingly. When the battalion in march is convex, the wings must gain the straight line of the centre, by bringing up the outward shoulder; and it must be strongly impressed upon the soldier’s mind, that in all situations of movement, by advancing or keeping back the shoulder as ordered, the most defective dressing will be gradually and smoothly remedied; whereas sudden jerks and quick alterations break the line, and eventually produce disorder.
It must be generally remarked, that the rear ranks which were closed up before the march began, are to move at the lock step, and not be allowed to open during the march. The correct movement of the battalion depends much on their close order.
In the march in line, arms are always to be carried shouldered. Supported arms are only allowed when the battalion is halted, or advanced in column; but if this indulgence were allowed in line, when the most perfect precision is required, the distance of files would not be preserved, and slovenliness, inaccuracy, and disorder, must inevitably take place.
To change direction on the centre in March, is to correct any floating of the line, occasioned by the opening or closing of the flanks, by ordering a section or central platoon to quarter wheel to right or left. At this command the guiding Serjeant making an almost imperceptible change of his position, and of his points, and the colors in the battalion, when they have advanced 6 paces to his ground, conforming to it, the whole will, by degrees, gain a new direction. Every change of direction made in this manner, must produce a kind of wheel of the battalion, on its centre, one wing gradually giving back, and the other as gradually advancing, an attention which the commander must be careful to see observed.
When the battalion which has marched in perfect order, arrives on its ground, it keeps the marked time until it is dressed, and receives the word halt, the step which is then taking is finished, and the whole halt. Eyes are cast to the centre, and the commanding officer places himself close to the rear rank, in order to see whether the battalion be sufficiently dressed, and in a direction perfectly parallel to the one it quitted.
When the battalion is advancing in line for any considerable distance, or moving up in parade, the music may be allowed at intervals, to play for a few seconds only, and the drums in two divisions to roll, but the wind instruments are alone permitted to play. When the line is retiring, the music are never to play.
To march by any one face, the square or oblong having previously been formed by the 4th, 5th, and 6th, companies of a regular battalion standing fast. Under these circumstances, the side which is to lead is announced; the colors move up behind its centre; the opposite side faces about: and the two flank-sides wheel up by sub-divisions, so as to stand each in open column, The square marches, two sides in line, and by their centre; and two sides in open column, which cover, and dress to their inward flanks on which they wheeled up carefully preserving their distances. The square halts, and when ordered to front square, the sub-divisions in column immediately wheel back, and form their sides, and the side which faced about again faces outwards.
To March by the right front angle. When the perfect square is to march by one of its angles, in the direction of its diagonal, a caution is given by which angle the movement is to be made, and the two sides that form it stand fast, while the other two sides face about. The whole then by sub-divisions, wheel up one-eighth of a circle, two sides to the right, and two sides to the left, and are thus parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the direction in which they are to move, the pivot-flanks being in this manner placed on the sides of the square, each side being thus in echellon, and the colors behind the leading angle, the whole are out in march, carefully preserving the distances they wheeled at, and from the flanks to which they wheeled.
When the oblong marches by one of its angles, its sub-divisions perform the same operation of wheeling up, each the eighth of the circle; but its direction of march will not be in the diagonal of the oblong, but in that of a square, viz. of the line which equally bisects the right angle.
It will be remembered, that the angular march of the square or oblong, may be made in any other direction, to the right or left of the above one; but in such case the sub-divisions of the two opposite sides, will have to wheel up more than the eighth of the circle, in order to stand as before, perpendicular to the new direction. The sum of these two wheels will always amount to that of a quarter circle, and their difference will vary as the new line departs, more or less, from the equal bisecting line; this will be known by the first wheeling up the two angular divisions, till they stand perpendicular with the new direction, and then ordering all the others to conform accordingly. This movement is very beautiful in the execution, but cannot be made with any degree of accuracy, unless the perpendicular situation of the division is correctly attained, and carefully preserved.
To March in open ground, so as to be prepared against the attack of cavalry. In order to execute this movement, with some degree of security, one or more battalions may move in column of companies at quarter distances, one named company in the centre of each being ordered to keep an additional distance of 2 files; in which shape a battalion is easily managed, or directed upon any point. When the column halts, and is ordered to form the square, the first company falls back to the second, the last company closes up to the one before it: the whole companies make an interval of 2 paces in their centre, by their sub-divisions taking each one pace to the flanks; 2 officers with their serjeants, place themselves in each of their front and rear intervals; two officers with their serjeants, also take post in rear of each flank of the company, from which the additional interval has been kept; and a Serjeant takes the place of each flank front rank man of the first division, and of each flank rear rank man of the last division; all other officers, serjeants, the 4 displaced men, &c. assemble in the centre of the companies, which are to form the flank faces. Those last named companies having been told off, each in 4 sections, wheel up by sections, 2 to the right, and 2 to the left; (the 2 rear companies at the same time closing up, and facing outwards,) the inner sections then close forward to their front ones, which dress up with the extremities of the front and rear companies, and 4 on each flank of the second companies, from the front and from the rear; Face outwards!—The whole thus stand faced outwards and formed 6 deep, with two officers and their serjeants in the middle of each face, to command it; all the other officers, as well as serjeants, &c. are in the void space in the centre, and the files of the officers in the faces, may be completed from serjeants, &c. in the interior, in such manner as the commandant may direct. The mounted field officers, must pass into the centre of the column, by the rear face, if necessary, opening from its centre 2 paces and again closing in.
When ordered only, the 2 first ranks all round the column, will kneel and the front rank slope their bayonets, the 2 next ranks will fire standing, and all the others will remain in reserve; the file coverers behind each officer of the sides will give back, and enable him to stand in the third rank.
March resumed under the same circumstances. On receiving the cautionary word of command, the several sections that had closed up, fall to their distances; the sections then wheel back into column; the officers, serjeants, &c. take their places on the flanks; and when the column is again put in motion, the companies that closed up, successively take their proper distances.
It will be remembered that unless the companies are above 16 file, they cannot be divided into 4 sections; so that in this case, a section may consist of 4 file or eight men, if therefore, they are under 16 file, and told off in sections of 5 or 3, the column will march at the distance of a section; and in forming the square, the 2 outward sections will wheel up, but the 3d one will stand fast, and afterwards, by dividing itself to right and left, will form a 4th rank to the others; in resuming column the outward sections wheel back, and the rear of the centre sections easily recover their places: as to all other circumstances, they remain the same.
The March, when applied to the movement of an army, consists in its arrangement with respect to the number and composition of columns, the precautions to be taken, the posts to be seized upon to cover it, &c. which arrangement must depend upon circumstances. The following are general rules:
The routes must be constantly opened to the width of 60 feet.
If the march be through an open country, without defiles, the cavalry march by divisions of squadrons, and the infantry by platoons or half companies.
In an inclosed country, or such as is intersected by hollow ways, or other defiles, the march must be by sections of 6 (by the heads of the section after facing to left, being wheeled to the right) or more files in the infantry, and ranks by threes or by twos in the cavalry, and the artillery must move in a single file, because the frequent breaking off and forming up again, may retard the march, and fatigue the troops.
In marches made parallel to, or with a view of gaining the enemy’s flank, divisions must preserve their wheeling distances, and the column must cover the same length of ground which it would occupy in line of battle; in marches directly perpendicular to the enemy’s position, the column must be closed up to half or quarter distance, in order to move in as compact a body as possible.
The pivot files must attend to preserve their distances exactly, each following precisely the path pointed out by the one before him; and keeping the regular marching step, by which means, upon a signal being given, the division is in a moment in order. The leader or guide of the pivot file may be occasionally changed.
At the head of every column, whether composed of infantry or cavalry, a well instructed non-commissioned officer must march as guide. He must carefully keep the regular step of the march, to which the troops are drilled, and upon this man the regular pace of the column will depend; by this method two essential points are ensured; one, that every column moves in exactly the same time, and of course enables the officer commanding to calculate the march with certainty; another that it ensures the troops not being over hurried, which they are more especially liable to be when cavalry leads the column; two non-commissioned officers should be appointed for this purpose, who must relieve each other.
At the head of every column of march, there must be a considerable number of pioneers to clear the rout.
Guns or carriages breaking down and disabled, are immediately to be removed out of the line of march, so as not to interrupt its progress.
Officers are most positively enjoined at all times to remain with their divisions, whether marching or halted.
The commanding officers of regiments must pay the greatest attention to their corps whilst passing a defile, and proper officers should be left to assist in this most essential part of the conduct of marches.
It is a standing rule in column, that every regiment should march with the same front, that the regiment does which precedes it, right or left.
No alteration should be made in any circumstance of the march, which is to be taken up from the regiment in front, until arrived exactly upon the same ground upon which that regiment made the alteration.
No officer should ride between the divisions on a march, except general and staff officers, the execution of whose duty renders it necessary for them to pass in all directions.
When a battalion passes a defile, and there is no room for the officers to ride on the flanks of their divisions, half of those who are mounted pass at the head of the battalion, and half in the rear.
All breakings off to enter a defile, and all formations again when passed through it, must be done extremely quick, by the parts that double, or that form up.
A sufficient number of faithful and intelligent guides must always be ready to march at the head of the battalions and columns.
March of the line, in a collective sense of the word, is a military movement, executed upon established principles, governed by local circumstances, and influenced by the nature of the service for which it is performed. After a general has obtained an accurate knowlege of the country through which his army is to move, his next care must be the arrangement of all its different component parts, with which he will form his column of route.
March of the Column of Route. The order in which a battalion should at all times move; that the columns of an army should perform their marches; that an enemy should be approached; and that safety can be ensured to the troops in their transitions from one point to another is in columns of divisions, and never on a less front than 6 files where the formation is 3 deep, or 4 files where it is 2 deep, nor does any advantage arise from such column, if it is an open column, exceeding 16 or 24 files in front, where a considerable space is to be gone over.
At no time whatever ought a column of manœuvre, or of route, to occupy a greater extent of ground in marching than what is equal to its front when in order of battle; no situation can require it as an advantage. Therefore, the marching of great bodies in file, where improper extension is unavoidable, must be looked upon as an unmilitary practice, and ought only to be had recourse to when unavoidably necessary. Where woods, inclosures, and bad or narrow routes absolutely require a march in file, there is no remedy for the delay in forming, and man may be obliged to come up after man; and if circumstances admit, and there are openings for their passage, the divisions or platoons may be faced to the left and wheeled to the right, and severally marched to the same front; but these circumstances, which should be regarded as exceptions from the primary and desired order of march on a greater front, should tend the more to enforce the great principle of preventing improper distances, and of getting out of so weak a situation as soon as the nature of the ground will allow of the front of the march being increased.
In common route marching, the battalion or more considerable column may be carried on at a natural pace of about 75 steps in a minute, or near two miles and an half in an hour: the attention of the soldier is allowed to be relaxed, he moves without the restraint of cadence of step, or carried arms; rear ranks are opened to one or two paces; files are loosened but never confounded; in no situation is the ordered distance between divisions ever to be increased, and the proper flank officers and under officers remain answerable for them.
If the column is halted, the whole must be put in march at the same time. The movement of the head division must be steady and equal; the descending of heights must not be hurried, that the part of the column ascending may properly keep up. Alterations occasioned by the windings of the route are executed without losing distance. Soldiers are not to break to avoid mud or small spots of water. The guides and pivots must trace out such a path for themselves as will best avoid small obstructions, and the men of the division will open from, and not press upon their pivots. When platoon officers are permitted to be mounted, each will remain on the flank of his division watching over its exactness, and that the proper distance of march is kept by the flank pivot and guide under the officer appointed to preserve it.
Where the arrival of a column at a given point is to be perfectly punctual, in that case the distance being known, the head, must move at an equal cadenced step, and the rear must conform; and a guide, expressly appointed, will, at the head of the column, take such step as the nature of the route shall permit the column to comply with.
Nothing so much fatigues troops in a considerable column, and is more to be avoided than an inequality of march. One great reason is, that the rear of the column frequently and unnecessarily deviates from the line which its head traces out; and in endeavouring to regain that line, and their first distances, the divisions must of course run or stop, and again take up their march. It is unnecessary to attempt the same scrupulous observances in common route marching, as when going to enter into the alignement; but even a general attention to this circumstance will in that case prevent unnecessary winding in the march, which tends to prolong it, and to harass the soldier.
When the probable required formation of the line will be to a flank, then the column of march is an open one, and except the cannon, no impediment or circumstance whatever must be allowed betwixt the divisions or in the intervals of battalions. When cannon can possibly move on the flank of the battalion, they ought, and mounted officers or bat horses must not be permitted between the divisions. If the probable formation may be to the front, then distances are more closed up, and bat horses, &c. may be allowed between the brigades of a column, but not between the battalions of a brigade.
It is always time well employed to halt the head of a considerable column, and enlarge an opening, or repair a bad step in the road, rather than to diminish the front, or lengthen out the line of march. No individual is to presume to march on a less front than what the leader of the column directs, and all doublings must therefore come from the head only. The preservation of the original front of march, on all occasions, is a point of the highest consequence, and it is a most meritorious service in any officer to prevent all unnecessary doublings, or to correct them as soon as made; no advantage can arrive from them, and therefore each commanding officer, when he arrives near the cause, should be assured that it is necessary before he permits his battalion so to double: on all occasions he should continue his march on the greatest front, that, without crowding, the road or openings will allow, although the regiment or divisions before him may be marching on a narrower front.
All openings made for the march of a column should be sufficient for the greatest front on which it is to march, they should be all of the same width, otherwise each smaller one becomes a defile.
At all points of increasing or diminishing the front of the march, an intelligent officer, per battalion or brigade, should be stationed to see that it is performed with celerity; and the commandant of a considerable column should have constant reports and inspections made that the column is moving with proper regularity; he should have officers in advance to apprize him of difficulties to be avoided, or obstacles to be passed, and should himself apply every proper means to obviate such as may occur in the march. (And at no time are such helps more necessary than when regiments are acting in line on broken ground, and when their movements are combined with those of others.) When the column arrives near its object of formation or manœuvre, the strictest attention of officers and men is to be required, and each individual is to be at his post.
The great principle on all occasions of diminishing or increasing the front of the column in march is, that such part as doubles or forms up shall slacken or quicken its pace, as is necessary to conform to the part which has no such operation to perform, but which continues its uniform march, without the least alteration, as if no such process was going on; and if this is observed, distances can never be lost, or the column lengthened out. Unless the unremitting attention and intelligence of officers commanding battalions and their divisions are given to this object, disorder and constant stops and runs take place in the column; the soldier is improperly and unnecessarily harassed; disease soon gains ground in a corps thus ill conducted, which is not to be depended on in any combined arrangement, is unequal to any effort when its exertion may be required, and is soon ruined from a neglect of the first and most important of military duties.
The most important exercise that troops can attend to is the march in column of route. No calculation can be made on columns which do not move with an ascertained regularity, and great fatigue arises to the soldier. A general cannot depend on execution, and therefore can make no combination of time or distance in the arrival of columns at their several points. In many situations an improperly extended column will be liable to be beat in detail, and before it can be formed. Troops that are seldom assembled for the manœuvres of war, can hardly feel the necessity of the modes in which a considerable body of infantry must march and move.
The distance of columns from each other, during a march, depends on the circumstances of ground, and the object of that march, with regard to future formations. The more columns in which a considerable corps marches, the less extent in depth will it take up, the less frequent will be its halts, and the more speedily can it form in order of battle to the front.
On the combinations of march, and on their execution by the component parts of the body, does the success of every military operation or enterprize depend. To fulfil the intentions of the chief every concurrent exertion of the subordinate officer is required, and the best calculated dispositions, founded on local knowlege, must fail, if there is a want of that punctuality of execution which every general must trust to, and has a right to expect from the leaders of his columns.
The composition of the columns of an army must always depend on the nature of the country and the objects of the movement. Marches made parallel to the front of the enemy will generally be performed by the lines on which the army is encamped, each marching by its flank, and occupying when in march the same extent of ground as when formed in line. Marches made perpendicular to the front of the enemy, either advancing or retiring, will be covered by strong van or rearguards. The columns will be formed of considerable divisions of the army, each generally composed both of cavalry and infantry: they will move at half or quarter distance, and the nature of the country will determine which kind of force precedes.
During a march to the front, the separation of the heads of the columns must unavoidably be considerable; but, when they approach the enemy, they must be so regulated and directed as to be able to occupy the intermediate spaces, if required to form in line. Some one column must determine the relative situation of the others, and divisions must be more closed up than in a march to a flank, and in proportion as they draw near to the enemy must exactness and attention increase. The general, in consequence of the observations he has made, will determine on his disposition: the columns which are now probably halted and collected will be subdivided and multiplied; each body will be directed on its point of formation, and the component parts of each will in due time disengage from the general column, and form in line.
The safety of marches to the rear must depend on particular dispositions, on strong covering or rear guards, and on the judicious choice of such posts as will check the pursuit of the enemy. In these marches to front or rear, the divisions of the second line generally follow or lead those of the first, and all their formations are relative thereto. The heavy artillery and carriages of an army form a particular object of every march, and must be directed according to circumstances of the day. The safety of the march, by the arrangement of detachments and posts to cover the front, rear, or flanks of the columns, depends also on many local and temporary reasons, but form an essential part of the general disposition.
March in line, must be uniformly steady, without floating, opening, or closing.
March in file, must be close, firm, and without lengthening out.
To March past, is to advance in open or close column, in ordinary or slow time, with a firm and steady step, erect person, the eye glanced towards the reviewing general.
The ordered or cadenced March.—The prescribed movements in military tactics. All military movements are intended to be made with the greatest quickness consistent with order, regularity, and without hurry or fatigue to the troops. The uniformity of position, and the cadence and length of step, produce that equality and freedom of march, on which every thing depends, and to which the soldier must be carefully trained, nor suffered to join the battalion, until he be thoroughly perfected in this most essential duty. Many different times of march must not be required of the soldier. These two must suffice.
Ordinary or quick time, and slow or parade time. The first 75 steps of 24 inches in a minute; the second of 60 steps of 24 inches in a minute.
In order to accustom soldiers to accurate movements, plummets, which vibrate the required times or march in a minute, have been recommended: musquet balls suspended by a string which is not subject to stretch, and on which are marked the different required lengths, will answer the above purpose. The length of the plummet is to be measured from the point of suspension, to the centre of the ball.
The several lengths are:—
| steps | in. | hun. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ordinary or quick time in a minute | 75 | — | 24 | 96 |
| Accelerated time | 108 | — | 12 | 3 |
Marching by files, is to march with the narrowest front, except that of rank entire or Indian file, which bodies of men are susceptible of.
The strictest observance of all the rules for marching, is particularly necessary in marching by files, which is first to be taught at the ordinary time, or 75 steps in the minute, and afterwards in accelerated time, or 108 steps in the minute.
In file marching, particularly at the drill, the whole of a company or squad, having been previously faced, are immediately to step off together, gaining at the very first step 24 inches.
The first adoption of file marching has been attributed to the Prussians, and the advocates for what is called the Ordre mince des Prussiens, the thin or narrow order, have in contradistinction named the ordre profond, the deep order, or column, the French order. According to a very ingenious and lively writer, who has had frequent occasions to see the practice of both orders, the ordre mince or file marching, may be very useful during a march, but the deep order or column ought only to be depended upon in manœuvring before an enemy.
To March according to time and measure, (marcher en cadence, Fr.) Marshal Saxe, in page 23, art. 6. of the folio edition of his Reveries or Memoires sur l’Art de la Guerre, is of opinion, that marching to time and measure constitutes one of the essential requisites in war; he calls it indeed the principal one to be observed by troops who are going into action. By marching according to time and measure, we understand, that regular movement of a large body of men whose steps are cadenced and uniformly the same, and which are kept so by the artificial aid of music.
The marshal observes, that although military men will enter into much desultory conversation respecting the tactic, (la tactique) of the ancients, they seldom or ever understand the real definition of the word. It is, in fact, so much corrupted in modern times, that what really conveyed no more than a regular principle in marching, has since been made to signify the exercise and evolutions of troops. All the world know how to beat a march, without comprehending the real object, and half the world imagine, that the noise of a drum or fife is nothing more than military parade.
It is ridiculous to suppose, that martial sounds and military music, were first invented for the sole purpose of confounding each other on the day of battle. Let us indulge a better opinion of the good understanding of the ancients, particularly of the Romans, and endeavor to prove, that regularity in marching, (which depends wholly upon the cadenced step,) is the ground-work of military operations, and that nothing is more simple because it corresponds with nature. This was, in fact, the military step which the Romans brought to so great a perfection, and which has since been so closely followed by the Prussians. It was upon this principle, that marches were first devised, and that the drum was adopted to second the purposes. This is literally nothing more than a certain beat or tact, as the marshal expresses it, and which is evidently derived from the Roman word tactum, touch, and by means of which men may be taught to move in quick or slow time. As long as this principle can be followed up, the rear will never lag behind, soldiers will preserve the same step and march with the same foot; the wheelings will be made uniformly together, without confusion or delay; and the men will be less fatigued than if they were suffered to march or wheel at random. Every person of the least reflection or observation, will be convinced of the truth of this last remark. Let one man, for instance, be ordered to dance two hours, without the assistance of any sort of musical instrument, and let another, with the same bodily powers and activity, go through the same operation, during double the time accompanied by music, and let it then be determined which of the two has been most fatigued. It will evidently appear that the former has: for it is an unquestionable fact, that sounds of concord and harmony have a wonderful secret influence over the human frame, and that they render the exercises and functions of the body extremely easy. It is well known, that when the camel drivers wish to make their camels get on, they never flog or strike them with sticks, but sing, whistle, or repeat some humorous song.
Should it be asked what sort of music is best adapted to the human organs in military movements? It may safely be replied all those simple tunes which can be played by the fife and drum; I shall perhaps be told, (observes the marshal) that many men have no ear for music; this I deny, as far as the observation regards marching, which is a movement so easy to the human frame, that it comes, as it were, naturally to man. I have often remarked, that when the long roll has beat, the men in repairing to their several parades, have insensibly preserved the regular step, without knowing that they did so: nature, in fact, and instinct go together. If marching according to time and measure be considered in a mere superficial manner, the cadence step will undoubtedly appear of little importance; but if it be considered as an essential requisite to quicken or slacken the movement of troops who are going into action, it must be found an important object. No evolution, in fact, can be well done at close order without its assistance. The military step of the Romans, was the cadence or measured movement, and they were thereby enabled to march with ease upwards of 24 miles in five hours. This, however, would be looked upon as great exertion, if not fatigue, among some modern troops, although it constituted a principal part of the Roman exercise. Hence some opinion may be formed of the attention which they paid to that species of training, by which men were habituated to long marches; and this they accomplished by means of the tact or cadenced movement.
In order to prove the validity of our observations, let us, for a moment, imagine a thing which is scarcely possible to be accomplished by troops that do not march according to time and measure. Let us suppose, that two battalions, advancing to attack one another, should march up without floating, overlapping, or breaking in the least; under these circumstances, which would obtain the superiority? the one that should imprudently have commenced firing, or that which should have reserved its fire? Every intelligent and able officer will instantly determine in favor of the latter; and his decision would unquestionably be correct; for the former, besides being disheartened by seeing men advance against them with a reserved fire, would necessarily be retarded in their march in order to prime and load; and it must be evident to every man, that their antagonists would completely overthrow them by advancing with a rapid and cadenced step.
This was the plain and effectual method of the Romans. It may, perhaps, be said, that their ignorance of the use of gunpowder alters the case with respect to our manner of fighting. Let it, however, be recollected, that they fought with missile weapons, which did full as much mischief as our fire arms can produce. Gunpowder, in fact, is not so destructive as most people are apt to imagine. Few men are killed in regular fought actions, by the two armies engaging with musquetry only. Marshal Saxe does not scruple to assert, that it is impossible for a battalion of armed men to charge its enemy with vigor and effect, unless it preserve the cadenced step. For the ranks must unavoidably open during the march in line; and when the troops get within 50 or 60 paces of their opponents, the commanding officers see chasms, cry out serre, or close into the centre: and in the hurry of so doing, one rank overlaps another, and the centre itself becomes insensibly broken, standing eight or ten deep, while the wings are at two, three, or four. To remedy this defect, the whole line is halted, and if the enemy be wise enough to advance in regular order, during this operation, it is ten to one that he turns the flank of his opponent, and completely routs him. With regard to the musquetry firing, it may be laid down as a certain fact, that the mischief it does in pitched battles is more imaginary than real. It has been acknowleged by the most experienced officers, it is, indeed, positively asserted by marshal Saxe, (page 29 of the folio edition) that the closest vollies have produced little or no effect against a line of determined steady troops. I have seen, observes the marshal, a whole volley of cool directed musquetry, occasion the loss of no more than four men; while the troops against which it has been poured, have calmly marched up, reserved their fire till they got in contact with the enemy, and then amply revenged the deaths of their comrades by discharging their pieces and following up with the bayonet.
It is at this stage of the battle, that a real carnage commences, and its execution rests wholly with the victorious party; and we need scarcely add, that its success must be attributed to that composed, steady movement, or cadenced step, which enabled the troops to act together, when they came to close action. The military reader will be gratified by a perusal of two or three interesting anecdotes in pages 29, 30, 31, of the Reveries, fol. edit.
March in prolongation of the line.—This operation is gone through when a battalion standing in open column, with the pivot flanks of its divisions on the line, and advanced points being ascertained, moves forward at the word march, which is given by the commanding officer. Whenever the battalion wheels into open column, in order to prolong the line on which it was formed, and that no distant point in that prolongation is previously given, the serjeant guide of the leading company will advance 15 or 20 paces, and place himself in the line of the pivot flanks, and the leading officer will thereby (taking a line over his head) be enabled to ascertain the direction in which he is to move.
March by the inversion of files, or countermarch. A compound word signifying retrocession, backward movement, change of measures or conduct, any alteration, in fact, of an original conception or undertaking. Thus the countermarch of ideas in the mind is the precursor of the different changes made by the body. In a military sense it is variously applicable; and as every countermarch or backward movement necessarily implies a previous march, or forward movement, we shall extract under this article the most material instructions that have been published in good authors relative to the countermarch of the component parts of a battalion, &c. observing generally that the word countermarch may be applied to the most extensive scale of military operations. Thus a whole army which has advanced into an enemy’s country, is said to countermarch when it not only ceases to make progress in a forward direction, but changes its whole plan of manœuvre, and treads back the ground over which it had advanced. To countermarch in a more desultory manner, means to quit different positions by the countermarching of detached bodies, by changing their relative fronts, without abandoning the field, or scene of general operation. In order to execute such evolutions and inversions with accuracy, every battalion should be well instructed in the prescribed methods of changing front by the inversion of its files to right or left, in front or in rear of a leading division, from and on its centre.
The Countermarch by files.—According to the last printed regulations, this movement is of two kinds. Either successive (the body being halted) by each file successively turning on its own ground, the moment it is disengaged by the departure of its preceding file: or progressive (the body being in motion) by each file turning when it arrives at the point from which the leading or head file first wheeled. In the first case the body must shift its ground to a flank a space at least equal to its front: in the second it will perform this operation of the countermarch on its original ground, exchanging flanks and fronts; so that what before stood as the leading or head division will become the rear of the column; or, if in line, what was the right flank fronting one way, will still remain the right flank fronting another. In both cases the pivots are in a small degree moveable, but they must be so as little as possible, since a solid and compact inversion of the files is as requisite to a true and close formation in line or column, as the lock-step is indispensible in every other movement by files.
Countermarch by files in front of the battalion, &c. In this case the front men become the pivots, on which every successive file turns, till the rear file gets upon the identical space of ground from whence the front file first wheeled.
Countermarch by files in rear of the Battalion. In this case the rear rank men become the pivots upon similar principles of movement. All countermarches of a battalion or greater body, must be made in ordinary time; of smaller divisions in general in quick time. The observations which have already been made, under the head [files], with respect to a solidity and quickness of movement in each wheeling, and to an unity of step, (allowing for an increased length of it in the wheeling men) are especially applicable to the countermarch by files.
The Countermarch of a battalion from both flanks on its centre, by files. In order to effect this movement and change of formation, the wings face outwards from the colors, which stand fast, and a serjeant remains at the point of each wing in order to mark the ground. At the word march, the right wing files successively close behind the rear rank, and the left wing before the front rank of the battalion, till they arrive at the points where each other stood. They then halt, cover, and front by word of command, looking to the colors which take their places. The commanding officer dresses the line if necessary.
The Countermarch of the battalion, from its centre, and on its centre, by files. The wings face inwards to the colors, which stand fast, and a serjeant remains to mark each flank. The whole then take three side steps to the right, by word of command, in order to disengage the centre. At the second word of command, the whole move on, and each file successively wheels into the centre as it arrives at and beyond the colors. As soon as each company is in the line from the colors to the flank serjeant, its leading officer fronts it. When the whole is formed, the colors countermarch, and every company dresses to the colors till otherwise ordered. It must be remembered, as a general rule, that in the countermarch from both flanks, no part of the battalion is fronted till the whole is on its ground. In the countermarch from the centre, the battalion begins instantly and successively to front by companies, as each is ready and on its ground.
The Countermarch by companies or subdivisions, on the centre of a battalion or line. Although this maybe done by files, it has been allowed, that on account of the unavoidable openings which always occur in file marching, a battalion, or larger body, will be best enabled to execute that movement with quickness and rapidity, by the march of columns of companies or subdivisions in front. To effect this object, the battalion is cautioned to countermarch from its centre by subdivisions; one or two central subdivisions having wheeled the half circle upon their centre point, or countermarched into the new line, so that the front rank stands precisely where the rear rank did: one of the wings then faces to the right about, and both wheel inwards by subdivisions: they march along the rear and front of the formed division, and successively wheel up into their respective places on each side of those already arranged in the line. The subdivisions which wheel up to the rear, successively mark time, when they reach their ground. The officers who lead them must be particularly attentive to their wheeling points, by being at their proper front rank when they halt their subdivisions. They would otherwise pass the rear, and disfigure the formation.
If it be intended that the front rank of the directing company or subdivision, should stand on the identical line which it occupied before the countermarch, it will be placed in that direction. In that case, after the subdivision has wheeled inwards, the wing which is to march in rear of it, must shift a few paces to the flank, in order to get clear of the rear ranks, and then proceed.
When one flank of a battalion or line is to occupy the spot where the other one stands, its most expeditious movement to arrive at it, will be along the prolongation of the line. If the flanks are to exchange places with each other, the countermarch on the centre, or on a flank, is the best method by which that exchange can be effected. The single battalion may do it by files, if its ground be confined, but a line must do it by countermarch of divisions in open column.
The Countermarch in column, is the inversion of the different files which constitute the several divisions, subdivisions, or sections of which the column is composed. By which inversion the front of the column is completely reversed.
To Countermarch a column, the right in front, is to change the front, or aspect of the leading company, subdivision, or section, and to place it in the rear of its perpendicular formation. After the caution has been given to countermarch by files the whole will face to the right, by word of command. Each company or leading officer or serjeant, will immediately quit the pivot, and place himself on the right of his company, subdivision, or section, whilst his covering serjeant advances to the spot which he has quitted, and faces to the right about. At the word march the whole move. The leader in the first instance wheels short round to the right, and proceeds, followed by his files of men, until he has placed his pivot front rank man close to his serjeant, who remains immoveable. As soon as the leading officer or serjeant of each company, subdivision, or section, has countermarched the extent of his front, he instantly gives the words mark time, so as to have it squared and closed in to the right, which is now become the pivot flank, and on which the officer or serjeant replaces the person that had advanced to ascertain the exact point of perpendicular formation; and who falls back behind the rear rank; and when dressed, halt. By means of this inversion of the files, the column will face to its rear, each company, subdivision, or section, having its original follower its head or leading object.
To Countermarch a column, the left in front, is to make the left company, subdivision, or section, which is now in the rear of the column, become the head of it. After the caution, to countermarch by files, has been given, at the word left face, the whole face to the left, the officer or serjeant moves to the left of his company, subdivision, or section, and the person who has covered him, moves to his place, and faces about. At the word march, the officer turns short to the left, and proceeds as before until he is fixed on the left, which is now become the pivot flank, as the column stands with its right in front. In all countermarches, the facing is always to that hand which is not the pivot, but which is to become such. The countermarch of each division, subdivision, or section, separately on its own ground, is an evolution of great utility on many occasions. It enables a column which has its right in front, and is marching in an alignement, to return along that same line, and to take such new positions in it as circumstances may require, without inverting or altering the proper front of the line. In many situations of forming from column into line, it becomes a previous operation which ought not to be dispensed with.
When a column countermarches by divisions, each on its own ground, unless the divisions be equal, the distances after the countermarch will not be the true wheeling distances, but will be such as are equal to the front of the preceding division, and therefore the true distances must be regained before the divisions can wheel up into line with the accuracy and completion of space which are required.
Marching past by the cavalry.—At a review, or inspection, regiments, brigades, or lines, do not march past in column of squadrons, but in column of half squadrons.
In passing by in half squadrons at open ranks, the commander of the squadron will be in front of his leading half squadron, covered by the standard, with which the other officers of the half squadron dress. In the second half squadron all its officers are in front, and in one line. The trumpets are all in front of the regiment, and when they have passed, wheel quickly round, and remain posted opposite the general, and sound till the regiment has passed; when they cease, (and those of the succeeding regiments commence) follow their regiment, and regain its front.
The half squadrons, or divisions, will dress, and cover to the passing hand; after the successive wheel, which brings them on the line of passing, they will open ranks, 60 or 70 yards, before they approach the general, and close them about the same distance after passing, and they will continue so to dress, and preserve the line, till each division wheels at the point, where the head one has changed its direction: there, and not before, the dressing and covering will be made to the proper pivot flank of divisions.
The whole pass, (whether at open or close ranks) as one column; nor is any division, squadron, or regiment, to increase, or alter the distances it possessed, at the moment it wheeled from line into column.
In passing by half squadrons or divisions, at close ranks, the standard may take the centre of the front rank of the leading one. The commanding officer is before it, other officers are at their squadron posts, and care is taken, that there shall be an officer on each passing flank.
At the drawing of swords, and general salute, on the general’s approach, the trumpets all sound the parade march. When the general passes along the line, each regiment successively sounds its own march, or such other as it shall be ordered, and the same is done by each regiment when it passes the general.
The general orders and field regulations have prescribed the soundings with which all generals, and other persons, are to be received; when they pass along the line, or the line before them, the trumpet soundings will be the same as when the president or governor of a state appears.
The trumpet flourish, in drawing swords, is used regimentally on their own ground, and is the sounding used in receiving a major general; it is repeated twice for a lieutenant-general, and to all superior generals the march is sounded.
In parade, to receive the president, or the commanding general, the trumpets are assembled on the right of their regiments, (whether single or in line) in two ranks, and the staff beyond them.—The staff does not march past.
On all occasions of exercise, and manœuvre, trumpets are behind their troops and squadrons, unless otherwise detached.
If the president sees a brigade, he will be received at the point of his approach in the manner already directed, by the general commanding it. If a single regiment, in the same manner by its commanding officer.
After passing in parade, and in movements, and exercise, it will depend on the commanding officer of the regiment, to place the other field officers at the head of squadrons, or to assign them the superintendance of wings, in order the better to assist.
In general, regiments manœuvre at too great a distance from the person inspecting them; they ought to terminate many of their movements and formations within 20 or 30 yards of where he stands.
Cavalry regiments, when dismounted, and formed in line, will have an interval of six paces between each.
When the regiments dismount, field officers, and adjutants, do not dismount, but remain on horseback.
When the dismounted line advances in front, at close ranks, general officers, and commanding officers of regiments, are behind the centre; other field officers are behind the flanks of the battalion.
When the dismounted line is at open ranks, field officers are on the flanks of the battalion, in a line with the men, and general officers, and commanding officers of regiments, are in front.
In passing on foot, all mounted officers are in front of the regiment, except the adjutant, who is in the rear.
General principles in Marching.—Where a large body is marching in column, or columns, through narrow ground, and when its parts are to be assembled beyond the defile in several lines, in a compact manner behind each other—such parts are not to begin to assemble when the leading one does, but the head of each line is successively first to come up to the ground on which it is to stand, and when it there halts, its proper followers (and not before) move into line with it, and thereby do not impede the bodies that are behind them, which are still in the defile, and are to perform the same operation.
When a new line to be marched, or formed upon, is taken up by guides, commanding officers of squadrons, of regiments, and all other persons whatever, will take care that during such operation they do not stand upon, or obscure the direction of that line. Too many guides should not be thrown out. In movements in column, commanding officers of squadrons, and regiments, should keep wide of the flanks, that the pivot leaders may more correctly follow each other, and that they themselves may the better see, and distinguish the relative situation of the whole.
We shall conclude our remarks on the principles of marching, by quoting a remarkable passage out of marshal Saxe’s Reveries, which may serve to undeceive many with regard to the over-rated importance that is given to the expert handling of the firelock.
He justly remarks, that the manual and platoon exercise does extremely well to render the soldier easy under arms, but it should not engross the whole of our attention on that account. It is, perhaps, of all others, the least important branch in military acquirements, after the soldier has been taught to carry his firelock on his left shoulder, to prime and load with accuracy and dispatch, and to fire in platoon.
When once a soldier has been rendered master of these essential requisites, (and it requires little to make him so) the full possession of his legs and feet becomes the principal object of his attention.
The secret of all manœuvres, and the consequent issue of engagements, depend upon the legs. Hence the necessity of moving to time and measure, and the wise practice of teaching the cadenced step. Whoever attempts to drill a recruit without paying attention to this important object, must be ignorant of the first elements of war.
Il n’en est pas seulement aux elemens a qu’on appelle le métier de la guerre.—He does not even know the first rudiments of what is called the art of war.
These observations ought to be strongly impressed upon the minds of those persons who are too apt to devote all their time to the firelock, and consequently to neglect the more necessary object of marching, &c. Officers, in particular, should be taught to feel the justness of those principles of movement, by which large bodies are enabled to act together. The motions of the firelock are easily learned, but the various changes to which the human frame must submit in marching, require something more than mere mechanical operation.
March of a train of artillery.—It has been observed in page 192, of Muller’s Treatise of Artillery, that the French march their artillery much in the same manner that the British do, with this difference, that the French artillery is divided into brigades. In page 191 of Muller’s treatise on Artillery, we find the following detail of a march of English artillery:—
1. A guard of the army. 2. The company of miners, with their tumbrel of tools, drawn by two horses. 3. The regiments of artillery front guard. 4. The kettle drums, drawn by four horses, and two trumpeters on horseback. 5. The flag gun drawn by 17 horses, and five twelve pounders more, by 15 horses each. 6. Eleven waggons with stores for the said guns, and one spare, by three horses each. 7. Six nine pounders, drawn by eleven horses each. 8. Nine waggons with stores for the said guns, and one spare, by three horses each. 9. Five long six pounders, by seven horses each. 10. Seven waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one, drawn by three horses each. 11. Five long six pounders, drawn by seven horses each. 12. Six waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one, by three horses each. 13. Four long six pounders, by seven horses each. 14. Five waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one, by three horses each. 15. Two howitzers, by five horses each. 16. Four waggons with stores for ditto, by three horses. 17. Six short six pounders, by two horses each. 18. Three waggons with stores for ditto, by three horses each. 19. Six royals, with their stores, in four waggons, by three horses each. 20. One 12 pounder carriage, by seven horses; one nine pounder carriage, by five; one long six pounder carriage, by five; two short, by two; one short and one long limber, by one horse; and two forges, by two each. 21. Twenty ammunition carts, by three horses each. 22. Nineteen waggons with musquet cartridges, and one spare, by three horses each. 23. Thirty waggons with powder, and one spare, by three horses each. 24. Thirty waggons with musquet shot, and one spare, by three horses each. 25. Twenty-five waggons with intrenching tools, and one spare, by three horses each. 26. Twenty-five waggons with small stores, and one spare, by three each. 27. Six waggons for artificers, with four spare, each by three. 28. Thirty-two baggage waggons, nine by four horses, and 23 by three. 29. Thirty pontoons, and three spare carriages, each by seven. 30. The artillery rear guard. 31. The rear guard from the army.
It must be observed that there are parties of gunners and matrosses marching with the guns: there are likewise some parties of pioneers interspersed here and there to mend the roads, when they are spoiled by the fore carriages.
We shall now present our military readers with an extract from a French work, which has appeared since the Memoires D’Artillerie, par M. Surirey de Saint Remy, and which may put them more especially in possession of the French manner of marching their artillery, than Mr. Muller has afforded.—We must however, at the same time, refer them for more copious information to the third volume of Saint Remy, page 187 to 201.
In the last edition of the Dictionnaire Militaire, the following observations are made on this important operation.
When the troops in the advanced camp of the army begin to assemble, the commanding officer of the artillery repairs to head-quarters, and communicates with the commander in chief.—Utensils, stores, and ammunition, are forwarded to the camp, and every soldier is provided with ten or twelve rounds of ball cartridge, before he commences his march against the enemy.—These articles having been distributed, the waggons and horses return to the train of artillery, and proper dispositions are made to connect the whole line of march.
The horses belonging to the train are narrowly inspected by the lieutenant-general of artillery, who marks or rejects them according to his judgment, and sends one report of their actual state to government, and another to the master general of the ordnance. He gives directions to the captain-general of the waggon-train to arrange matters in such a manner with each provincial commissary belonging to the park, that the different captains may know what brigades fall under their immediate superinterdance. The latter must not on any account leave the brigades with which they are entrusted during the march.
The ammunition waggons having been loaded, and the horses harnessed in, they are distributed into different brigades, and put in motion to join the main army, according to the following order:—
The first thing that precedes the march of a regular train of artillery, is a waggon loaded with utensils, such as spades, pick-axes, shovels, mattocks, wooden spades, with iron bottoms; grapples, hatchets, &c. These are under the care of a waggon-master, who is attended by forty pioneers to clear and point out the way.
In the rear of this waggon follow four four pounders, mounted on their several carriages, with every necessary appendage on each side, loaded with ball, and the cannoneers ready, each having a lighted match in his hand, and two steel prickers or dégorgeoirs. Next to these is a waggon loaded with different articles of ordnance, containing likewise one barrel of gunpowder, one ditto of ball, a bundle of matches, weighing together about fifty pounds, about fifty balls of the calibre of the guns and five or six sets stout drag-ropes or bricoles.
The military chest, and the king’s or royal stores, generally accompany this small train, when the army consists of one column only.
The pontoons, with every thing belonging to them, follow next; and after them the crab with its appendages, accompanied by the captain of artificers, with a certain number of carpenters.
Next follow the heavy ordnance.
Those pieces of artillery which are mounted, follow each other according to their several calibres, with all their necessary implements for service hanging on each side.
Then come the frames belonging to the pieces of heavy ordnance, with their implements, &c. placed upon them. The mortars follow next.
After these follow the caissons belonging to the escorts of the park of artillery, military chest, quarter-master general, and captain of artificers or workmen, in which are contained the tools belonging to the different workmen and miners, together with the forges, &c.
The baggage belonging to the commanding officer of artillery, and to the several officers of the train, follow next, each waggon succeeding the other according to the rank of the several officers. It frequently happens, that the carriages with stores and provisions, and those belonging to the royal regiment of artillery move together.
After these follow the tumbrels with gunpowder, matches, sand-bags, ropes, fuses for bombs and grenades, proof-pieces, if there are any, plummets, hand grenades, mining tools, mortar-carriages, bombs, balls, according to the different calibres of cannon, tools, and instruments for pioneers, with the spare carts.
In order to secure the regular progress and march of these different classes, it has been usual among the French, to divide them into five brigades, each brigade under the command of an artillery officer; and the whole subject to the orders of the commandant of artillery. All the equipage belonging to the train is distributed among these five brigades, and each brigade takes care to bring up its proportion every day to the park or spot of rendezvous. These are subject to a roster among themselves, some leading, and others bringing up the rear, according to its arrangement.
Night-Marches. Whenever marches are undertaken in the night, great precaution should be observed on the part of the commanding officer of the troops, to attach two or three faithful and intelligent guides to each column or detachment; for it may very easily happen, that in moving a considerable detachment during the night, some troops or squadrons may lose themselves, especially where there are cross-roads, and difficult passes.
The commanding officer at the head of the detachment must march slow, provided the nature of his expedition will admit of it: and wherever he finds any bye-roads on the march, he must post a few men there to direct the succeeding squadron; which squadron is to repeat the same caution, and so on throughout the whole.
As it is almost impossible for squadrons to keep constantly close together; and as it almost always happens, that, in order to conceal a march from the enemy, no trumpet must be sounded, (which would otherwise serve for a direction in the night time) a good non-commissioned officer, with four or six men, must be appointed to the rear of every squadron, who are to divide themselves, and form a chain in the interval, between it and the one succeeding, in order to prevent any mistake of the road.
Before the detachment matches off, the officer commanding must be careful to exhort the officers leading troops or squadrons, strictly to observe all the above directions: he must also have several orderly men to attend him; and, if possible, two or three guides in front.
The advanced guard must be reinforced in the night time, and march at a small distance from the main body, and whenever it shall happen unexpectedly to meet the enemy, it must instantly charge with all possible vigor; on which account, and in order to be in continual readiness, it must always march with advanced arms.
Secret Marches, are made with a design to reconnoitre an enemy, surprize his camp, secure a post, or seize a place. They are likewise undertaken to succour troops that may be precariously situated, to relieve a besieged town, &c. It is in this service that a commander has occasion for his utmost sagacity and penetration, to prevent his being discovered or betrayed. In order to ensure success, the person who conducts the march, should have previously obtained good information relative to the different roads through which he is to pass, the disposition of the inhabitants, &c. He should also obtain correct intelligence respecting the situation of the enemy’s out-posts, &c.
To March for the direct purpose of fighting an enemy. In order to effect this important operation with confidence and safety, every army that marches from a distant point towards the ground which is occupied by an enemy, endeavors as much as possible, to preserve its regular front, and to advance in order of battle. Whenever obstacles occur, and the ground becomes so confined, that the march in line cannot be preserved, the different squadrons and battalions must approach the enemy in such a disposition of columns, as to be able to form line in the quickest manner, and before the enemy could possibly attempt to make an impression on the advancing columns, by charging with his cavalry.
The general officers who command the several columns, in leading them forward must attentively observe each other’s movement, so that their heads, at least, be upon a line; and that when they reach the ground where the whole are to deploy, this manœuvre may be accomplished with dispatch and safety, and the order of battle be fully made, out of the reach of the enemy’s horse.
The general or commander in chief, with his aids-de-camp, &c. takes his ground in such a manner as to be able to see the effect of the first fire. From being thus conveniently situated, he will know what orders to send, whether to support that part of the line which has gained ground, or to replace any particular one that may have given way. In order to accomplish this double purpose, he either makes use of the troops which have been drawn up between the two lines, as circumstances may require, or detaches from the reserve, as he judges best for the service.
The instant the line is formed, and the enemy appears in sight, every general officer must be found at the head of his division, actively employed either in leading on the troops, entrusted to his skill and valor, or in speedily remedying every symptom of disorder which may occur throughout the whole extent of his command.
The disposition of an army (to quote the words of mons. de Feuquieres) which comes to close action, differs essentially from that it assumes in a march, or previous movement. Were troops, indeed, to advance over a wide space of open and unembarrassed ground, the formation of them might be the same. But this is seldom or ever the case. The intervention of hills, woods, rivers, villages, and narrow passes or defiles, gives rise to so many obstacles, that a large body of men, such as constitutes an army, must necessarily be divided into many different corps, in order, that the collective force may arrive, at a given time, within the lines of a new camp, or within sight of an enemy.
On these occasions the movements of an army are attended with considerable risk, especially if the enemy has himself taken the field; for by ably manœuvring he may take advantage of the divided state of your army, and attack it piece-meal. The greatest precautions, however, are observed in modern warfare, which were either unknown to, or neglected by our ancestors. Most of these have already been discussed, as far as the limits of our undertaking would admit. The following additional observations may not, perhaps, be thought wholly superfluous.
In the first instance it will be necessary for the quarter master general, and for the different officers who compose the staff or etat-major of the army, to render themselves perfectly masters of the country through which the troops are to march. The corps of guides, especially if the march should be continued during the night, must be well chosen on these occasions; and the different captains that have the charge of them, are frequently to communicate with the principal officers on the staff, to facilitate the several movements. All the general officers must be in possession of correct topographical sketches of the country; and their aids-de-camp, &c. must not only know how to deliver orders, but they must themselves be able to calculate, (from a cursory view of the chart,) time and distance, The science of locality, has, indeed, become so manifestly useful in all military operations, that the French have formed regular companies of topographers, who accompany their armies; a new institution, at High-Wycombe, England, pays much attention to this branch of necessary knowlege.
Artificers and workmen with appropriate escorts, precede the several columns, in order to clear the roads, and to remove obstacles that occur. Light troops, and large detachments of cavalry, are pushed forward for the purpose of keeping the enemy in awe, and to send the earliest intelligence respecting his movements. Bridges are thrown across rivers with astonishing activity and dispatch; every thing in a word which relates to the movement of the army, is so well digested before-hand, and subsequently so well executed, that all the different corps co-operate, and readily succour each other should the enemy attack. The natural formation of the battalion is preserved, whether the grenadiers are disposed in front, or the light companies lead; and the several piquets come regularly up with the rear during the march, and are as readily stationed in the front when their corps halt.
When a forced march is undertaken for the specific purpose of rendering some design of an enemy abortive, it is the duty of the commissariat to have provisions ready at hand, during the transient halts which are made in this harassing and fatiguing enterprise.
It is usual for great armies to march in several columns, in conformity to the order of battle which has been laid down by the general or commander in chief, at the beginning of the campaign. Those battalions and squadrons which compose the right, take their line of march through that direction of the country; those which compose the left, preserve their relative time and distance in that quarter. The artillery and heavy baggage are generally disposed of in the centre column.
When an army marches directly forward to attack or meet an enemy, the artillery is almost always distributed in the centre: sometimes a brigade of that corps, with a body of select troops in front, precedes each column; but the heavy baggage invariably moves in the rear under cover of the reserve.
When an army marches through a woody or close country, the heads of the different columns are usually covered by a strong detachment of riflemen, preceded by squadrons of horse. Should the enemy be in your rear, when it is found expedient to make a movement, the hospital stores, ammunition, baggage, and artillery, escorted by some squadrons of horse, must be sent forward, and the best disciplined troops, with a certain quantity of artillery, are in that case to make up the rear guard. If the enemy should hang upon your flank (the right, for instance,) the artillery, stores, and baggage, must be conducted by the left: should the enemy direct his operations from the left, the same movements must take place on the right.
A small army may march in one column, having its artillery and baggage between the advanced and rear guards. Should it be brought to action, the dragoons and light cavalry belonging to the advanced guard will compose one wing, and the troops that are disposed of in the rear, will form the other: the infantry will be distributed in the centre with the artillery in its front.
The French seem to have paid the greatest attention to the various details and incidental circumstances which attend the march of any considerable body of troops. It was not, however, until the reign of Louis XIII. that any sort of regular system began to prevail. There was certainly less necessity for such an arrangement, because the baggage was by no means so great, nor was the train of artillery half so extensive. The only dangers, indeed, which were to be guarded against, when the enemy was near, seemed confined to the loss of baggage and artillery. These were, of course, provided against by every able general, who naturally observed the greatest secrecy with respect to his encampment, and practised various stratagems to conceal his march from the enemy.
Some very sensible observations, relative to the manner in which troops should be managed previous to an engagement, may be found in the Rêveries de M. le Maréchal de Saxe; and considerable information may be derived from Les Reflexions de M. le Baron d’Espagnac, on the best method of forming the infantry for battle. See Supplément aux Rêveries, page 19. See likewise Oeuvres Militaires, tom. 1. p. 124.
General observations on the march of troops. Observations from a French work, applicable to general service. When troops are ordered to march, four principal objects should be well considered, viz. locality, time, possible ambuscades, and the ultimate end for which the march is undertaken. In order to secure these important points, some topographers (without whom no army can be said to be well constituted, or its staff ably appointed) should be directed to give in plans of the country, to shew where it is intersected, where hills with their different incurvations appear, where the roads are narrow, where the ground is soft or marshy, and unfavorable to the passage of artillery, where intricate passes occur, where there are woods, hedges, rivers, or marshes, and finally where the country becomes totally impervious.
When these different objects have been well ascertained, and thoroughly digested at head quarters, the component parts of the army must be so distributed with respect to the battalions of infantry, squadrons of horse, artillery, and baggage, that the front of the leading column shall invariably correspond with the extent of the road or defile which is to be marched over.
When troops are ordered to march through an inclosed country, the whole army is divided into a given number of columns, which successively follow each other, and are encamped, cantoned, or quartered separately. Sometimes the country is cleared, as much as circumstances will admit, in order that the several columns may advance, while the artillery, under an escort of infantry on each side, and with cavalry distributed upon both wings of the army, makes the best of its way through the main road. Small detachments, consisting of active, spirited young men, headed by intelligent and enterprising officers, are sent forward to take possession of the different defiles, woods, passes, and to post themselves close to an enemy’s post, for the purpose of blocking it up until the whole of the army has marched by.
The leading columns should always be composed of tried and steady soldiers; and the front of each should invariably consist of the best men in the army.
The advanced and rear guards must be well supported by infantry, with the addition of some light field pieces. The order of battle is so arranged, that the heavy ordnance, the baggage, and the greatest part of the cavalry, which can be of little use on the wings, may be distributed in the centre.
When it is necessary to cross a river, the artillery must be planted directly opposite to the post which the army intends to occupy. Considerable advantage will accrue should the river wind in such a manner as to form a rentrant angle in that particular spot, which advantage would be greatly increased by having a ford near.
In proportion as the construction of the bridge advances, some steady troops must be marched forward, and a regular discharge of musquetry must be kept up against the enemy on the opposite bank.
The instant the bridge is finished, a corps of infantry, with some cavalry, some pieces of artillery, and a certain number of pioneers, to fortify the head of the bridge, must be ordered over. Should there be the least ground to suspect an attack upon the rear guard, the inside tête de pont must also be fortified.
Proper precautions will have been taken to prevent any surprise during the construction of the bridge, and while the troops are crossing. Each side of the river above and below the bridge, will on this account have been well reconnoitred, to ascertain that there are not any armed barges or floating rafters with infernals upon them, kept ready to blow up the bridge, when a considerable part of the army shall have passed the river. If the preservation of the bridge be considered as an object, both ends must be fortified, and adequate guards stationed to defend them.
Each corps that marches separately, such as the advanced and rear guards, and the main body, must be provided with shovels, pick-axes, and a sufficient number of pioneers and guides, to clear the roads, and to direct it on its march.
The following general rules in route marching have been laid down by the celebrated Montecuculli:—
No officer or soldier is on any account to quit his post or rank. The battalion companies must never intermix with the squadrons or troops of cavalry. Squadrons or troops of cavalry must always take care not to leave such wide intervals between them, as will expose them to be suddenly cut off, or such contracted ones as might enable the enemy to throw them into confusion.
In summer, troops should quit their ground or quarters at day-break.
In winter, great care should be taken by the commissariat, to see that the troops are well supplied with fuel whenever they halt. During very inclement weather the march of troops should be greatly contracted.
Some steady old soldiers must be stationed at the different cross roads, to prevent the rear men from mistaking the line of march.
The leading columns of those troops that precede them, must instantly fall upon any body of the enemy that may attempt to oppose their progress.
Three things are always to be considered and well weighed, viz. whether there be much ground to apprehend a serious attack from the enemy; whether there be little ground to fear him; or whether there be no ground at all.
In the latter case each corps of cavalry and infantry, marches separately, and with its own baggage.
All convoys, containing stores and ammunition, move with the artillery accompanied by an officer from the adjutant or quarter-master general’s department, who has the direction of the march, as far as regards the convoy itself; but cannot interfere with the artillery; the commanding officer of the latter being presumed to know best, when and where his park should halt, &c. A very sensible observation on this head may be found in a recent French publication, intituled, Manuel des Adjudans Généraux, by Paul Thiébault. The whole of which is published under the article Staff in the Am. Mil. Lib. On the evening preceding a march, each corps is specifically furnished with the necessary orders in writing.
At the hour which is named in general orders for the troops to commence their march, the quarter-master general, and the captain of guides, repair to the advanced guard.
If the army has been encamped, the lines of entrenchment are levelled or cleared in such a manner, that the troops may move with an extended front. As soon as the troops have marched off, the different guards belonging to the camp will be withdrawn.
Pioneers must be sent forward to clear the roads, preceded by small detachments of light and select troops, together with estaffettes or mounted messengers and vedettes, who are to reconnoitre in front, rear, and round the wings of the army. To these must be added appropriate guards and escorts to accompany the artillery, and to protect the baggage. It will belong to this latter description of troops, to take possession of advantageous heights, to discover ambuscades, and to send a faithful detail of all they observe to head quarters. These communications will be made by the chief of the etat major who accompanies them.
The advanced guard of the army will be composed of one half of the cavalry, the main body will consist of the infantry, attended by pioneers and detached corps of light artillery, which will be preceded by an iron instrument made in the shape of a plough-share, for the purpose of tracing out the paths, which must be kept by the waggon-train. In the rear of the main body must follow the heavy ordnance, the baggage-waggons belonging to the several regiments, and the train of artillery. The other half of the cavalry will be disposed of in the rear-guard, in which the army stores and ammunition are to be escorted by a regiment of horse.
If the army should be divided, and march in different columns by indirect roads, a rendezvous or place d’armes must be marked out in writing, where the whole may conveniently meet on the line of march. The utmost attention must be paid to the selection of this spot, by the adjutant and quarter-master general, lest it should be exposed to a surprise from the enemy; on which account it is kept as secret as possible, lest any intelligence should be given to him by deserters or spies. The hour and the manner in which the several columns are to arrive, is specifically stated to the different leaders; and scouts, &c. are sent round the country to discover the enemy’s movements.
If there should be any reason to apprehend an attack, the various precautions must be increased in proportion to the alarm.
An army must always march, if it possibly can, in that order from which it may easily and expeditiously deploy into line; that is, it should invariably preserve the order of battle; every column bearing a natural front towards the enemy. Montecuculli further adds, that an army must invariably march the right or left in front, and not from its centre.
Field-pieces, with a sufficient quantity of ammunition, shovels, spades, and pick-axes always at hand, must be disposed along the most vulnerable part of the rendezvous; these must be guarded by a body of cavalry and infantry, who are to be selected for that specific duty.
Care is likewise taken to lodge the baggage-waggons, &c. in the most secure and best defended spot.
The two first lines of the army will consist of the mounted artillery in front, next to which will stand the different squadrons of horse that are posted in intervals between the infantry battalions: after these will follow the train of caissons, &c. in as many files as the road will admit; then the stores and baggage, and finally the reserve.
Whenever the leading columns have passed an obstacle, the front man must be halted till the rear have completely cleared it likewise; and when the whole enters an open country, the line must be formed, and the march be continued in order of battle until a fresh obstacle occurs, when the troops must be prepared to pass the defile, the advanced guard leading, the main body following next, and the reserve bringing up the rear.
When an army is thus advancing, the right or left flank (according to circumstances) of its line of march, must be covered by rivers, and banks, rising grounds, or eminences; and if these natural advantages do not present themselves, artificial ones must be resorted to. These may consist of waggons, chevaux de friezes or other temporary means of defence; the quantity, &c. must depend upon the nature of the country, and the number of troops that compose the columns.
It is, however, impossible to set down general rules for all cases; these must vary with the manifold circumstances that occur, and the different designs which are to be accomplished or pursued.
When the movements of an army are to be concealed, the march must be undertaken at night through woods, vallies, and concealed ways; all frequented and inhabited places must be carefully avoided; no loud instruments must on any account be played; and if fires are made, they must only be lighted on the eve of breaking up camp; in which case they must be left burning, for the purpose of deluding the enemy into a supposition, that the troops have not moved.
Small parties of cavalry are sent forward to seize all stragglers or scouts from the enemy, or to take possession of the different passes. In order to avoid being discovered in the object of the march, a different road must be taken from the one which you really propose to march through; and a fit opportunity must afterwards be embraced to get into the real track. Before you march out of a town or fortified place, the utmost care must be observed to prevent your intended route from being conveyed to the enemy. On this account the troops must be first marched out, and the gates immediately shut upon the rear, so that no stranger, &c. may be able to slip out with the men.
During a march of this nature, the troops must be provided with subsistence, stores, and ammunition, to last out until the object is attained. No scout or vedette is sent forward, when an army, or any part of it, advances to take possession of a post or place, to succour a town, to surprize an enemy, in a close or woody country, by favor of the night, or in hazy weather, or on any occasion when orders have been given to oppose and fight every thing it meets.
When an army marches for the direct purpose of forcing a passage, which is guarded by an enemy, a feint must be made in one quarter, whilst the real object is vigorously pursued in another. Sometimes you must appear suddenly disposed to make a retrograde movement, and then again as suddenly resume your progress; sometimes march beyond the spot you wish to occupy, insensibly drawing off the enemy’s attention; and whilst the whole army is thus pushing forward and is closely watched by its opponents, (who hang upon the flanks, and hug its line of march) let detached parties of cavalry and foot, that have lain in ambush, suddenly surprise the passage, and post themselves upon it.
When it is found expedient to advance rapidly into a country for the purpose of surprising an enemy, getting possession of a town or place, or avoiding superior forces, every species of baggage must be left behind (even the common necessaries of the men: if circumstances require,) the cavalry must be sent forward, and the infantry put in carts, carriages, and chaises, or mounted behind the dragoons. If there be spare horses enough in the different troops, or any can be procured from the inhabitants of the country, they must be led in order to relieve those that are double mounted, in the manner which is practised by the Tartars. Marches of this description and urgency, must be kept up night and day; and it is on such occasions that the value of a good staff or etat-major will have all its weight.
It must be observed, as a general maxim, that whenever troops are retiring from a weak position, or to avoid the approach of a superior force, the retreat must be so managed, as not to bear the least resemblance of a flight.
Order of March, which is observed in the Turkish army: this order of march may be considered as the movement of an army that combines its several operations according to some established system of military art. The Turks usually divide this movement into time distinct operations: the first comprehends that by which troops of several denominations, and from different quarters, assemble together at some given spot or rendezvous. Such, for instance, is the march of various corps of militia, both in Asia and Europe, belonging to the Ottoman empire, who must necessarily pass through several quarters, and cross the sea, to form a junction. From the many inconveniences which troops must unavoidably experience on these occasions, and from the irregularity that always grows out of them, this march cannot be strictly called a systematic movement of the army.
The second order of march among the Turks is that which they call alay; when the troops arrive, under the command of their several bachas, at the camp or given spot of rendezvous, for the purpose of being reviewed by the serasquier, the grand vizier or the sultan. This order is observed likewise by the janizaries when they repair to a similar place.
The third order of march must be considered as a real military movement. It is that which is performed by the army that first takes up its ground in a regular manner, and encamps. This is the commencement or beginning of military marches, because from a situation or arrangement of this sort, troops either leave one camp to pitch their tents elsewhere, or return again to their old one after having made an attempt against an enemy’s post, &c.
It is an established law in Turkey, whenever the sultan or grand vizier takes the field, to have their magnificent tents, with seven or five horse-tails displayed above them, regularly pitched on the plains of Constantinople, or in those of Adrianople, accordingly as the court happens to be in either of those imperial residences; which circumstance is announced throughout the empire, that every province, &c. may be made acquainted with the march of the sultan or grand vizier.
As soon as these pavilions or tents have been thus pitched, all the different armed corps that have not yet commenced their march receive their route: and those that are already on the march, advance with all the expedition they can, to the spot of general rendezvous. The troops from Egypt and Asia are particularly alert on these occasions, most especially if the war should be carried into Hungary. All the points from whence embarkations are to take place, appear conspicuously marked along the coast of the Marmora, Propontides, and the Archipelago, in order that the different bodies of troops may take the direct road to Constantinople, Andrianople, Philipolis Sophia, Nissa, and Belgrade, in which places was the general rendezvous of all the troops, when the Ottoman empire flourished. Those, however, were not included which were destined to act in Hungary and Bosnia. They met together, after having passed the bridge of Osek, and formed a junction with the main army. Kara-Mustapha followed these dispositions when he went to besiege Vienna.
The second march of the Turkish or Ottoman army, is a business of mere parade or ceremony. This movement is observed by all the different corps, and it is executed with great magnificence by the Bachas, particularly so when they repair the first time to the camp of general rendezvous.
With respect to the third march, it is a real and essential movement, and ought to be called the military march or route. Four principal branches or objects of service, constitute the nature of this march, and form its disposition. These are the cavalry, infantry, artillery, and baggage; in which latter are included the stores, &c. belonging to the Turkish militia, the royal provisions, public stores, and ammunition, comprehending gunpowder, shot, matches, spades, pick-axes, &c.
There is, however, no invariable rule attached to this arrangement, it alters according to circumstance and place.
The real or military march of the troops is entirely managed by the grand vizier, or the seraskier. Written instructions are issued out for this purpose; for the Turks never give out verbal orders, except in matters of little or no importance, or in cases of extreme emergency, when they cannot commit them to writing.
It is an invariable maxim among the Turks, whenever their troops are upon the march, to throw new bridges over rivers, or to repair old ones, to clear public or bye roads, to fill up ditches, and to cut down trees, &c. so as to facilitate their movements, and to obviate delay. They moreover throw up small heaps of earth, which they call unka, at the distance of half a league from each other, and often nearer, especially on high grounds. When the sultan marches at their head they make two heaps of this description.
The Turks pay very particular attention to their movements or marches on service: the whole of the army is under arms during the night, in order to make the necessary dispositions; on which occasions the soldiers make use of small vessels with fire lighted in them, and tie them to the ends of long pikes or poles. The greatest silence is observed during the march; neither drums, trumpets, nor cymbals are heard. Sometimes, indeed, but this rarely happens, the drummers belonging to the band of the grand vizier, accompany the salutes or ceremonial compliments which are paid by the salam-agasi, or master of ceremonies.
When they march through a country in which there is no cause to apprehend surprise or hostility, the infantry generally takes the lead, two or three days march, in front of the main army. The troops march in the loosest manner, being neither confined to particular companies, nor formed in columns. They chuse what roads they like best, halt where they please, and reach the camp in detached parties; with this injunction, however, that the whole must arrive at the spot of rendezvous before evening prayers.
Next to these follow the cavalry, headed by a general officer. Their march, notwithstanding his presence, is as irregular as that of the infantry. The men frequently halt out of mere laziness, and under pretence of refreshing their horses; and little or no attention is paid to system and good order. The baggage and ammunition waggons, together with such stores, &c. as are carried by beasts of burthen, move in the same manner.
When the army enters an enemy’s country, the whole of the infantry is collected together, and marches in one body. The capiculy and the seratculy, for instance, form one column. There is this distinction, however, observed, that every janizary marches under his own colors, and every officer remains attached to his oda or company, for the purpose of executing, in the speediest manner, the commander in chief’s directions.
The cavalry is often divided into two wings; it is likewise frequently formed in one body. Every man is ranged under his own standard. The squadrons are commanded by the alay-begs, who receive orders through the chiaous; and the other officers are near the bacha.
The baggage sometimes moves in the front, and sometimes in the rear of the janizaries. A particular body of cavalry, called topracly, are an exception to this arrangement: the men belonging to this corps are obliged to furnish themselves with all the necessaries of life, and consequently carry provisions, &c. with them in all their marches; which circumstance unavoidably creates much confusion.
The artillery is generally attached to the infantry; sometimes, however, it moves with the cavalry.
When the Turkish army marches through an enemy’s country, it is covered by an advanced and a rear guard. The advanced guard is composed of five or six thousand of the best mounted cavalry. This body is under the immediate orders of a commanding officer, called kialkagy-bacy, whose appointment lasts during the whole of the campaign. The advanced guard usually moves six, seven, or eight leagues in front of the main body; but it falls back in proportion as the enemy retires. When there are bodies of Tartars or auxiliary troops from any of the rebellious provinces with the army, they are detached in front of the advanced guard, for the purpose of harassing the enemy’s rear, pillaging the country, and committing those excesses which are not countenanced by regular troops.
The rear-guard generally consists of one thousand horse. It is the business of this body to escort the baggage safe into camp, and not leave it until the whole be securely lodged.
The Turks, in all their movements on real service, display uncommon activity; and their marches are generally so well managed, that an enemy runs the greatest hazard of being surprised.
Rogue’s March. A tune which is played by trumpeters or fifers of a regiment (as the case may be) for the purpose of drumming out any person who has behaved disorderly, &c. in a camp or garrison. Thieves, strumpets, &c. are frequently disgraced in this manner; being marched down the front of a battalion, from right to left, and along the rear: after which they are conducted to the gate of the garrison or entrance of the camp, where they receive a kick on the posteriors from the youngest drummer, and are warned never to appear within the limits of either place, under pain of being severely punished.
MARCHANDS, Fr. Slop-sellers, petty-suttlers. Men of this description always flock round and follow an army on its march. As they generally deal in articles which are wanted by the officers and soldiers, it is the business of every general to see them properly treated, to ensure their safety, and to permit them, under certain regulations, to have access to the camp. They should, however, be warily watched in some instances, especially upon the eve of a retreat, or before any advanced operation takes place. Spies frequently disguise themselves as pedlars, and under the mask of selling trifling articles, pry into the state of a camp, put indirect questions to the soldiers, and tamper with those who may seem disposed to act in a traitorous manner. Yet as armies cannot do without such men, they must be sanctioned, and it is the particular duty of the provost-marshal, and of the waggon-master general, to watch and superintend their motions.
MARCHE accélérée, ou pas accéléré, Fr. The time in which troops march to the charge—we call it the accelerated pace, the English formerly called it double quick time.
Marche ordinaire, ou pas ordinaire, Fr. Ordinary time.
Marche precipitée, ou pas precipité, Fr. Quickest time.
Marche cadencée, ou pas cadencé, Fr. March or step according to time and measure. It is likewise called the cadenced step.
Marche non-cadencée, ou pas non-cadencé, Fr. This step is likewise called pas de route, and signifies that unconstrained movement which soldiers are permitted to adopt in marching over difficult ground, and in columns of route.
Marche de Flanc, Fr. Flank movement or march.
Marche forcée, Fr. a forced march.
Battre, sonner la Marche, Fr. To put troops into motion by the beat of drum or sound of trumpet, &c.
Gagner une Marche sur l’ennemi, Fr. To gain ground or time upon an enemy, which signifies to get in his front or upon his flanks, so as to harass or perplex him, or by any able manœuvre to get the start of him.
Dérober sa Marche, Fr. to steal a march.
Couvrir une Marche, Fr. to conceal a march.
Marches d’armées, et ce que les soldats ont à faire quand la générale est battue, Fr. column of route or general order of march which an army observes when it takes the field. See [Camp].
Marche, Fr. This word is likewise used among the French, to express the course or progress of a ship, or as we say, technically, the way she makes: hence marche d’un vaisseau.
Marcher par le flanc, Fr. To march from any given flank.
Marcher en colonne avec distance entiere, Fr. To march in open column at open distance.
Marcher en colonne à distance de section, ou en mass, Fr. To march in column, quarter distance, or in mass.
Marcher en bataille ou en colonne d’attaque, Fr. To advance in column for the purpose of attacking an enemy.
Marcher en bataille en ordre deployé, Fr. To advance by the echellon march in deployed order.
Marcher en rétraite, Fr. To retreat.
Marcher en bataille par le dernier rang, Fr. To march in line rear rank in front.
Marcher au pas accêléré, Fr. To march in quicker time.
Marcher le pas en arriére, Fr. To take the back-step.
Marcher au pas ordinaire, Fr. To march in ordinary time.
Marcher au pas précipité, Fr. To march in quickest time, or charging time.
Marcher par le flank, droit, ou gauche, Fr. To march by the right or left flank.
Marcher en colonne, la droit ou la gauche, en tête, Fr. To march in column, the right or left in front.
Marcher en colonne, serrée, Fr. To march in close column.
Marcher en colonne ouverte, Fr. To march in open column.
Marcher, en terme d’évolutions, Fr. To [march in line], &c. which see.
Marches. The limits or bounds between England, Wales, and Scotland, have been so called.
Marching regiments. A term given to those corps who had not any permanent quarters, but were liable to be sent not only from one end of Great Britain to another, but to the most distant of her possessions abroad. Although the word marching is insensibly confounded with those of line and regulars, it was originally meant to convey something more than a mere liability to be ordered upon any service; for by marching the regular troops from one town to another, the inhabitants, who from time immemorial have been jealous of a standing army, lost their antipathy to real soldiers, by the occasional absence of regular troops. At present, the English guards, militia, and fencibles, may be considered more or less as marching regiments.—The marines and volunteer corps have stationary quarters.
St. MARCOU. Two rocks upon the coast of Normandy, lying in a bite or bay between cape Barfleur and Point Percé, bearing south east from La Hogue nine miles, from the mouth of the river Isigny, north, eight miles, and distant from the body of the French shore about four miles. The surface of each island, which is 18 or 20 feet above the level of the sea at high water, comprises about an acre, and bear from each other W. by N. and E. by S. distant 200 yards. On the abandonment of an expedition to the islands of Chossé, in the year 1795, sir Sidney Smith, whose active and comprehensive mind, justly concluded that the contiguity of these posts to the continent, would materially facilitate communications with the royalists, took possession of them; and having drawn the Badger and Sandfly gun vessels on shore, gave to their respective commanders the direction of the spot upon which he was thus placed. These officers having constructed batteries, mounted in them the guns belonging to their vessels, and in the year 1796 block houses, with detachments of marines, invalids, and 12 artillery men, were ordered out by government.
The extreme annoyance of these rocks to the coasting trade of the enemy, at length determined them to employ a part of the division of the army destined for the conquest of England, in their recovery, and 15,000 troops being assembled at the Hogue, 9000 were embarked on the 6th of May, 1798, on board 52 gun-vessels; when so great was the solicitude to partake in this conceived certain prelude to their glory, that several of the fourth demi-brigade of the army of Italy, whose tour of duty did not entitle them to be thus employed, gave four and five crowns, each, to others to change with them. Perfectly acquainted with the situation of the islands, the French flotilla rowed towards them in the night of the 6th, and at the dawn of the morning of the 7th, the weather being perfectly calm, they were discovered in a body between the islands and the shore. They soon separated into three divisions, one of which, comprising the heavy gun brigs remained in that position, while the other two, consisting of large flat boats, carrying a long 18 pounder in the bow, and a 6 pounder in the stern, took positions to the north and to the south of the islands, with an intention to drop into the passage that separates them. An animated and well directed fire was commenced from the islands, and warmly returned by the enemy. The northern division having been driven by the ebb tide within a short distance of the east island, soon became disabled in their oars, and considerably increased its distance, while the attention of the two islands was principally directed to the southern division, which came with the tide, and with almost unexampled gallantry pushed to the attack; being however by the severity of the fire that was kept up, foiled in its intention of getting between the islands, when each island would be exposed to the fire of the other, it passed quickly to the westward of the west island, and pulling up on the northern side of that island, the defence of which was almost wholly dependent on the flanking fire of the east island, made another determined effort to land. This appears to have been the critical period of the day, and the discharge of grape shot from the islands was proportionate to the danger; the entire side of the commodore of this division’s vessel was battered in, and she sunk; the others of the division beaten and disabled, retreated to their companions, and being reduced to the number of 47, they all retreated to La Hogue, amidst the deriding taunts and huzzas of the English, 400 of whom, with about 50 pieces of cannon, most of which were of a small calibre, and placed in works constructed by themselves, by vanquishing the advanced guard of the army of England, with the loss of 1100 killed, drowned, and wounded, dissipated the terrors of a French invasion. The action lasted two hours and ten minutes, during which time there were upwards of 100 pieces of cannon firing on the islands; notwithstanding which the loss on our side was only one killed and two wounded. English Mil. Dict.
MARDIKERS, or Topasses, a mixed breed of Dutch, Portuguese, Indians, and other nations, incorporated with the Dutch at Batavia, in the East Indies. Mardikers, in all probability, derive their name from some original adventurers, who left a place, called Mardike, about four miles from Dunkirk, and formerly subject to, or forming part of the seventeen United Provinces. When the Dutch took possession of that territory which is named Batavia, these adventurers were perhaps the leading party, and from their being called Mardikers, the natives in those quarters insensibly attached the term to all persons of European descent, or connection. All, in fact, who wear hats are distinguished among turban-nations by the appellation of Topasses, and Mardikers, and from that circumstance are confounded in the term, with respect to Batavia. Eng. Dict.
There is a mistake in this—the word tope signifies a gun, as well as a hat; those who carried guns instead of spears, were called topasses; the topasses of the Malabar coast, where in fact they were first embodied by the Portuguese, wore no hats, but turbans, and carried matchlocks or topes; a house in which guns are kept is called tope kannah.
MARECHAL de camp, Fr. a military rank which existed during the French monarchy. The person invested with it was a general officer, and ranked next to a lieutenant-general. It was his duty to see the army properly disposed of in camp or quarters, to be present at all the movements that were made; to be the first to mount his charger, and the last to quit him. He commanded the left in all attacks. The appointment, under this distinction, was first created by Henry the fourth in 1598.
Marechal-general des camps et armées du roi, Fr. A post of high dignity and trust, which, during the French monarchy, was annexed to the rank of Maréchal de France. Military writers differ with respect to the privileges, &c. which belonged to this appointment; it is, however, generally acknowleged, that the general officer who held it, was entrusted with the whole management of a siege, being subordinate only to the constable, or to any other Maréchal de France, who was his senior in appointment.
Marechal-géneral des logis de l’armée, Fr. This appointment, which existed during the old French government, and has since been replaced by the chef de l’etat-major, corresponds with that of quarter-master general in the British service.
Marechal de bataille, Fr. a military rank, which once existed in France, but was suppressed before the revolution, or rather confined to the body guards. An officer, belonging to that corps, received it as an honorary title. Its original functions, &c. with respect to general service, sunk in the appointments of maréchal de camp, and major-général. It was first created by Louis the XIIIth.
Marechal-general des logis de la cavalerie, Fr. This appointment took place under Charles the IXth in 1594. He had the chief direction of every thing which related to the French cavalry.
Marechal des logis dans la cavalerie, Fr. The quarter-master of a troop of horse was so called in the French service. In the old system every infantry regiment had one marechal des logis; two were attached to each company of the gendarmes: each troop of light horse had likewise two; and every company of musqueteers had eight.
Marechal des logis de l’artillerie, Fr. An appointment which existed in France before the revolution, and which was in the gift of the grand master of the ordnance. This officer always accompanied the army on service, and was under the immediate orders of the commanding officer of the artillery.
Marechal des logis pour les vivres, Fr. a person belonging to the quarter-master general’s department, so called in the old French service.
La Marechale, Fr. Marshal’s lady i. e. wife, was so called in France. We have already mentioned [la colonelle], &c. This practice has indeed, of late, obtained in England, but not in the unlimited manner which prevailed among the French. We use it merely to distinguish two ladies of the same name and family, or neighborhood, viz. Mrs. Johnson, and Mrs. colonel Johnson; meaning thereby that the latter is the wife or widow of colonel Johnson.
MARECHAUSSEES de France, Fr. A species of military police, which has long existed in France. During the French monarchy there were 31 companies of Maréchaussées à cheval, or mounted police-men. After twenty years service the individuals who belonged to this establishment were entitled to the privileges of invalid corps, being considered as a part of the gendarmerie.
These companies were first formed for the purpose of preserving public tranquillity, and were distributed in the different provinces of the kingdom. They consisted of provosts-generals, lieutenants, exempts, brigadiers, sub-brigadiers, and horsemen. This useful body of men was first formed under Philip the first, in 1060: they were afterwards suppressed, and again re-established in 1720, as constituting a part of the gendarmerie of France.
The uniform of the Maréchaussées, or mounted police men, consisted of royal blue cloth for the coat, with red cuffs and linings; the waistcoat of chamoy-color, lined with white serge; a cloak lined with red serge, the buttons of plated silver placed in rows of three each, with intervals between them; horseman’s sleeves, with six silver loops with tassels. The brigadiers and sub-brigadiers, had silver lace one inch broad upon their sleeves; their cloaks were made of blue cloth with red cuffs, and they wore silver laced hats. The private horsemen wore bandeleers.
There were other companies of Maréchaussées, who were particularly distinguished from the thirty-one we have mentioned. Such, for instance, as that of the constable, called the gendarmerie.
Marechaussees de France, camps, et armées du roi, Fr. That which was under the immediate direction of the provost-general of the isle of France, and that which belonged to the mint.
The first of these companies is said to have been formed under the first race of French kings: the second by Francis the first; and the third by Louis XIII. There were, besides, several small bodies of troops, composed of officers, and soldiers who had served, that remained stationary in the principal towns to assist the civil magistrates. Those in Paris consisted of three companies; the company belonging to the lieutenant criminel de Robe-Courte, or to that particular court of judicature which was superintended by the prevost de la Maréchaussée, and which Charles the IXth attached to the gendarmerie: the independent company of mounted police, called Guet à Cheval; and the company of the police or foot patrole, called Guet à Pied, which was again subdivided into two companies, in order that one might do the duty of the quays. These companies were under the immediate direction of the secretary of state for the interior department of Paris. The guet de nuit, or night patrole, seems to have been first established by Clotaire the second. The commanding officer of the patrole, or chevalier duguet, during the reign of St. Louis was called milesgueti.
MARENGO, a plain and village in Italy, about one league distant from Tortona, so called. These spots have been rendered memorable in military history by the obstinate and decisive engagement which took place on the 14th of June, 1800, between the Austrians, commanded by general field marshal Melas; and the republican French army, under the direction and personal guidance of Bonaparte, the first consul. According to a very recent publication, translated from the French of Joseph Petit, horse grenadier in the consular guard, the effective number of each army was nearly as follows: the French army, at the moment the battle commenced, was computed from forty to forty-five thousand men, of which three thousand were cavalry: there were besides, from twenty-five to thirty pieces of cannon, in which were included two companies of light artillery: the Austrian army, according to the accounts of the best informed persons, contained from fifty-five to sixty thousand men, including the reinforcements which had just arrived from Genoa. From 15 to 18,000 of these were cavalry. The cannon amounted to fourscore pieces and upwards, two hundred ammunition waggons, well provided, besides an immense train of army implements, stores, and equipage. The French were extremely deficient in the latter articles, having been obliged for want of caissons, to put their ammunition upon tumbrils drawn by oxen.
The loss on both sides was enormous; that of the French was rendered more serious to the republic, by the death of general Desaix, to whose intrepidity, at a most critical juncture, the success of the day, and even the personal safety of Bonaparte were unquestionably owing. This admirable young officer, (for even his enemies pay homage to his virtues and talents) was called by the French and Austrian soldiers, guerrier sans peur et sans rèproche: an irreproachable and undaunted warrior. Without entering into a minute detail of this memorable action, we shall so far trespass upon the limited arrangements of our work, as to extract a passage from another French publication, which has been written by citizen Foudras, and may be found in the English translation from which we have already quoted:—
“It has already been shewn with what obstinacy both armies fought, (see page 64 of Petit’s narrative) four times were the French driven back, four times did they return to the charge, and advance against the Austrians. At the very instant when the consul, surrounded by hostile shot, was reanimating his almost exhausted troops, general Desaix darted with impetuosity amidst the Austrian battalions, when he received his death wound from a musquet ball. He had only time to utter the following words to the son of the consul Lebrun, in whose arms he expired:—“Go and tell the first consul, that I die with regret in not having done enough to live in the memory of posterity!” See page 192, of Foudras’s Biographical Notice.
CHASSE-Marée, Fr. The term means literally a Ripier, or man who brings fish from the sea-coasts to sell in the inland parts; but it has frequently been used to signify the cart or carriage itself on which he sits. According to the French construction of it, it may serve for several purposes, particularly for the speedy conveyance of small bodies of troops. It consists of a four wheel carriage, of equal height with a common axle-tree, having a platform sufficiently elevated to suffer the fore wheels to pass under it when on the lock. In the centre of this platform is an upright back, with a seat on each side, resembling the seat of an Irish car; so that about six soldiers might sit on each side, back to back. On the platform, and attached to the axle-tree, nearly at each corner, are four stout stumps on knee-hinges, that allow them to turn down flat on the platform, or to be fixed upright when they serve, by a crutch which fits into a hole as a rest for rifles, or for a piece of horse light artillery; on the crutch being taken out it fits into the hole after the manner of a swivel on board ship.
MARGA SEERSHA, Ind. a month which partly agrees with October.
MARRIAGE. It is generally understood in the British service, that no soldier can marry without the previous knowlege and consent of his captain, or commanding officer. There is not, however, any specific regulation on this head. The regulations respecting the marriages of officers and soldiers in the old French service, were extremely rigid.
MARIN, Fr. Any thing appertaining to the sea. Avoir le pied marin, to have sea-legs, or to be able to stand the motion of a vessel in rough water, and to go through the different functions of navigation. Marin is likewise used to distinguish a sea-faring man, (homme de mer) from Marinier, which literally means a sailor.
La MARINE. The French navy is so called.
MARINE, implies, in general, the whole navy of a state or kingdom, comprehending all the dock yards, and the officers, artificers, seamen, soldiers, &c. employed therein, as well as the shipping employed by the merchants for military or commercial purposes; together with whatever relates to navigation, ship-building, sailors, and marines.
The history of the marine affairs of any one state is a very comprehensive subject; much more that of all nations. Not only the preservation of that share of commerce which the British possess, but its future advancement, and even the very being of Britain, as an independent nation, depend on the good condition and wise regulation of the affairs of the marine, than on the superiority of its naval power. The Delphic oracle being consulted by the Athenians, on the formidable armament and innumerable forces of Xerxes, returned for answer, “that they must seek their safety in wooden walls.” To which the British affirm, that whenever their nation in particular has recourse to her floating bulwarks for her security and defence, she will find wealth, strength, and glory, to be the happy and infallible consequence.
MARINES, or MARINE FORCES, a body of soldiers, raised for the sea-service, and trained to fight either in a naval engagement or in an action on shore. Officers of marines may sit on courts-martial with officers of the land forces. See British Mutiny Act, Sect. 13.
The great service which this useful corps has frequently rendered, entitles it to a fair record in every publication that treats of military matters. In the course of former wars the marines have distinguished themselves by great perseverance, strict attention to duty, and unquestionable valor. At the siege of Belisle they rose into considerable notice, although they had, at that period, been only recently raised, and were scarcely competent to military discipline. When the marines are at sea, they form part of the ship’s crew, and soon acquire a knowlege of nautical tactics. Their officers are directed by the admiralty, (under whose immediate control they serve,) to encourage them in every disposition to become able seamen; but no sea officer has the power of ordering them to go aloft against their inclination. During an engagement at sea, they are of considerable service in scouring the decks of the enemy, by firing musquetry from the poop, round top, &c. and when they have been long enough out to obtain good sea-legs, they are preferable to mere seamen, especially when the enemy attempts to board; in which case the marines can fraise the poop, quarterdeck, forecastle, &c. with their fixed bayonets, and prevent the completion of their design. In making this observation, we are necessarily led to recommend a more frequent use of the pike. Not only the seamen, but the marines, should be well exercised in the management of that weapon. The interior regulations for the several marine corps, have been well digested, and do credit to the establishment. If any fault can be found on that head, it must relate to the slops, which are given in too large a quantity, considering the little room that a marine must occupy on board. No commissions are bought or sold in the marines; every individual rises according to his seniority; but a marine officer never can arrive at the highest rank or pay which exists upon the marine establishment; one general, one lieutenant general, one major general, three colonels, and one lieutenant colonel commandant, being naval officers with those additional distinctions. It is not within our province to enter into the wisdom or the injustice, not to say ignorance of that policy, which with a series of indisputable claims to notice, still keeps the marine establishment upon the lowest footing of military honor and reward.
The marine forces have of late years been considerably augmented; and we make no doubt but they will continue to be so, from the many confessed advantages which are derived from the peculiar nature of their service. They at present consist of 140 companies, which are stationed in the following manner in three principal divisions:
| Chatham companies | Ports- mouth companies | Plymouth companies | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | st | 71 | st | 2 | d | 72 | d | 3 | d | 73 | d |
| 4 | th | 74 | th | 5 | th | 75 | th | 6 | th | 76 | th |
| 7 | th | 77 | th | 8 | th | 78 | th | 9 | th | 79 | th |
| 10 | th | 80 | th | 11 | th | 81 | st | 12 | th | 82 | d |
| 13 | th | 83 | d | 14 | th | 84 | th | 15 | th | 85 | th |
| 16 | th | 86 | th | 17 | th | 87 | th | 18 | th | 88 | th |
| 19 | th | 89 | th | 20 | th | 90 | th | 21 | st | 91 | st |
| 22 | d | 92 | d | 23 | d | 93 | d | 24 | th | 94 | th |
| 25 | th | 95 | th | 26 | th | 96 | th | 27 | th | 97 | th |
| 28 | th | 98 | th | 29 | th | 99 | th | 30 | th | 100 | th |
| 31 | st | 101 | st | 32 | d | 102 | d | 33 | d | 103 | d |
| 34 | th | 104 | th | 35 | th | 105 | th | 36 | th | 106 | th |
| 37 | th | 107 | th | 38 | th | 108 | th | 39 | th | 109 | th |
| 40 | th | 110 | th | 41 | st | 111 | th | 42 | d | 112 | th |
| 43 | d | 113 | th | 44 | th | 114 | th | 45 | th | 115 | th |
| 46 | th | 116 | th | 47 | th | 117 | th | 48 | th | 118 | th |
| 49 | th | 119 | th | 50 | th | 120 | th | 51 | st | 121 | st |
| 52 | d | 122 | d | 53 | d | 123 | d | 54 | th | 124 | th |
| 65 | th | 125 | th | 55 | th | 126 | th | 57 | th | 127 | th |
| 68 | th | 128 | th | 56 | th | 129 | th | 58 | th | 130 | th |
| 59 | th | 131 | st | 60 | th | 132 | d | ||||
| 61 | st | 133 | d | 62 | d | 134 | th | ||||
| 63 | d | 135 | th | 64 | th | 136 | th | ||||
| 66 | th | 137 | th | 67 | th | 138 | th | ||||
| 69 | th | 139 | th | 70 | th | 140 | th | ||||
| 40 comp. | 50 comp. | 50 comp. | |||||||||
The siege of St. Jean D’Acre, fabulous as the defence of it may hereafter appear from the extraordinary means which were made use of to reduce the place, and the more extraordinary exertions which succeeded in preserving it, will long be remembered, by the two first rival nations in Europe, and will form a brilliant part of the records of the Turkish empire. When posterity shall read the account, it may doubt the relation in its full extent of wonderful hardihood on both sides; but it will rest satisfied, that the garrison of St. Jean D’Acre would not have resisted the first approach of Bonaparte’s army, had not a handful of British marines stood in each breach his soldiers made, and communicated courage and perseverance to the natives of the place.
It has already been remarked, that the marines are nominally under the command of three general officers, who are admirals, or vice-admirals in the navy, and three colonels belonging to the sea service. The marines themselves never rise beyond the rank of colonel commandant in their own corps, but they may be general officers with respect to the army at large. According to the last printed list there is one colonel commandant, properly so called, with the rank of major general in the army, three colonels commandant and captains, two of whom have the rank of major general in the army; three second colonels commandant and captains, two of whom have the rank of major general in the army; nine lieutenant colonels and captains, six of whom have the rank of colonel in the army, and three that of lieutenant colonel; nine majors and captains, one of whom has the rank of major general in the army, and eight that of lieutenant colonel; making together twenty-five field officers, who are marines properly so called; and six superior officers, who belong to the navy.
To these may be added 116 captains of companies, two of whom have the rank of lieutenant colonel in the army, and one is lieutenant colonel by brevet; 24 captain lieutenants, 256 first lieutenants, 276 second lieutenants, six adjutants, and three quarter masters. The list of those field officers who have been permitted to retire upon full pay, contains one colonel, one lieutenant colonel with the rank of major general, one major with the rank of major by brevet, in the army, 15 captains, 10 with the rank of major by brevet, and one with that of lieutenant colonel by brevet; eight first lieutenants, and three second lieutenants. There are four reduced field officers, two of whom have the rank of major general in the army, and one that of lieutenant colonel; 92 captains, one with the rank of captain in the army, one as field officer in the India company’s service, and nine with the rank of major by brevet; six reduced captain lieutenants, 162 reduced first lieutenants, four of whom have civil employments; 136 second lieutenants, one of whom has a civil employment; and one reduced adjutant. There is one paymaster to the marine establishment, who does not hold any military situation.
The American marine corps, like the British, is a separate establishment; the true system for a military establishment, would be to have the whole force consist only of horse and foot; and all instructed alike in the uses of small arms and artillery; then a selection of artillerists and marines could always be made by skill and not as now by chance.
MARK, a note, character, &c. set upon a thing.
Mark also denotes money of account. The English mark is 13s. 4d.; among the Saxons it was equivalent to 7s. 6d. English money. It is also a money of account in Scotland, and formerly a silver coin, being equal to 13d. and one third English.
Gunpowder Marks. The different sorts of gunpowder are distinguished by the following marks on the heads of the barrels. All gunpowder for service is mixed in proportions according to its strength, so as to bring it as much as possible to a mean and uniform force. This sort of powder is marked with a blue L. G. and the figure ¹⁄₂, or with F. G. and the figure 3, whose mean force is from 150 to 160 of the eprouvette. This is the powder used for practice, for experiments, and for service. The white L. G. or F. G. is a second sort of powder of this quality. It is sometimes stronger, but not so uniform as the blue L. G. It is therefore generally used in filling shells, or such other things as do not require accuracy. The red L. G. F. G. denotes powder entirely made at the king’s mills, with the coal burnt in cylinders, and is used at present only in particular cases, and in comparisons, and to mix with other sorts to bring them to a mean force. The figures 1, 2, or 3, denote that the powder is made from saltpetre obtained from damaged gunpowder; 4, 5, or 6, from saltpetre obtained from the grough. See pages 123, 124, of the Little Bombardier.
Mark to shoot at. A round or square piece of wood, which is generally painted in red and white circles, and has a black spot in the centre called the bull’s eye. Soldiers should be frequently practised in shooting at a mark. At the commencement of the French revolution, particularly in 1792, previous to the battle of Jemmappe, the inhabitants of the different towns exercised themselves several times during the course of the day, in firing at a mark. The national guards did the same. By means of this laudable practice several expert marksmen were formed. We need scarcely add, that the advantages which the service in general derived from their skill, has been too manifest to be denied. It must be evident to every military man that corps of light cavalry, mounted light artillery, and numerous small bodies of marksmen, capable of acting together, or on detached and desultory duties, would answer all the purposes of home defence.
Mark time.—To mark time is to move each leg alternately in quick or ordinary time, without gaining ground. This is frequently practiced when a front file or column has opened too much, in order to afford the rear an opportunity of getting up; and sometimes to let the head of a column disengage itself, or a body of troops file by, &c.
Knights of St. Mark. An order of knighthood which formerly existed in the republic of Venice, under the protection of St. Mark the evangelist.
To be Marked. Marshal Saxe, in his reveries, proposes that every soldier should be marked in his right hand to prevent desertion. He recommends the composition which is used by the Indians; and grounds the propriety of his plan upon the custom which prevailed among the Romans, who marked their soldiers with a hot iron. We mention this as a suggestion grounded upon good authority: but we by no means recommend it as an adoption which would be palatable.
Marksmen, men expert at hitting a mark.
Light-armed Marksmen, men that are armed and accoutred for very active and desultory service. See [Riflemen].
Austrian volunteer Marksmen, a corps which has been formed in the hereditary dominions of the emperor of Germany, and is daily increasing by recruits and volunteers from the Tyrol, &c. The success which has uniformly attended the French Tirailleurs in all their actions, has induced other nations to pay great attention to the formation of similar corps.
MARLINS, in artillery, are tarred white skains, or long wreaths or lines of untwisted hemp, dipped in pitch or tar, with which cables and other ropes are wrapped round, to prevent their fretting and rubbing in the blocks or pullies through which they pass. The same serves in artillery upon ropes used for rigging gins, usually put up in small parcels called skains.
MARON, Fr. a piece of brass or copper, about the size of a crown, on which the hours for going the rounds were marked, in the old French service. Several of these were put into a small bag, and deposited in the hands of the major of the regiment, out of which they were regularly drawn by the serjeants of companies, for the officers belonging to them. The hours and half hours of the night were engraved upon each maron in the following manner—Ronde de dix heures, de dix heures et demie. The ten o’clock rounds, or those of the half hour past ten.
These pieces were numbered 1, 2, &c. to correspond with the several periods of the nights; so that the officers for instance, who was to go the ten o’clock rounds, had as many marons marked 10, as there were posts or guard-houses which he was directed to visit. Thus on reaching the first, after having given the mot, or watchword to the corporal, (who, whilst he receives it, must keep the naked point of his sword or bayonet close to the chest of the person who gives it) he delivers into his hands the maron marked 1. These marons being pierced in the middle, are successively strung by the different corporals upon a piece of wire, from which they slide into a box called boîte aux rondes, or box belonging to the rounds. This box is carried next morning to the major, who keeps the key: and who on opening it, can easily ascertain whether the rounds have been regularly gone, by counting the different marons, and seeing them successively strung. This is certainly a most excellent invention to prevent a neglect of duty in officers, or non-commissioned officers.
Maron d’artifice, Fr. a species of firework, which is made with a piece of pasteboard in the shape of a parallelogram, one side of which is as five to three, so that fifteen squares equal among themselves may be made, three on one side, and five on the other; these are folded into the form of a die or cube, and filled with gunpowder. The effect produced by this firework is extremely beautiful.
MARQUE, or Letters of Marque, in military affairs, are letters of reprisal, granting the people of one state liberty to make reprisals on those of another. See [Letters of Marque].
MARQUEE, a word corrupted from the French marquise, signifying a tent or cover made of strong canvas or Russia-duck, which is thrown over another tent, and serves to keep out rain. Its primitive etymology may be traced to marquis, or marchio, whence marchers, and marches.
The complete weight of a marquée is 1 cwt. 17lbs. ridge pole, 7 feet; standard 8 feet.
MARQUER le pas, to mark time.
Marquer un camp, Fr. to prick out the lines of an encampment.
MARQUIS, marquess, marchio, margrave, a title of honor given by letter patent to a person who holds a middle rank between the dignity of a duke and that of an earl. This word, like margrave, is derived from the high Dutch, or from the French marche, a limit, as the guard of the frontiers was entrusted to a marquis. The title itself is originally French, and was first known under Charlemagne. King Richard the second first introduced the dignity of marquis among the British, by creating Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, marquis of Dublin; but it was a title without any office annexed to it.
Marquise, Fr. See [Marquee].
Tendre une Marquise, Fr. to pitch a marquée.
Marquise, Fr. This word likewise means a species of [fusée volante], which see.
MARS. According to the heathen mythology, the god of war was so called. The French frequently use the word in a figurative sense, viz. Les travaux de Mars, the labors or exploits of Mars; le métier de Mars, the military profession.
MARSAGLIA; near Turin in Italy, at the battle of 24th September, 1693, Catinat defeated prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy; this battle and place are memorable for being the first at which bayonets were used at the ends of musquets, and to this the French owed the victory.
The MARSEILLOIS, or Marseilles hymn, a national march adopted by the French during the course of their revolution, and since regularly played in their armies when they go to battle. It is frequently accompanied, or rather succeeded by the Cá Ira, a quick lively tune; the former being calculated for slow or ordinary time, and the latter for quick movements.
| MARSHAL, | - | |
| Field-Marshal, |
in its primitive signification means an officer who has the care and charge of horses; but it is now applied to officers who have very different employments.—In a military sense, it means the commander in chief of all the forces. It is likewise given as an honorary rank to general officers who have no immediate command. See [General].
Marshal of France, was an officer of the greatest dignity in the French army. It was first established by Philip-August, in the year 1185.
The French military institutions under the empire, has an establishment of marshals, which is a title of military honor given to generals of pre-eminent merit.
PROVOST-MARSHAL, an executive officer, whose duty is to see punishments put in force, when soldiers are condemned to death, or are to be otherwise chastised. Every army is provided with a provost-marshal general, who has several deputies under him. By the last general regulations it has been ordained, that in case the army should take the field in Great Britain, a deputy provost-marshal will be appointed to each district. The provost, under those circumstances, will frequently make the tour of the camp, and its environs, and will have orders to seize such persons as are committing disorders.
The provost-marshal will be particularly directed, in making his rounds, to execute the awful punishment which the military law awards against plundering and marauding.
And in order to assist him in the discovery of such persons as may be guilty of those offences, the regiments encamped nearest villages, will send frequent patroles into them, to apprehend such persons, as may be there without passes, or who having passes, may behave improperly.
If any soldier is base enough to attempt to desert to the enemy, he will suffer immediate death.
Any person forcing a safeguard will suffer death.
These punishments will attach equally to the followers of the camp, as to soldiers, and must be explained to them by the officers commanding the regiments by which such followers are employed.
The articles of war have decreed punishments for the following offences:—
Death is the absolute punishment for cowardice, or misbehaviour before an enemy, or speaking words inducing others to do the like.
For mutiny, or concealing a mutiny, desertion, sleeping on a post, or quitting it before relieved, plundering after victory, quitting a post in battle, compelling an officer to abandon or give up his post, or persuading others to do the like, corresponding with an enemy, and striking or refusing to obey any superior officer in the execution of his duty, a court-martial may inflict death, or any other punishment it may judge adequate to the offence.
The crimes of persuading others to desert, of concealing, assisting, or relieving an enemy; of being absent from the troop or company a soldier belongs to, absence from duty, drunkenness, and false alarms, are punishable at the discretion of a general or regimental court-martial.
All officers in the command of guards or detachments are enjoined to give assistance to the provost-marshal in the execution of his duty; and any officer or soldier impeding him in the same, or offering him any insult, will receive the most exemplary punishment.
MARSHY ground, les marais, Fr. As it may be frequently necessary to convey heavy ordnance, &c. over marshy ground, and sometimes indeed to erect batteries upon it, the following method has been recommended for those purposes:—
In the first place, a firm and solid road must be made, in order to convey, with safety, the different materials which may be wanted for the construction of the battery, and along which the men may securely drag the various pieces of ordnance. This road must be ten feet high at least.
If the marsh or bog should not be very deep, let a bed or platform, consisting of fascines, and disposed according to the direction of the road, be constructed between two rows of thick saucissons, that are secured and fixed in the earth with strong stakes. This platform must be two thirds as thick as the bog is deep, and contain 12 feet in breadth. Spread hurdles over the level surface of this platform, and then make another bed or covering with fascines, ten feet long, and disposed according to the breadth of the road, taking care to bind their ends, &c. well together by means of stakes, which must be driven through the hurdles and the lower bed. Let this second surface be sufficiently covered with earth and straw, to secure the fascines, and to render the road solid and compact.
If the road should appear unsafe after these precautions, it must be made wider and deeper.
If the marsh or bog be very deep, you must construct several beds or surfaces of fascines, in the manner already mentioned, taking care to make the top equal to the breadth of the road, and capable of supporting the weight of a waggon or carriage. The ground for the epaulement belonging to the platforms, their recoil backwards, and the path to the magazines, must be rendered firm and solid after the same manner. On each side of this epaulement you must throw up a berm or path, measuring three feet in front, and as much on the sides.
You will collect the earth, &c. in the usual way for the construction of batteries on rocks, and mask your artificers in like manner.
MARTEAU d’armes, Fr. an offensive weapon, so called from its resemblance to a hammer.
MARTIAL-Law, is the law of war, which entirely depends on the arbitrary power of the commander of the army when martial law is declared; and then the law of war is greatly influenced by the situation where war is carried on; by the conduct of the people in whose country the war exists: there are certain principles of humanity and honor, which all nations observe in time of war, which have the force of law; as the law of truces, the sacred character of ambassadors, &c. The laws that relate to the army are also branches of martial law.
MARTINET. A word frequently used to signify a strict disciplinarian, who sometimes gives officers and soldiers unnecessary trouble. It is supposed to have taken its origin from an adjutant of that name, who was in high repute, as a drill officer, during the reign of Louis the XIVth.
Martinet, Fr. A small discipline, or cat o’ nine tails, fixed to the end of a wooden handle, which schoolmasters use to punish refractory or idle boys. This affords us another path, and perhaps a surer one, than the [surname] already quoted, to find out the real origin of Martinet in a military sense, more especially as it is particularly indicative of the severity that is sometimes practised by what is, ridiculously enough, called a tip-top adjutant.
MARTINGAL, (Martingale, Fr.) a thong of leather, which is fastened to one end of the girths under the belly of a horse, and at the other end to the mussroll, to keep him from rearing.
MASHKAWAR, Ind. Monthly accounts.
A MASK, Fr. in field fortification, (une masque.) It sometimes happens, that a ditch or fossé must be dug in an exposed situation; in this case it will be absolutely necessary for the artificers and workmen to get under cover by means of masking themselves in such a manner as to answer the double purpose of executing their immediate object, and of deceiving the enemy with respect to the real spot they occupy.
To effect the latter purpose, several masks must be hastily thrown up, whilst the men are employed behind one; by which means the enemy will either mistake the real point, or be induced to pour his fire in several directions, and thus weaken its effect.
A mask is generally six feet high. Bags made of wad or wool are too expensive on these occasions; nor are gabions, stuffed with fascines, seven or eight feet high to be preferred; for if the fascines be tied together they will leave spaces between them in the gabions; and if they are not bound together, they will be so open at top as to admit shot, &c.
In order to obviate these inconveniences, the following method has been proposed:—place two chandeliers, each seven feet high, and two broad, between the uprights, after which fill up the vacant spaces with fascines nine feet high, upon six inches diameter. One toise and a half of epaulement will require two chandeliers, and 60 fascines, to mask it.
The engineer, or artillery officer places himself behind this mask, and draws his plan.
As you must necessarily have earth, &c. to complete your work, these articles may be brought in shovels, sacks, or baskets; and if the quarter from whence you draw them should be exposed to the enemy’s fire, cover that line, as well as the line of communication, between the trenches, or the parallels, with a mask.
If you cannot procure earth and fascines, make use of sacks stuffed with wool, &c. and let their diameters be three feet, and their length likewise three, and let the outside be frequently wetted to prevent them from catching fire. See pages 828, 829, 830, Vol. ii. of the Aide-Memoire a l’Usage des Officiers d’Artillerie de France.
To Mask, (Masquer, Fr.) To cover any particular post or situation, for the purposes of attack or defence. In ambuscade, a battery is said to be masked, when its outward appearance is such as not to create any suspicion or mistrust in a reconnoitring or approaching enemy. A town or fortress, a battery, or the head of a bridge, may likewise be said to be masked, when a superior force sits down before them, and keeps the garrison in awe. This is frequently done, in order to render the advantages of such a place or hold ineffectual, while an army acts in its neighborhood, or marches by.
MASQUER un passage, Fr. To block up any road or avenue through which an army might attempt to march.
MASSALGIES, Ind. Persons employed in India as porters or messengers. Massalgies, coolies, and palankeen bearers, are allowed a certain batta when they travel. Mussal is a torch; and mussalgee a torch bearer, a person who carries a flambeau to give light.
MASSE, Fr. A species of stock-purse, which during the French monarchy was lodged in the hands of the regimental treasurer or paymaster, for every serjeant, corporal anspessade, drummer, and soldier. The sum retained for each serjeant was vingt deniers per day; and ten deniers for each of the other ranks, according to the establishment, not the effective number of each battalion. Out of these stoppages a settled and regular masse, or stock-purse, was made up, and at the end of every month it was paid into the hands of the major or officer entrusted with the interior management of the corps, and was then appropriated to defray the expence of clothing the different regiments, and lodged in the hands of the directors or inspector-general of clothing.
That part of the masse, or stock-purse, which remained in the major’s hands, and which was destined for the dress of the recruits, as well as for repairs of the regimental clothing, &c. could never be disposed of, or appropriated, without the knowlege and concurrence of the colonels commandant of regiments, the lieutenant-colonels, and other superior officers of the corps.
To this end it was customary for the major to call the commanding officers and oldest captains of the regiments together, in order to lay before them the actual state of the corps, to select some officer who should superintend the repairing of whatever was found necessary, and defray the lodging-money, &c. After this statement has been examined, the major must deliver in a faithful account of all the regimental debts that have been incurred; he must further explain how the last amount of the masse, or stock-purse, has been laid out, and specify the actual sum in hand, that a proper arrangement may be made, and that the repairs in the clothing, and the expences attending quarters, &c. may be duly ascertained.
The major was, on these occasions, directed to give his advice, with due respect and deference to his superior officers, and to suggest the best and cheapest method of fitting out and embellishing the regiment, carefully adhering to that system of œconomy which prevents it from running into debt. The statement of the several articles, with their appropriate expenditure, was specifically drawn out, and counter-signed by the colonel-commandant, and two or three of the oldest captains of companies. Their signatures served as vouchers for the major. By these means all internal cavils and disputes were obviated; the interior œconomy of the corps was well conducted, and a seasonable check was kept upon those officers who had the management of the regiment. Every thing, besides, came in a regular form before the inspector-general, under whose eyes all the accounts were ultimately laid; whether they regarded the recruiting service, or the clothing and distribution of necessaries.
Masse du regiment Royal Artillerie, Fr. This corps, like other regiments in the old French service, had its masse, or stock-purse, formed by a certain stoppage or allowance for each serjeant, and for each master artificer in the corps of workmen; and for each corporal, anspessade, cannonier, bombardier, sapper, miner, under-master, artificer, apprentice, cadet, private artillery-man, and drummer. These sums formed an aggregate masse, or stock-purse, which was regularly submitted to the director general of the school of artillery, and was laid out for the clothing of the different battalions, &c.
Masse des compagnies Franches d’infanterie, Fr. The masse belonging to these companies was formed in the same manner, and was under the control of the director or inspector-general.
Masse de la cavalerie et des dragons, Fr. Every brigadier, horseman, carabineer, hussar, dragoon, trumpet and cymbal player, and drummer, belonging to the old French cavalry, was subject to a certain stoppage from the allowances that were made, over and above their regular subsistence, for the purpose of forming their masse, or stock-purse. This money remained in the hands of the regimental treasurer, who accounted for its application at the end of every month, and delivered a statement into the hands of the officer who was entrusted with its distribution; the same having been vouched for by the colonels-general of cavalry and dragoons.
In addition to these extracts from a French work, it may not be thought superfluous to give the following more specific explanation of what was comprehended under the term of regimental masse, or stock-purse, that was made out of stoppages.
There were three sorts of masses, or regimental stock-purses in the old French service; two of which were sanctioned by authority, or the king’s order. The third was confined to the interior management of each corps, but never appeared in any public regulation. On this account it obtained the appellation of masse noire, or dark and unknown.
The first masse directed by government to be attended to in every regiment, was called masse de linge et chaussure, or stock of necessaries, such as linen, shoes, &c. This masse was made up by means of a certain proportion of the recruit’s bounty (amounting to 15 livres) which was kept in hand, and by the retention of a part of the daily pay of each soldier. The money, thus stopped, was destined to keep up the soldier’s regular stock of shoes and breeches, as the king only allowed him one pair of each of those articles every year. He was likewise enabled thereby to provide himself with stockings, shirts, cravats or stocks, handkerchiefs, and gaiters; for every French soldier was obliged to produce at each monthly inspection of necessaries, one good pair of shoes, two shirts, two stocks or cravats, (one white and the other black,) two handkerchiefs, three pair of gaiters; one of which was to be white for parade duty, one of black worsted to mount ordinary guards, and one of black canvas for marching.
At the expiration of three months a regular account was made out of what remained unappropriated of the 15 livres, and of the masse in general, after the soldier had been supplied with the above specified articles. This statement was stuck up in every barrack-room, exhibiting the balance due to each man, who, on his side, was obliged to have a written counterpart, or schedule, of all the different articles, and of the exact sum in hand. When the captain of the company inspected the necessaries, each soldier was directed to produce this schedule, and to repeat its contents by heart.
Whenever it so happened, that 15 livres could not be kept in hand out of the soldier’s bounty, he was permitted to work, the instant he could, with propriety, be dismissed the drill; for which indulgence, and in order to keep his firelock and accoutrements in good condition, he was obliged to pay six livres.
The second masse was for purposes of cleanliness and military appearance. This masse grew out of the surplus of two or three livres, which was stopped out of the pay of the men that were permitted to work; and from a further stoppage of two deniers out of the daily pay of each soldier. Out of this masse the soldier was obliged to supply himself with pipe-clay or whiting, clothes brushes, shoe brushes, blacking, bees wax, emery, and hair powder, and powder bag, and to defray the expence of washing. He was likewise enabled thereby to pay a man for shaving. This man was attached to the company, and was called Frater, or Brother. The same practice prevails in most regiments belonging to the British service, with this difference, that there is not any direct authority to enforce the observance of it as a regulation.
In cavalry regiments, as in the infantry, the masses were formed by a stoppage of two or three livres out of the pay of those men that were allowed to work, and by the produce of the dung which was valued at two sols per day. There was likewise a further stoppage of two deniers out of the daily subsistence of each dragoon, by means of which he was regularly furnished with shovels, beesoms, and pitchforks for the stables.
The third masse (which, as we have already remarked, although distinguished by the appellation of masse noire, or dark and unknown, was still found indispensibly necessary for the interior management of each regiment) grew out of the surplus money that was given for discharges, (it being only required of each regiment to account to government for 100 livres per man) out of deaths and other casualties, and out of the money which had accumulated from men struck off the sick list. The regiment by means of this fund, (which may in some degree be considered in the same light that the stock-purse of a British regiment is,) made up the deficiency of the king’s bounty, which was seldom or ever found enough to answer the purposes of recruiting. The persons employed upon this service were accordingly paid out of the masse noire; which was further increased by certain contributions that the men, who were permitted to work, voluntarily gave, in addition to the six or seven livres already mentioned.
Masse d’armes, Fr. a warlike weapon, which was formerly used. It consisted of a long pole with a large iron head.
MASSELOTTE, Fr. A French term which is used in foundery, signifying that superfluous metal which remains after a cannon or mortar has been cast, and which is sawed or filed off, to give the piece its proper form.
MASSIF, Fr. A short stick or rod, used by artificers in making cartridges.
MASSOOLAS, Ind. The most common and slightest boats made use of on the Coromandel coast.
MASSUE, Fr. a club.
MASTER at arms, in the marine, an officer appointed to teach the officers and crew of a ship of war the exercise of small arms; to confine prisoners, and plant centinels over them, and to superintend whatever relates to them during their confinement. He is also to observe, that the fire and lights are all extinguished, as soon as the evening gun is fired, except those that are permitted by proper authority, or under the inspection of centinels. It is likewise his duty to attend the gangway, when any boats arrive aboard, and search them carefully, together with their rowers, that no spirituous liquors may be conveyed into the ship, unless by permission of the commanding officer. In these several duties he is assisted by proper attendants, called his corporals, who also relieve the centinels, and one another, at certain periods.
Master gunner, in a ship of war, an officer appointed to take charge of the artillery and ammunition aboard, and to teach the men the exercise of the great guns. See [Gunner].
Master general of the ordnance. See [Ordnance].
Baggage-MASTER and inspector of roads, an appointment in the British service.
Barrack-MASTER-general, an officer with the rank of a major general in the British army, vested with considerable powers. These powers were formerly exercised by the board of ordnance, but they were transferred to the barrack-master-general by the secretary at war on the 30th day of May, 1794. In 1795 the two warrants, whereby all matters relative to the government of barracks had been partially entrusted to the board of ordnance, and a barrack-master-general, were revoked, and the following rules, orders, powers, and directions were established in lieu thereof, in as much as regards the duties of the department entrusted to the barrack-master-general to the British forces.
It is the duty of the barrack-master-general to erect and keep in repair all barracks that are not in fortified places; and all supplies of barrack furniture, utensils, and other stores for the troops, are to be furnished by him. The accommodation for royal artillery in barracks is under the direction of the barrack-master-general, excepting at Woolwich, or wherever there may be a separate barrack for the artillery, or a fixed station for that corps.
The commanding officers in barracks are, in all matters relative to the accommodation, disposition, and supply of the troops stationed therein, to be under the direction of the barrack-master-general; and all applications and requisitions are to be made to him.
Whenever any damage, except from fair wear and tear, has been done to barrack buildings, or any of the furniture or utensils have been injured, destroyed, or embezzled, a just estimate must be formed by the barrack-master; and if his demand be not immediately paid by the commanding officer, it shall be verified by affidavit of the barrack-master, submitted to the commanding officer, and if the answer be not satisfactory, the barrack-master-general is to certify the amount of the expence of making good the said injury to the secretary at war, in order that he may direct the same to be charged against the regiment, or detachment concerned.
In order to prevent the inconveniencies and injury which might arise from officers making alterations in the barrack-rooms, &c. the barrack-master-general is directed to have the use, for which each room is intended, lettered on the door; and if any officer shall attempt to make any alteration in any room, or convert it to any purpose, other than is so specified, or remove any of the furniture belonging thereto, the barrack-master (who shall always be permitted to visit the rooms at seasonable hours, whenever he desires so to do,) shall represent the same to the commanding officer, and in case immediate attention is not paid thereto, the barrack-master is strictly commanded immediately to report it to the barrack-master-general. And when any room shall not be occupied, the same shall be locked up, and no part of the furniture be removed therefrom.
No officer, or barrack-master, is, upon any account, to make any alteration or repairs at any barrack, or cause any expence to be incurred in providing any article relative thereto, without the direction of the barrack-master-general first obtained for that purpose.
On the 25th of March, 24th of June, 23d of September, and 24th of December, in every year, regular returns are to be transmitted by the barrack-masters to the barrack-master-general, of the state of the barracks, and of the furniture and utensils, both in use and store, specifying the actual condition of each, and the manner in which the apartments of the barrack or barracks, under their care have been occupied for the three months preceding; which return shall be countersigned by the commanding officers, who are directed personally and diligently to inspect the same.
The barrack-master-general is to take care, that a proper quantity of good and sufficient firing, candles, and other stores, be provided for each barrack every year. And the same is to be duly delivered out to the troops by the respective barrack-masters, at such times, and in such proportions, as are specified in the general regulations. The deliveries are to be vouched, not only by certificates of the actual amount, but also by accurate returns, stating the number in every troop, company or detachment, present at each weekly delivery. The said certificates and returns are to be given under the hand of the commanding officer in the barracks, and to be transmitted with the accounts. And a return thereof is without delay to be transmitted by the several barrack-masters, who from thenceforth are to remain accountable for the same to the barrack-master-general.
Half-yearly accounts of expenditures, with general returns of the receipts and issues, and the necessary vouchers for the same, are to be made up to the 24th of June, and 24th of December, in each year, and to be transmitted, within fourteen days after the said periods, to the barrack-master-general, who is to examine and settle the same without delay.
The issue of forage to the cavalry, is to be made according to a prescribed regulation. The officer commanding in each of the cavalry barracks, where forage shall be issued, is to transmit to the barrack-master-general a weekly return of the number of horses for which it has been delivered; and also the name and rank of each officer, with the number of horses for which he has received rations of forage. And at such periods as shall be required, by the barrack-master-general, the said commanding officer shall transmit to him, a general statement of the quantity of forage received and actually issued to the troops, the said certificate to be according to such form as shall be prescribed by the barrack-master-general.
Whenever small beer is to be issued to troops in barrack, it can only be supplied by such persons as shall have been approved by the barrack-master-general; and the delivery is to be vouched by a weekly return from the commanding officer, stating the number to whom it has been issued. And at such periods as shall be required by the barrack-master-general, the said commanding officer is to transmit to him a general statement of the quantity of small beer actually issued to the troops; the said certificate to be according to such form, as shall be prescribed by the barrack-master-general.
Every instance of neglect or misconduct which may occur in the management of barracks, must be reported to the barrack-master-general by the several officers commanding in barracks; and on the representation being judged sufficiently weighty, an inspector is to be sent down for the specific purpose of seeing every matter of complaint removed.
The barrack-master-general is authorised to take cognizance of all matters relative to accommodation, disposition, and supply, of the troops stationed in barracks, reporting thereupon, whenever it may be requisite, to the secretary at war, for the king’s information. And all officers, and barrack-masters, are directed and enjoined to obey such orders and directions as the barrack-master-general shall find necessary to be given thereon.
The barrack-master-general is from time to time to receive imprests of money, for the current services of each year, upon estimates signed by him, and delivered into the office of the secretary at war. And at the end of each year, he shall make up and deliver into the said office, a general account of barrack expenditures for the preceding twelve months. The half-yearly accounts of the several barrack-masters, and the accounts of other persons to whom monies shall have been paid within the period on behalf of the barrack department (for the propriety, justness, and accuracy of which, as also for their strict conformity to the regulations, he shall be held responsible,) together with their acquittances, shall be the vouchers upon which the said general accounts shall be passed, and warrants shall be made out according to the royal sign manual. See pages 69 to 80, General Regulations.
Quarter-MASTER of the victuals. The person who had the chief care and management of the provisions belonging to an army was formerly so called. See [Purveyor].
Scout-Master-general. A person, formerly so called, under whose direction all the scouts and army messengers were placed. The appointment does not exist at present.
MASULIT, a boat used in the East Indies, which is calked with moss.
MATCH, in artillery, a kind of rope slightly twisted, and prepared to retain fire for the use of the artillery, mines, fireworks, &c. Slow match is made of hemp or tow, spun on the wheel like cord, but very slack; and is composed of three twists, which are afterwards again covered with tow, so that the twists do not appear: lastly, it is boiled in the lees of old wine. This, when once lighted at the end, burns on gradually, without ever going out, till the whole be consumed. It is mounted on a lint stock.
Quick Match, used in artillery, made of three cotton strands drawn into lengths, and put into a kettle just covered with white wine vinegar, and then a quantity of saltpetre and mealed powder is put in it, and boiled till well mixed. Others put only saltpetre into water, and after that take it out hot, and lay it into a trough with some mealed powder, moistened with some spirits of wine, thoroughly wrought into the cotton by rolling it backwards and forwards with the hands; and when this is done, they are taken out separately, drawn through mealed powder, and dried upon a line. See [Laboratory].
Match.—The slow match used by the English is made by contract; one yard of it will burn about 8 hours. The French slow match is usually made by soaking light twisted white rope for three days in a strong lye. It burns about 3 feet in 6 hours.
Slow match was made at Gibraltar, during the last siege, in the following manner: eight ounces of saltpetre were put into a gallon of water, and just made to boil over a slow fire; strong blue paper was then wetted with the liquor, and hung to dry. When dry, each sheet was rolled up tight, and the outward edge pasted down, to prevent its opening: half a sheet, thus prepared, will burn 3 hours.
Quick Match Compositions.
| Worsted Match. | ||||
| Worsted | 10 | oz. | ||
| Mealed powder | 10 | lbs. | ||
| Spirits of wine | 3 | pints. | ||
| Water | 3 | do. | ||
| Isinglass | ¹⁄₂ | pint. | ||
| Cotton Match. | ||||
| Cotton | 1 | lb. | 12 | oz. |
| Saltpetre | 1 | 8 | ||
| Mealed powder | 10 | — | ||
| Spirits of wine | 2 | quarts. | ||
| Water | 3 | pints. | ||
The worsted or cotton must be laid evenly in an earthen or other pan, and the different ingredients poured over it, and about half the powder being left a short time to soak, it is afterwards wound smoothly on a reel, and laid to dry, the remaining half of the powder is then sifted over it; and it is ready for use when dry.
The French have lately made their slow match by soaking the rope in a solution of sugar of lead and rain water: in the proportion of ³⁄₄ths of an ounce of sugar of lead to one pint of water; and this they esteem as preferable to the old sort.
MATHEMATICS, originally signified any kind of discipline or learning; but, at present, denotes that science which teaches, or contemplates, whatever is capable of being numbered or measured; and accordingly is subdivided into arithmetic, which has numbers for its object; and geometry, which treats of magnitude.
Mathematics are commonly distinguished into pure and speculative, which consider quantity abstractedly; and mixed, which treat of magnitude as subsisting in material bodies, and consequently are interwoven every where with physical considerations.
Mixed Mathematics are very comprehensive, since to them may be referred astronomy, optics, geography, hydrography, hydrostatics, mechanics, fortification, gunnery, projectiles, mining, engineering, and navigation.
Pure mathematics have one peculiar advantage, that they occasion no disputes among wrangling disputants, as in other branches of knowlege; and the reason is, because the definitions of the terms are premised, and every one that reads a proposition has the same idea of every part of it. Hence it is easy to put an end to all mathematical controversies, by shewing, that our adversary has not stuck to his definitions, or has not laid down true premises, or else that he has drawn false conclusions from true principles; and, in case we are able to do neither of these, we must acknowlege the truth of what he has proved.
It is true, that in mixed mathematics, where we reason mathematically upon physical subjects, we cannot give such just definitions as the geometricians; we must therefore rest content with descriptions; and they will be of the same use as definitions, provided we are consistent with ourselves, and always mean the same thing by those terms we have once explained.
Dr. Barrow gives a most elegant description of the excellence and usefulness of mathematical knowlege, in his inaugural oration upon being appointed professor of mathematics at Cambridge.
The mathematics, he observes, effectually exercise, not vainly delude, nor vexatiously torment studious minds with obscure subtleties; but plainly demonstrate every thing within their reach, draw certain conclusions, instruct by profitable rules, and unfold pleasant questions. These disciplines likewise enure and corroborate the mind to constant diligence in study; they wholly deliver us from a credulous simplicity, most strongly fortify us against the vanity of scepticism, effectually restrain us from a rash presumption, most easily incline us to a due assent, perfectly subject us to the government of right reason. While the mind is abstracted and elevated from sensible matter, distinctly views pure forms, conceives the beauty of ideas, and investigates the harmony of proportions; the manners themselves are sensibly corrected and improved, the affections composed and rectified, the fancy calmed and settled, and the understanding raised and excited to nobler contemplations.
MATRAS, Fr. a sort of dart which was anciently used, and which was not sufficiently pointed to occasion any thing more than a bruise.
MATRON, a woman, generally the wife of some well behaved and good soldier, who is employed to assist in the regimental hospital. She is under the direction of the surgeon, by whom she is originally appointed to the situation. See [Nurse].
MATROSSES, are properly assistants to the gunner, being soldiers in the British regiments of artillery, and next to them: they assist in loading, firing, and spunging the great guns. They carry firelocks, and march along with the guns and store-waggons, both as a guard, and to give their assistance on every emergency.
MATTER of Deed, in law, denotes something to be proved by witnesses, in contradistinction from matter of record, which may be proved by some process, &c. appearing in any court of record.
Matter, in a military sense, especially with regard to courts-martial, consists of the specific charges which are brought against a prisoner, and to which the president and members most strictly confine themselves. It has been very properly observed, in a small pamphlet upon martial law, that unacquainted with the serious consequence of a strict attention to the minutiæ of form in criminal proceedings, general courts-martial have looked upon the first swearing in of the court, as a sufficient authority to warrant their proceeding on the trial of a variety of offences; whereas, in propriety, the court should be sworn afresh at the commencement of every new prosecution: for though, as judges, (in the manner of a court of common law) once swearing would be sufficient; yet, as jurors, who are sworn on every different trial, though identically the same men, so are the members of general courts-martial to be considered, when a new criminal and fresh matter are brought before them. Lest, however, an established, and therefore an undisputed practice, should have acquired a force still difficult to be eradicated, we shall endeavor to point out those reasons which induce us to maintain this opinion. In the oath which is taken by each of the several members of a general court-martial, the words matter and prisoner, are cautiously inserted. These words, therefore, being absolutely confined to a single matter, and a single prisoner, and matters and prisoners not being subjected to their jurisdiction, how is it possible that men, with propriety, can proceed upon a trial which they are not warranted by law to decide upon? Were the obligation in the Articles of War decisive as to the trial of all matters, and all persons, and in all cases; or were the court possessed of the authority of extending the meaning of the oath, once swearing would undoubtedly be sufficient; but, as in every respect, the contrary is evident, as the very words of the oath express that “they shall well and truly try and determine according to their evidence, in the matter before them, &c.” How can it be otherwise than an unwarrantable irregularity in them, to proceed upon the trial of offenders, who, in the eye of the law, are not amenable to their authority? For, if the first prisoner to be tried, has a right to challenge an officer, who may be appointed to sit on an investigation of his offence, as a member of a court of enquiry, or who may be liable to any exceptions, why shall not the second and third prisoner be entitled to the same merciful indulgence? See Thoughts on Martial Law, pages 25, 26, 27, 28.
Combustible Matter, and Matter of composition. All solids and fluids are so called which are of an inflammable nature themselves, and can communicate fire to other substances.
MATTUCASHLASH, an ancient Scotch weapon, sometimes called armpit dagger, which was worn there, ready to be used on coming to close quarters. This, with a broad sword and shield, completely armed the highlanders. Since the use of fire arms, this weapon has been laid aside.
MATTOCK. An instrument somewhat resembling a pickax, but having two broad sharp edges instead of points.
MATTRESS, a sort of quilted bed of straw, used by officers on service, instead of the feather bed, differing from the paillasse in one particular only; the straw in the latter being loose, whereas that of the mattress is quilted in.
MAUG, Ind. The name of a month which partly agrees with our January and February.
MAUL, a heavy beater or hammer, generally shod with iron, used in driving piles, &c.
MAWANY, Ind. See [Kistbundy].
MAXIMS, in fortification. See [Fortification].
MEALED, pulverized, or reduced to powder.
MEAN Fortification. See [Fortification].
MEANA, Ind. A machine or vehicle, a species of palankeen, but only used for carrying one person. It is borne by four men, and supported by means of a bamboo extended from the ends; being generally seven feet long, and three wide, with Venetian blinds, which slide and act as doors. Persons in India sometimes travel to a considerable distance in these vehicles; the number of bearers being increased, and successively relieved. It is computed that they will easily go at the rate of six miles in the hour.
MEASURE, in geometry, any quantity assumed as one, to which the ratio of other homogeneous or similar quantities is expressed.
Measure of an angle, the length of an arch described from the vertex to any place between its legs: hence angles are distinguished by the ratio of the arches between the legs to the peripheries. See [Angle].
Measure of a figure, is a square, whose side is an inch, foot, yard, or other determinate measure. Hence square measures.
Among geometricians it is usually a square rod, called decempeda, divided into 10 square feet, and those into square digits, and those again into 10 lines, &c.
Measure of a line, any right line taken at pleasure, and considered as unity.
Measure of the mass or quantity of matter, in mechanics, is its weight: it being apparent that all the matter which coheres with a body, gravitates with it; and it being found by experiment, that the gravities of homogeneal bodies are in proportion to their bulks: hence while the mass continues the same, the absolute weight will be the same, whatever figure it puts on; for as to its specific weight, it varies as the quantity of its surface does.
Measure of a number, in arithmetic, such a number as divides another without leaving a fraction: thus 9 is a measure of 27.
Measure of a solid, is a cube, whose side is an inch, foot, yard, or other determinate length: in geometry, it is a cubic perch, divided into cubic feet, digits, &c. Hence cubic measure, or measures of capacity.
Measure of velocity, in projectiles, and mechanics, the space passed over by a moving body in any given time. The space therefore must be divided into as many equal parts, as the time is conceived to be divided into: the quantity of space answering to such portion of time, is the measure of the velocity.
Measures then are various, according to the different kinds and dimensions of things measured. Hence arise lineal and longitudinal measures for lines or lengths; for square areas; and solid or cubic, for bodies and their capacities: all which again are very different in different countries and ages, and even many of them for different commodities. Hence also arise other divisions, of domestic and foreign, ancient and modern, dry and wet (or liquid) measures, &c.
Long Measure. The English standard long measure, or that whereby the quantities of things are ordinarily estimated, is the yard containing three English feet, equal to three Paris feet one inch and ³⁄₁₂ths of an inch, or ⁷⁄₉ths of a Paris ell. Its subdivisions are the foot, span, palm, inch, and barley-corn: its multipliers are the pace, fathom, pole, furlong, and mile.
Table, which shews the length in English lines of the several long measures, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 English feet.
Long measure.
| Places. | Measure. | Length of each measure —— | Equiv. to 100 feet —— | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lines 100 | num. 100 | ||||
| Aix la Chapelle | foot | 136 | ,90 | 105 | ,19 |
| Amsterdam | foot | 134 | ,25 | 107 | ,26 |
| Anspach | foot | 140 | ,63 | 102 | ,40 |
| Antwerp | foot | 134 | ,86 | 106 | ,75 |
| Augsburg | foot | 139 | ,88 | 102 | ,94 |
| Basil | foot | 140 | ,85 | 102 | ,24 |
| Bavaria | foot | 105 | ,05 | 137 | ,08 |
| Bergen | palm | 41 | ,87 | 343 | ,92 |
| Berlin | foot | 146 | ,27 | 98 | ,45 |
| Bern | foot | 138 | ,50 | 103 | ,97 |
| Bologna | paso | 896 | , | 16 | ,07 |
| foot | 179 | ,20 | 80 | ,36 | |
| Bremen | foot | 136 | ,58 | 105 | ,43 |
| Brescia | braccio | 221 | ,06 | 65 | ,14 |
| Breslaw | foot | 134 | ,25 | 107 | ,26 |
| Briel | foot | 158 | ,30 | 90 | ,97 |
| Brunswick | foot | 134 | ,77 | 106 | ,86 |
| Brussels | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Cagliari | palmo | 95 | ,67 | 150 | ,52 |
| Cairo | derah | 262 | , | 54 | ,96 |
| Carara | palmo | 115 | ,20 | 125 | , |
| Castille | paso | 658 | ,75 | 21 | ,86 |
| foot | 131 | ,75 | 109 | ,30 | |
| palmo | 98 | ,81 | 145 | ,73 | |
| China | foot for merchants | 159 | ,80 | 90 | ,11 |
| foot for mathematicians | 157 | ,35 | 91 | ,51 | |
| kongpu for architects | 152 | ,45 | 94 | ,46 | |
| foot land measure | 150 | ,96 | 95 | ,39 | |
| Cleves | foot | 139 | ,56 | 103 | ,18 |
| Cologne | foot | 129 | ,97 | 110 | ,80 |
| Constantinople | foot | 334 | ,50 | 43 | ,05 |
| Cracow | foot | 168 | ,33 | 85 | ,55 |
| Dantzic | foot | 135 | ,50 | 106 | ,27 |
| Denmark | faum | 889 | ,32 | 16 | ,19 |
| foot | 148 | ,22 | 97 | ,15 | |
| Dordrecht | foot | 170 | , | 84 | ,71 |
| Dresden | foot | 133 | ,65 | 107 | ,74 |
| Egypt | derah | 262 | , | 54 | ,96 |
| Embden | foot | 139 | ,88 | 102 | ,94 |
| England | foot | 144 | , | 100 | , |
| Erfurt | foot | 133 | ,28 | 108 | ,05 |
| Ferrol | codo | 263 | , | 54 | ,75 |
| foot | 131 | ,50 | 109 | ,50 | |
| palmo | 32 | ,87 | 438 | , | |
| Florence | braccio | 258 | ,90 | 55 | ,62 |
| France | toise | 920 | ,46 | 15 | ,64 |
| pied de roi | 153 | ,41 | 93 | ,86 | |
| metre | 472 | ,27 | 30 | ,49 | |
| Francfort on the Maine | foot | 135 | ,30 | 106 | ,43 |
| Geneva | foot | 230 | ,44 | 62 | ,49 |
| Genoa | palmo | 118 | ,58 | 121 | ,44 |
| Goes | foot | 141 | ,60 | 101 | ,70 |
| Gottingen | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Gotha | foot | 135 | ,85 | 106 | , |
| Greece | foot | 144 | ,68 | 99 | ,53 |
| Groningen | foot | 137 | ,97 | 104 | ,37 |
| Halle | foot | 140 | ,63 | 102 | ,40 |
| Hamburgh | foot | 135 | ,30 | 106 | ,43 |
| Hanover | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Harlem | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Hague | foot | 153 | ,41 | 93 | ,88 |
| Heidelberg | foot | 131 | ,57 | 109 | ,44 |
| Hildesheim | foot | 132 | ,26 | 108 | ,88 |
| Holland | foot | 134 | ,25 | 107 | ,26 |
| Holstein | foot | 140 | ,95 | 102 | ,16 |
| Inspruck | foot | 150 | , | 96 | , |
| Konigsberg | foot | 145 | ,32 | 99 | ,09 |
| Leghorn | palmo | 32 | ,87 | 438 | , |
| braccio | 258 | ,90 | 55 | ,62 | |
| Leipsic | foot | 133 | ,50 | 107 | ,86 |
| Leyden | foot | 148 | ,08 | 97 | ,24 |
| Liege | foot | 135 | ,85 | 106 | , |
| Lisbon | foot | 159 | ,92 | 90 | ,05 |
| palmo long measure | 106 | ,62 | 135 | ,06 | |
| palmo short measure | 103 | ,56 | 139 | ,05 | |
| London | foot | 144 | , | 100 | , |
| Louvain | foot | 134 | ,86 | 106 | ,75 |
| Lubeck | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Lunenburg | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Lyons | foot | 161 | ,40 | 89 | ,22 |
| Magdeburg | foot | 133 | ,92 | 107 | ,53 |
| Manheim | foot | 137 | , | 105 | ,10 |
| Mantua | braccio | 219 | ,70 | 65 | ,54 |
| Mastrick | foot | 132 | ,64 | 108 | ,57 |
| Mecklenburg | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Mentz | foot | 142 | ,23 | 101 | ,25 |
| Middleburg | foot | 141 | ,70 | 101 | ,62 |
| Milan | foot | 187 | ,50 | 76 | ,80 |
| Munich | foot | 105 | ,05 | 137 | ,08 |
| Muscovy | foot | 158 | , | 91 | ,14 |
| Naples | palmo | 124 | ,54 | 115 | ,62 |
| Neufchatel | foot | 141 | ,70 | 101 | ,62 |
| Nuremburg | foot | 143 | ,50 | 100 | ,35 |
| Oldenburg | foot | 139 | ,88 | 102 | ,94 |
| Osnaburg | foot | 131 | ,90 | 109 | ,17 |
| Padua | foot | 167 | ,25 | 86 | ,10 |
| Palermo | palmo | 114 | ,84 | 125 | ,39 |
| Paris | toise | 920 | ,46 | 15 | ,64 |
| pied de roi | 153 | ,41 | 93 | ,86 | |
| metre | 472 | ,27 | 30 | ,49 | |
| Parma | braccio | 258 | ,15 | 55 | ,73 |
| Persia | arisch | 459 | ,20 | 31 | ,36 |
| Placentia | braccio | 258 | ,14 | 55 | ,78 |
| Pomerania | foot | 137 | ,97 | 104 | ,37 |
| Prague | foot | 142 | ,55 | 101 | ,02 |
| Ratzeburg | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Reggio | braccio | 250 | ,20 | 57 | ,55 |
| Revel | foot | 126 | ,40 | 113 | ,92 |
| Rhine | foot | 148 | ,23 | 97 | ,15 |
| Riga | foot | 129 | ,45 | 111 | ,24 |
| foot of Holland | 134 | ,25 | 107 | ,26 | |
| Rimini | braccio | 256 | ,75 | 56 | ,08 |
| Rome | foot | 139 | ,14 | 103 | ,50 |
| palmo | 105 | ,47 | 136 | ,53 | |
| Rostock | foot | 136 | ,58 | 105 | ,43 |
| Rotterdam | foot | 147 | ,55 | 97 | ,59 |
| Rouen | foot | 127 | ,84 | 112 | ,64 |
| Russia | foot Rhenish | 148 | ,23 | 97 | ,15 |
| foot English | 144 | , | 100 | , | |
| Samos | foot | 163 | ,40 | 88 | ,13 |
| Sardinia | palmo of Genoa | 118 | ,58 | 121 | ,44 |
| palmo of Cagliari | 95 | ,68 | 150 | ,50 | |
| Siam | ken | 453 | ,85 | 31 | ,73 |
| Stade | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Stettin | foot | 133 | ,50 | 107 | ,86 |
| Stockholm | foot | 140 | ,20 | 102 | ,71 |
| Stralsund | foot | 133 | ,50 | 107 | ,86 |
| Strasburg | foot | 136 | ,66 | 105 | ,37 |
| Sweden | faum | 841 | ,20 | 17 | ,12 |
| foot | 140 | ,20 | 102 | ,71 | |
| Switzerland | foot | 141 | ,70 | 101 | ,62 |
| Turin | foot | 152 | ,56 | 94 | ,39 |
| Ulm | foot | 136 | ,48 | 105 | ,50 |
| Utrecht | foot | 128 | ,90 | 111 | ,71 |
| Valencia | foot | 142 | ,72 | 100 | ,90 |
| Venice | foot | 164 | ,07 | 87 | ,77 |
| Verden | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Verona | foot | 164 | ,07 | 87 | ,77 |
| Vienna | foot | 151 | ,28 | 95 | ,18 |
| Wirtemberg | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Wismar | foot | 138 | ,93 | 103 | ,65 |
| Zell | foot | 137 | ,43 | 104 | ,78 |
| Ziriczee | foot | 146 | ,60 | 98 | ,23 |
| Zurich | foot | 141 | ,70 | 101 | ,62 |
The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the long measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.
Examples.
It is required to reduce 100 metres new measure of France into feet of Hamburgh.
The French metre measuring 472,27 English lines, and the Hamburgh foot 135,30, according to the [table] prefixed, I state the following equation:
| 100 | metres = x | |||||
| 1 | metre | = | 472 | ,27 | lines | |
| 135 | ,30 | lines | = | 1 | foot | |
| Result 349,05 feet. | ||||||
Reduce 100 feet of Hamburgh into metres of France.
| 100 | feet = x | |||||
| 1 | foot | = | 135 | ,30 | lines | |
| 472 | ,27 | lines | = | 1 | metre | |
| Result 28,65 metres. | ||||||
Table, which shews the contents in English square feet of the several land measures, and the relations of foreign measures to 100 acres English measure.
Land Measure.
| Places. | Measures. | Contents of each measure —— | Equiv. to 100 acres. —— | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| squ. feet. | num. 100 | |||
| Amsterdam | morgen | 87630 | 49 | ,71 |
| Basil | juchart | 34368 | 126 | ,75 |
| Berlin | great morgen | 61182 | 71 | ,20 |
| little morgen | 27531 | 158 | ,22 | |
| Bern | juchart field measure | 28979 | 150 | ,32 |
| juchart forest measure | 41729 | 104 | ,39 | |
| Dantzic | morgen | 59927 | 72 | ,69 |
| Denmark | tœnde-hart-korn | 118715 | 36 | ,69 |
| England | acre | 43560 | 100 | , |
| Florence | soccate | 53461 | 81 | ,48 |
| France | arpent de Paris | 36865 | 118 | ,16 |
| arpent des eaux et forêts | 55071 | 79 | ,10 | |
| hectare | 107830 | 40 | ,40 | |
| Franconia | morgen | 39157 | 111 | ,25 |
| Geneva | journée | 55707 | 80 | ,02 |
| Hamburgh | morgen | 135941 | 32 | ,04 |
| Hanover | morgen | 28050 | 155 | ,29 |
| Ireland | acre | 70560 | 61 | ,73 |
| Rhine | morgen land measure | 18354 | 237 | ,33 |
| ditto for forests | 24472 | 178 | , | |
| ditto for vineyards | 16994 | 256 | ,32 | |
| thauen | 13767 | 316 | ,40 | |
| juchart | 9178 | 474 | ,60 | |
| Russia | dessaetina | 124620 | 34 | ,95 |
| Saxony | acker | 59450 | 73 | ,27 |
| morgen, Dresden measure | 29725 | 146 | ,54 | |
| Schleswig | pfluge | 190350 | 22 | ,88 |
| Scotland | acre | 55354 | 78 | ,70 |
| Spain | fanegada | 48215 | 90 | ,35 |
| aranzada | 40514 | 107 | ,52 | |
| Sweden | tuna land measure | 53218 | 81 | ,58 |
| Switzerland | fauxe | 70818 | 61 | ,51 |
| morgen | 35409 | 123 | ,02 | |
| Vienna | jochen | 63728 | 68 | ,35 |
| Wirtemburg | great morgen | 61182 | 71 | ,20 |
| little morgen | 35849 | 121 | ,51 | |
| Zurich | juchart | 34941 | 124 | ,67 |
| ditto for forests | 38823 | 112 | ,20 | |
The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the land measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.
Examples.
It is required to reduce 100 dessaetinas of Russia into fanegadas of Spain.
The dessaetina measuring 124620 square feet of England, and the fanegada 48215, according to the [table] prefixed, I state the following equation:
| 100 | dessaetinas = x | |||
| 1 | dessaetina | = | 124620 | square feet |
| 48215 | square ft. | = | 1 | fanegada |
| Result 258,47 fanegadas. | ||||
Reduce 100 fanegadas into dessaetinas.
| 100 | fanegadas = x | |||
| 1 | fanegada | = | 48215 | square feet |
| 124620 | square ft. | = | 1 | dessaetina |
| Result 38,69 dessaetinas. | ||||
Table, which shews the length in English feet of the several itinerary measures, and the relation of those measures to 1 degree of the terrestrial meridian, equal to 364420 English feet.
Itinerary Measure.
| Places. | Measures. | Length of each measure —— | Equiv. to 1 degree —— | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feet. | num. 100 | ||||
| Arabia | milla | 6441 | 56 | ,58 | |
| Brandenburg | meile | 34725 | 10 | ,50 | |
| Denmark | mil | 24704 | 14 | ,75 | |
| England | mile by land | 5280 | 69 | ,02 | |
| mile by sea | 6073 | ²⁄₃ | 60 | , | |
| league marine | 18221 | 20 | , | ||
| Flanders | mille | 20587 | 17 | ,70 | |
| France | lieue terrestre | 14576 | ⁴⁄₅ | 25 | , |
| lieue moyenne | 16398 | 22 | ,22 | ||
| lieue de poste | 12784 | 28 | ,50 | ||
| lieue marine | 18221 | 20 | , | ||
| myriametre | 32797 | 11 | ,11 | ||
| Germany | meile | 20587 | 17 | ,70 | |
| meile geographical | 24294 | ²⁄₃ | 15 | , | |
| Hamburgh | meile | 24704 | 14 | ,75 | |
| Holland | meile | 19212 | 18 | ,97 | |
| Hungary | meile | 27378 | 13 | ,31 | |
| India | parasang | 12147 | ¹⁄₃ | 30 | , |
| Ireland | mile | 9110 | ¹⁄₂ | 40 | , |
| Italy | milla | 6073 | ²⁄₃ | 60 | , |
| Lithuania | meile | 29336 | 12 | ,42 | |
| Persia | parasang | 16356 | 22 | ,28 | |
| Poland | meile | 18221 | 20 | , | |
| Portugal | legua | 20245 | ⁵⁄₉ | 18 | , |
| Prussia | meile | 25409 | 14 | ,34 | |
| Russia | werste | 3500 | 104 | ,12 | |
| Saxony | meile | 29700 | 12 | ,27 | |
| Scotland | mile | 5952 | 61 | ,23 | |
| Silesia | meile | 21250 | 17 | ,15 | |
| Spain | legua of Castille | 21958 | 16 | ,60 | |
| legua juridica | 13724 | 26 | ,55 | ||
| legua maritima | 18221 | 20 | , | ||
| milla maritima | 6073 | ²⁄₃ | 60 | , | |
| Sweden | mile | 35050 | 10 | ,40 | |
| Switzerland | meile | 27450 | 13 | ,28 | |
| Turkey | berri | 5476 | 66 | ,55 | |
The following example will shew in what manner the proportion between the itinerary measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.
Reduce 1 myriametre new French measure into miles of England.
The length of the myriametre being 32797 English feet, and that of the mile 5280, I state the following equation:
| 1 | myriametre = x | |||
| 1 | myriametre | = | 32797 | feet |
| 5280 | feet | = | 1 | mile |
| Result 6,21 miles. | ||||
Table, which shews the quantity of English cubic inches contained by each of the corn measures, and the relation of foreign measures to 10 quarters Winchester measure.
Corn Measure.
| Places. | Measures. | Contents of each measure —— | Equiv. to 10 quarters —— | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cubic in. | num. 100 | ||||
| Abbeville | setier | 9355 | 18 | ,63 | |
| Agen | sac | 5332 | 32 | ,68 | |
| Aire | raziere | 6136 | 28 | ,40 | |
| Aix la Chapelle | fas | 1460 | 119 | ,35 | |
| Alckmaar | sack | 4938 | 35 | ,29 | |
| Alexandria | rebebe | 9578 | 18 | ,19 | |
| kisloz | 10407 | 16 | ,74 | ||
| Algiers | caffise | 19485 | 8 | ,94 | |
| Alicante | caffise | 14901 | 11 | ,69 | |
| Amersfort | mudden | 13986 | 15 | ,68 | |
| Amiens | setier | 2003 | 87 | , | |
| Amsterdam | last | 177916 | ,98 | ||
| mudden | 6590 | 26 | ,44 | ||
| sack | 4942 | 35 | ,26 | ||
| scheepel | 1647 | 105 | ,77 | ||
| Ancona | rubbo | 16645 | 10 | ,47 | |
| Antwerp | viertel | 4701 | 37 | ,07 | |
| Apenrade | tonen | 8355 | 20 | ,85 | |
| Archangel | ozetwer | 11888 | 14 | ,66 | |
| Arensburg | last | 187262 | ,93 | ||
| Arles | setier | 3628 | 48 | ,03 | |
| Arnheim | mouver | 8080 | 21 | ,50 | |
| Augsburgh | schaf | 26787 | 6 | ,50 | |
| Avignon | boisseau | 5612 | 31 | ,05 | |
| Avila | fanega | 3311 | 52 | ,62 | |
| Azores | alquier | 730 | 238 | ,54 | |
| Barcelona | quartera | 4238 | 41 | ,11 | |
| Basil | sack | 7866 | 22 | ,15 | |
| Bautzen | scheffel | 6657 | 26 | ,17 | |
| Bayonne | conque | 2503 | 69 | ,61 | |
| Beaucaire | setier | 3703 | 47 | ,05 | |
| Beauvais | tonneau | 118529 | 1 | ,47 | |
| Bergamo | staja | 1263 | 138 | , | |
| Bergen op Zoom | fister | 2818 | 61 | ,83 | |
| Berlin | scheffel | 3315 | 52 | ,26 | |
| Bern | mutte | 9650 | 18 | ,06 | |
| Bilboa | fanega | 3510 | 49 | ,64 | |
| Bois-le-Duc | mouver | 8671 | 20 | ,09 | |
| Bologna | corba | 4499 | 38 | ,73 | |
| Bordeaux | boisseau | 4678 | 37 | ,25 | |
| Boulogne | setier | 10525 | 16 | ,55 | |
| Breba | viertel | 5306 | 32 | ,84 | |
| Bremen | scheffel | 4336 | 40 | ,19 | |
| Breslaw | scheffel | 4262 | 40 | ,89 | |
| Brest | tonneau | 84200 | 2 | ,07 | |
| Briel | sœcke | 4380 | 39 | ,78 | |
| Bruges | hoeden | 10157 | 17 | ,15 | |
| Brunswick | scheffel | 18963 | 9 | ,19 | |
| Brussels | sack | 7110 | 24 | ,51 | |
| Cadiz | fanega | 3311 | 52 | ,67 | |
| Calabria | comolo | 3119 | 55 | ,87 | |
| Calais | setier | 10134 | 17 | ,19 | |
| Campen | mudden | 7137 | 24 | ,41 | |
| Candia | carga | 9356 | 18 | ,62 | |
| Cassel | viertel | 8702 | 20 | ,02 | |
| Castille | fanega | 3311 | 52 | ,67 | |
| Cleves | malter | 10939 | 15 | ,93 | |
| Coburg | simmer | 5079 | 34 | ,31 | |
| Colberg | scheffel | 3029 | 57 | ,52 | |
| Cologne | malter | 9883 | 17 | ,63 | |
| Concarneau | tonneau | 84200 | 2 | ,07 | |
| Constantinople | kisloz | 2140 | 81 | ,40 | |
| Copenhagen | tœnde | 8481 | 20 | ,54 | |
| Corfu | moggie | 6091 | 28 | ,61 | |
| Corsica | stajo | 6008 | 29 | , | |
| Corunna | ferrado | 986 | 176 | ,71 | |
| Creutznach | malter | 8874 | 19 | ,63 | |
| Cyprus | medimno | 4448 | 39 | ,17 | |
| Dantzic | last | 187310 | ,93 | ||
| scheffel Berlin measure | 3315 | 52 | ,26 | ||
| Darmstadt | malter | 6107 | 28 | ,53 | |
| Delft | sack | 6129 | 28 | ,43 | |
| Denmark | tœnde | 8481 | 20 | ,54 | |
| Deventer | mudden | 4938 | 35 | ,29 | |
| Dieppe | raziere | 6237 | 27 | ,94 | |
| Dixmude | raziere | 5828 | 29 | ,90 | |
| Dordrecht | sack | 7406 | 23 | ,53 | |
| Dresden | scheffel | 6455 | 27 | , | |
| Dunkirk | sea raziere | 9875 | 17 | ,64 | |
| land raziere | 8887 | 19 | ,61 | ||
| Eckrenforde | tonnen | 8242 | 21 | ,14 | |
| Edam | mudden | 6590 | 26 | ,44 | |
| Elbing | last | 187310 | ,93 | ||
| Embden | tonnen | 11656 | 14 | ,95 | |
| Enchuysen | mudden | 8080 | 21 | ,56 | |
| England | quarter | 17424 | 10 | , | |
| bushel | 2178 | 80 | , | ||
| Erfurt | scheffel | 3430 | 50 | ,80 | |
| Femeren | scheffel | 2294 | 75 | ,95 | |
| Ferrara | staro | 1843 | 94 | ,54 | |
| Ferrol | ferrado | 1104 | 157 | ,83 | |
| Flensburg | tonnen | 8355 | 20 | ,85 | |
| Florence | stajo | 1444 | 120 | ,67 | |
| France | boisseau of Paris | 774 | 225 | ,13 | |
| décalitre[12] | 610 | 285 | ,64 | ||
| Francfort on the Maine | malter | 6584 | 26 | ,46 | |
| Frederickstadt | tonnen | 7708 | 22 | ,60 | |
| Gand | halster | 3175 | 54 | ,89 | |
| Geneva | coupe | 4735 | 36 | ,80 | |
| Genoa | mina | 7110 | 24 | ,51 | |
| Gluckstadt | tonnen | 8716 | 20 | , | |
| Goes | sack | 4444 | 39 | ,21 | |
| Gorcum | mudden | 10305 | 16 | ,91 | |
| Grouda | sack | 6348 | 27 | ,45 | |
| Granada | sack | 5924 | 29 | ,41 | |
| Gravelines | raziere | 8080 | 21 | ,56 | |
| Grypswald | scheffel | 2375 | 73 | ,36 | |
| Groningen | mudden | 5386 | 32 | ,35 | |
| Haarlem | sack | 4678 | 37 | ,25 | |
| Hamburgh | last | 192720 | ,90³⁄₈ | ||
| sack | 12848 | 13 | ,56 | ||
| scheffel | 6424 | 27 | ,12 | ||
| tonnen salt measure | 11428 | 15 | ,25 | ||
| Hanau | malter | 6862 | 25 | ,39 | |
| Hanover | himten | 1896 | 91 | ,89 | |
| Harderwyck | mudden | 5954 | 29 | ,26 | |
| Harlingen | mudden | 5386 | 32 | ,35 | |
| Havre de Grace | boisseau | 2108 | 82 | ,66 | |
| Heidelberg | malter | 6279 | 27 | ,75 | |
| Heusden | mudden | 10305 | 16 | ,91 | |
| Hildesheim | himten | 1581 | 110 | ,23 | |
| Holstein | himten | 2007 | 86 | ,82 | |
| Honfleur | boisseau | 2390 | 72 | ,91 | |
| Horn | sack | 4039 | 43 | ,13 | |
| Husum | tonnen | 8924 | 19 | ,52 | |
| Kiel | tonnen | 7227 | 24 | ,11 | |
| Königsberg | scheffel new measure | 3315 | 52 | ,26 | |
| Laland | tonnen | 8380 | 20 | ,79 | |
| Leghorn | sacco | 4332 | 40 | ,22 | |
| stajo | 1444 | 120 | ,67 | ||
| Leipsic | scheffel | 8473 | 20 | ,56 | |
| Lewarden | mudden | 5386 | 32 | ,35 | |
| Liebau | loof | 3819 | 45 | ,02 | |
| Libourne | sac | 5079 | 34 | ,31 | |
| Liege | setier | 1825 | 95 | ,48 | |
| Lisbon | moyo | 49440 | 3 | ,52 | |
| alquier | 824 | 211 | ,46 | ||
| Lisle | raziere | 4334 | 40 | ,20 | |
| London | quarter | 17424 | 10 | , | |
| Lubec | last corn measure | 195500 | ,89¹⁄₈ | ||
| scheffel rye measure | 2037 | 85 | ,54 | ||
| scheffel malt measure | 2375 | 73 | ,36 | ||
| scheffel oats measure | 2392 | 72 | ,84 | ||
| Lucca | stajo | 1495 | 116 | ,55 | |
| Lunenburg | scheffel | 3793 | 45 | ,94 | |
| Lyons | anée | 12538 | 13 | ,90 | |
| Madeira | alquier | 683 | 55 | ,11 | |
| Magdeburg | scheffel | 3315 | 52 | ,56 | |
| Majorca | quartera | 4139 | 42 | ,10 | |
| Malaga | fanega | 3642 | 47 | ,84 | |
| Malta | salma | 16240 | 10 | ,73 | |
| Manfredonia | carro | 114634 | 1 | ,52 | |
| Manhemia | malter | 6279 | 27 | ,75 | |
| Mantua | stajo | 2124 | 82 | ,04 | |
| Marans | tonneau | 84200 | 2 | ,07 | |
| Marseilles | charge | 9636 | 18 | ,08 | |
| Mastrick | setier | 1382 | 126 | ,08 | |
| Meissen | scheffel | 6455 | 27 | , | |
| Memel | scheffel | 3315 | 52 | ,26 | |
| Middleburg | sack | 4284 | 40 | ,67 | |
| Milan | moggio | 8436 | 20 | ,66 | |
| Modena | stajo | 4284 | 40 | ,67 | |
| Montpellier | setier | 3119 | 55 | ,86 | |
| Montreuil | boisseau | 520 | 335 | ,08 | |
| Morlaix | boisseau | 3229 | 53 | ,96 | |
| Munich | schaff | 22109 | 7 | ,88 | |
| Muyden | mudden | 8080 | 21 | ,56 | |
| Nancy | carte | 2921 | 59 | ,65 | |
| Nantes | tonneau | 152510 | 1 | ,14¹⁄₄ | |
| setier | 15251 | 11 | ,42¹⁄₂ | ||
| Naples | tomolo | 3182 | 54 | ,76 | |
| Narva | tonnen | 9883 | 17 | ,63 | |
| Neda in Galicia | ferrado | 1104 | 157 | ,83 | |
| Negropont | kisloz | 1849 | 94 | ,23 | |
| Nieuport | raziere | 10157 | 17 | ,15 | |
| Nimeguen | mouver | 8173 | 21 | ,32 | |
| Nice | stajo | 2349 | 74 | ,18 | |
| Nuremberg | summer | 20287 | 8 | ,59 | |
| Oesel | last | 187260 | ,93 | ||
| Oporto | alquier | 1006 | 173 | ,20 | |
| Osnaburg | scheffel | 1750 | 99 | ,57 | |
| Ostend | raziere | 10706 | 16 | ,27 | |
| Oudenwater | mudden | 8465 | 20 | ,58 | |
| Oviedo | fanega | 4415 | 39 | ,47 | |
| Paris | setier | 9288 | 18 | ,76 | |
| boisseau | 774 | 225 | ,13 | ||
| decalitre | 610 | 285 | ,64 | ||
| Passau | sechsling | 19465 | 8 | ,95 | |
| Patras | staro | 5006 | 34 | ,81 | |
| Pernau | loof | 3974 | 43 | ,85 | |
| Persia | artaba | 3974 | 43 | ,85 | |
| Piedmont | sack | 6489 | 26 | ,85 | |
| Poland | last | 187260 | ,93 | ||
| Prague | strick | 5755 | 30 | ,28 | |
| Purmerend | mudden | 6590 | 26 | ,44 | |
| Ratisbon | metzen | 2001 | 87 | ,08 | |
| Ravenna | rubbo | 16984 | 10 | ,26 | |
| Rendsburg | tonnen | 7558 | 23 | ,05 | |
| Revel | tonnen | 7212 | 24 | ,16 | |
| Riga | tonnen | 7948 | 21 | ,92 | |
| loof | 3974 | 43 | ,85 | ||
| Rimini | rubbo | 16984 | 10 | ,26 | |
| Rochelle | tonneau | 84200 | 2 | ,07 | |
| Romagna | staro | 5506 | 31 | ,64 | |
| Rome | rubbo | 16684 | 10 | ,44 | |
| Rostock | scheffel wheat measure | 2450 | 71 | ,12 | |
| scheffel oats measure | 2723 | 63 | ,99 | ||
| Rotterdam | hoed | 67755 | 2 | ,57 | |
| sakken | 6352 | 27 | ,43 | ||
| achtendeelen | 2117 | 82 | ,31 | ||
| Rouen | setier | 10904 | 15 | ,98 | |
| boisseau | 1363 | 127 | ,83 | ||
| Russia | chetwer | 11888 | 14 | ,66 | |
| chetwerick | 1486 | 117 | ,25 | ||
| St. Ander | fanega | 3311 | 52 | ,67 | |
| St. Gall | charge | 4443 | 39 | ,22 | |
| St. Malo | tonneau | 84200 | 2 | ,07 | |
| St. Omer | raziere | 7900 | 22 | ,07 | |
| St. Petersburgh | chetwer | 11888 | 14 | ,66 | |
| chetwerick | 1486 | 117 | ,25 | ||
| St. Sebastian | fanega | 3311 | 52 | ,67 | |
| St. Valery | setier | 9356 | 18 | ,62 | |
| Sardinia | starello | 2988 | 58 | ,31 | |
| Schiedam | sack | 6352 | 27 | ,43 | |
| Schleswig | tonnen | 8012 | 21 | ,75 | |
| Schonhoven | mudden | 8465 | 20 | ,58 | |
| Scotland | firlot wheat measure | 2197 | 79 | ,31 | |
| firlot barley measure | 3207 | 54 | ,33 | ||
| Seville | fanega | 3311 | 52 | ,67 | |
| Sicily | salma grossa | 20215 | 8 | ,62 | |
| salma generale | 16229 | 10 | ,74 | ||
| Smyrna | quillot | 2141 | 81 | ,38 | |
| Spain | fanega | 3311 | 52 | ,67 | |
| celemine | 276 | 631 | ,30 | ||
| Stettin | scheffel | 2677 | 65 | ,09 | |
| Stralsund | scheffel wheat measure | 2609 | 66 | ,78 | |
| scheffel oats measure | 2768 | 62 | ,95 | ||
| Strasburg | sester city measure | 1117 | 156 | , | |
| sester county measure | 1152 | 151 | ,25 | ||
| Sweden | tunna | 8932 | 19 | ,51 | |
| tunna wheat measure | 10050 | 17 | ,34 | ||
| tunna malt measure | 10607 | 16 | ,43 | ||
| tunna salt measure | 9491 | 18 | ,36 | ||
| kappe | 279 | 624 | ,53 | ||
| kanna | 59 | ¹⁄₂ | 1092 | ,42 | |
| Tarascon | charge | 3485 | 50 | , | |
| Tarragona | setier | 3442 | 50 | ,62 | |
| Tervere | sack | 4557 | 38 | ,24 | |
| Tiel | mudden | 8465 | 20 | ,58 | |
| Tonningen | tonnen | 7406 | 23 | ,53 | |
| Tortosa | quartera | 5414 | 32 | ,18 | |
| Toulon | emine | 6237 | 27 | ,94 | |
| Tuscany | moggio | 32480 | 5 | ,36¹⁄₂ | |
| Trieste | staro | 4517 | 38 | ,57 | |
| Tripoli | caffise | 19920 | 8 | ,75 | |
| Tunis | caffise | 21830 | 7 | ,98 | |
| Turin | emine | 1168 | 149 | ,18 | |
| Ulm | metzen | 584 | 298 | ,26 | |
| Utrecht | mudden | 7110 | 24 | ,50 | |
| Valencia | cahiz | 12227 | 14 | ,25 | |
| barchilla | 1019 | 171 | , | ||
| Valenciennes | mytur | 4380 | 39 | ,78 | |
| Vannes | tonneau | 93556 | 1 | ,86 | |
| Venice | staro | 4941 | 35 | ,27 | |
| Verona | minella | 2248 | 77 | ,51 | |
| Viana | alquier | 989 | 176 | ,18 | |
| Vienna | metzen | 4277 | 40 | ,74 | |
| Weimar | scheffel | 5430 | 32 | ,09 | |
| Wetzlar | malter | 14275 | 12 | ,20 | |
| Windaw | loof | 3819 | 45 | ,62 | |
| Wirtemburg | scheffel | 3228 | 53 | ,98 | |
| Wismar | scheffel | 2496 | 69 | ,81 | |
| Wolgast | scheffel | 2609 | 66 | ,78 | |
| Zante | bazzilo | 2165 | 80 | ,48 | |
| Zell | scheffel | 18963 | 9 | ,19 | |
| Ziriczee | sack | 4741 | 36 | ,75 | |
| Zuric | mutte | 5043 | 34 | ,55 | |
| Zwickau | scheffel | 4089 | 42 | ,61 | |
| Zwoll | sack | 6836 | 25 | ,49 | |
[12] The litre, or the unit of French measures of capacity, is therefore equivalent to 61 English cubic inches.
The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.
Examples.
It is required to reduce 100 alquiers of Lisbon into fanegas of Cadiz.
The alquier containing 824 cubic inches, and the fanega 3311, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:
| 100 | alquiers = x | |||
| 1 | alquier | = | 824 | cubic inches |
| 3311 | cubic inches | = | 1 | fanega |
| Result 24,89 fanegas. | ||||
Reduce 100 fanegas of Cadiz into alquiers of Lisbon.
| 100 | fanegas = x | |||
| 1 | fanega | = | 3311 | cubic inches |
| 824 | cubic inches | = | 1 | alquier |
| Result 401,82 alquiers. | ||||
Table, which shews the quantity of English cubic inches contained by each of the measures used in the sale of liquids, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 English gallons wine measure.
Liquid Measure.
| Places. | Measures. | Contents of each measure —— | Equiv. to 100 gallons —— | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cubic in. | num. 100 | ||||
| Alicante | cantara | 622 | 37 | ,14 | |
| Altona | tonne of 32 stubgens | 7067 | 3 | ,27 | |
| Amsterdam | steken | 1160 | 19 | ,91 | |
| virtel | 442 | ¹⁄₂ | 52 | ,20 | |
| stoopen | 145 | 159 | ,31 | ||
| mingel | 72 | ¹⁄₂ | 318 | ,62 | |
| Ancona | boccale | 87 | 265 | ,51 | |
| Antwerp | stoopen | 192 | ¹⁄₄ | 120 | ,15 |
| Arragon | cantara | 585 | 39 | ,49 | |
| Augsburg | maas | 90 | ¹⁄₃ | 255 | ,72 |
| Barcelona | carga wine measure | 7599 | 3 | ,04 | |
| carga oil measure | 7394 | 3 | ,12 | ||
| Bari | salm oil measure | 10086 | 2 | ,29 | |
| Basil | pot new measure | 76 | ¹⁄₅ | 303 | ,15 |
| Berlin | nass or maas | 70 | ¹⁄₂ | 329 | ,41 |
| Bern | maas | 100 | ¹⁄₂ | 229 | ,85 |
| Bologna | corba | 4450 | 5 | ,13 | |
| Bordeaux | velte | 453 | 51 | , | |
| Bremen | stubgen | 193 | ¹⁄₂ | 119 | ,38 |
| Breslaw | quart | 42 | ¹⁄₃ | 545 | ,67 |
| Brunswick | stubgen | 223 | ³⁄₄ | 103 | ,24 |
| Cadiz | see [Spain] | ||||
| Canary Islands | pipa | 26794 | ,86 | ||
| Canea | miscala oil measure | 686 | 33 | ,67 | |
| Cassel | viertel | 499 | ¹⁄₂ | 46 | ,25 |
| Cognac | velte | 447 | ¹⁄₂ | 51 | ,62 |
| Cologne | viertel | 365 | 63 | ,29 | |
| Constantinople | almud | 319 | ¹⁄₄ | 72 | ,36 |
| Dantzic | stof wine measure | 104 | ³⁄₅ | 220 | ,84 |
| stof beer measure | 140 | ¹⁄₄ | 164 | ,70 | |
| Denmark | ahm | 9128 | 2 | ,53 | |
| kanne wine measure | 117 | ³⁄₄ | 196 | ,18 | |
| tœnde beer measure | 8011 | 2 | ,88 | ||
| tœnde pitch measure | 7067 | 3 | ,27 | ||
| Dijon | quartaut | 6176 | 3 | ,74 | |
| Dresden | anker regular measure | 2055 | 11 | ,24 | |
| tonne beer measure | 5993 | 3 | ,85 | ||
| kanen great measure | 85 | ³⁄₈ | 269 | ,79 | |
| kanen small measure | 57 | 405 | ,27 | ||
| Dunkirk | pot | 138 | 167 | ,39 | |
| England | gallon wine measure | 231 | 100 | , | |
| gallon beer measure | 282 | 81 | ,91 | ||
| Ferrara | secchia | 624 | 37 | ,02 | |
| Florence | barile oil measure | 1940 | 11 | ,91 | |
| barile wine measure | 2425 | 953 | |||
| fiascho | 121 | 190 | ,90 | ||
| boccale | 60 | ¹⁄₂ | 381 | ,80 | |
| France | hectolitre | 6100 | 3 | ,79 | |
| litre | 61 | 378 | ,69 | ||
| Francfort on the Maine | viertel | 450 | 51 | ,33 | |
| Gallipoli | salma | 9392 | 2 | ,46 | |
| Geneva | pot | 58 | 398 | ,27 | |
| Genoa | rubbo oil measure | 521 | 44 | ,34 | |
| pinta wine measure | 105 | 220 | , | ||
| Gotha | stubgen | 206 | ³⁄₄ | 111 | ,73 |
| Hamburgh | viertel | 442 | 52 | ,26 | |
| stubgen | 221 | 104 | ,52 | ||
| kanne | 110 | ¹⁄₂ | 209 | ,05 | |
| tonne beer measure | 10594 | 2 | ,18 | ||
| tonne fish oil measure | 7062 | 3 | ,27 | ||
| Hanover | stubgen | 237 | 97 | ,47 | |
| tonne beer measure | 6163 | 3 | ,75 | ||
| tonne honey measure | 6044 | 3 | ,82 | ||
| Heidelberg | viertel | 562 | ¹⁄₄ | 41 | ,08 |
| Hungaria | eimer | 4470 | 5 | ,17 | |
| Königsberg | stof | 87 | ¹⁄₂ | 264 | , |
| Leghorn | barile oil measure | 1940 | 11 | ,91 | |
| barile wine measure | 2425 | 9 | ,53 | ||
| fiascho | 121 | 190 | ,90 | ||
| boccale | 60 | ¹⁄₂ | 381 | ,80 | |
| Leipsic | eimer | 4625 | 5 | ,00 | |
| kanne | 73 | ²⁄₅ | 314 | ,71 | |
| Lisle | lot | 128 | 180 | ,47 | |
| Lisbon | almude | 1040 | 22 | ,21 | |
| alquier | 520 | 44 | ,42 | ||
| canhada | 86 | ²⁄₃ | 266 | ,54 | |
| Lubec | stubgen | 220 | ³⁄₄ | 104 | ,65 |
| Lucca | copa oil measure | 6088 | 3 | ,79 | |
| Lyons | pot | 58 | ¹⁄₁₀ | 397 | ,62 |
| Majorca | cortan oil measure | 251 | ⁵⁄₈ | 91 | ,80 |
| Malaga | arroba | 947 | 24 | ,39 | |
| Mantua | moggio oil measure | 6789 | 3 | ,40 | |
| Marseilles | millerolle | 3640 | 6 | ,35 | |
| scandal | 910 | 25 | ,38 | ||
| Massa | barile oil measure | 2160 | 10 | ,69 | |
| Mentz | maass | 113 | ³⁄₄ | 203 | ,08 |
| Messina | salma wine measure | 5270 | 4 | ,38 | |
| caffise oil measure | 527 | 43 | ,83 | ||
| Minorca | quartillo | 349 | ¹⁄₂ | 66 | ,09 |
| Montpellier | pot wine measure | 64 | ¹⁄₈ | 360 | ,23 |
| pot oil measure | 71 | ³⁄₈ | 323 | ,64 | |
| Naples | stara oil measure | 3407 | 6 | ,78 | |
| barile wine measure | 2541 | 9 | ,09 | ||
| Narva | stof | 78 | ³⁄₅ | 293 | ,90 |
| Nice | rubbo oil measure | 515 | 44 | ,85 | |
| North | barrel pitch measure | 7067 | 3 | ,27 | |
| Nuremberg | maas tavern measure | 60 | ¹⁄₂ | 381 | ,81 |
| Oneglia | barile oil measure | 3783 | 6 | ,11 | |
| Oporto | aliquer | 675 | ³⁄₄ | 34 | ,18 |
| canhade | 112 | ⁵⁄₈ | 205 | ,10 | |
| Osnaburg | kanne | 74 | ³⁄₈ | 310 | ,58 |
| Ovieda | quartillo | 34 | ¹⁄₂ | 669 | ,56 |
| Paris | setier | 464 | ⁴⁄₅ | 49 | ,70 |
| pinte | 58 | ¹⁄₁₀ | 397 | ,62 | |
| litre new measure | 61 | 378 | ,69 | ||
| Pernau | stof | 78 | ³⁄₅ | 293 | ,90 |
| Pola | salma | 9196 | 2 | ,51 | |
| Prague | pint | 116 | 199 | ,14 | |
| Puglia | staja | 940 | 24 | ,57 | |
| Ratisbon | viertel | 216 | ¹⁄₂ | 106 | ,70 |
| Revel | stof | 72 | ¹⁄₂ | 318 | ,62 |
| Riga | stof | 75 | 308 | , | |
| Rochelle | velt | 447 | ¹⁄₂ | 51 | ,62 |
| Rome | boccale | 79 | ⁴⁄₅ | 289 | ,47 |
| Rotterdam | stoopen | 156 | 148 | ,08 | |
| Russia | wedra | 751 | 30 | ,76 | |
| kruska | 93 | ⁷⁄₈ | 246 | ,07 | |
| Saragossa | cantara | 584 | 39 | ,55 | |
| Schafhausen | maas | 79 | ⁴⁄₅ | 289 | ,47 |
| Scotland | pint old measure | 103 | ²⁄₅ | 223 | ,40 |
| Sicily | caffise | 695 | 33 | ,24 | |
| Spain | moyo wine measure | 15152 | 1 | ,52 | |
| cantara ditto | 947 | 24 | ,39 | ||
| azumbre ditto | 118 | ³⁄₈ | 195 | ,14 | |
| quartillo ditto | 29 | ³⁄₅ | 780 | ,40 | |
| arroba oil measure | 740 | 31 | ,22 | ||
| quartilla ditto | 185 | 124 | ,86 | ||
| libra ditto | 29 | ³⁄₅ | 780 | ,40 | |
| Stettin | nœssel | 44 | ³⁄₄ | 516 | ,20 |
| Stralsund | stubgen | 237 | 97 | ,47 | |
| Strasburg | schoppen | 29 | ³⁄₅ | 780 | ,40 |
| Sweden | kanna | 159 | ⁵⁄₈ | 144 | ,71 |
| Toulon | millerolle | 3927 | 5 | ,88 | |
| Trieste | orna oil measure | 4003 | 5 | ,77 | |
| barile wine measure | 4158 | 5 | ,56 | ||
| Tripoli | mataro | 1375 | 16 | ,80 | |
| Tunis | mataro oil measure | 1155 | 20 | , | |
| mataro wine measure | 577 | ¹⁄₂ | 40 | , | |
| Turin | pint | 95 | ¹⁄₂ | 241 | ,89 |
| Valencia | cantara | 775 | ⁵⁄₈ | 29 | ,78 |
| Venice | miro oil measure | 962 | 24 | , | |
| secchia wine measure | 602 | ¹⁄₄ | 38 | ,36 | |
| Verona | basso | 275 | ³⁄₄ | 83 | ,77 |
| Vienna | eimer | 3614 | 6 | ,39 | |
| maas | 90 | ¹⁄₃ | 255 | ,72 | |
| Zell | stubgen | 237 | 97 | ,47 | |
| Zurich | maas | 111 | ¹⁄₄ | 207 | ,64 |
The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the liquid measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.
Examples.
Let it be required to reduce 100 litres new French measure into Spanish quartillos wine measure.
The French litre measuring internally 61 English cubic inches, and the Spanish quartillo 29³⁄₅, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:
| 100 | litres = x | ||||
| 1 | litre | = | 61 | cubic inches | |
| 29 | ³⁄₅ | cubic inches | = | 1 | quartillo |
| Result 206,08 quartillos. | |||||
Reduce 100 quartillos wine measure of Spain into litres new measure of France.
| 100 | quartillos = x | ||||
| 1 | quartillo | = | 29 | ³⁄₅ | cubic inches |
| 61 | cubic inches | = | 1 | litre | |
| Result 48,52 litres. | |||||
Table, which shews the length in English lines of each of the measures used in the sale of cloths, linens, and silk stuffs, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 yards and 100 ells English measure.
Cloth Measure.
| Places. | Measures. | Length of each measure —— | Equiv. to 100 yards —— | Equiv. to 100 ells —— | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| lines 100. | num. 100 | num. 100 | |||||
| Abbeville | aune | 558 | ,25 | 77 | ,38 | 96 | ,73 |
| Aix la Chapelle | elle | 315 | ,35 | 137 | , | 171 | ,25 |
| Aleppo | pike | 319 | ,40 | 135 | ,25 | 169 | ,06 |
| Alexandria | pike | 319 | ,60 | 135 | ,17 | 168 | ,96 |
| Algiers | pike long measure | 294 | ,05 | 146 | ,91 | 183 | ,64 |
| pike short measure | 220 | ,53 | 195 | ,89 | 244 | ,86 | |
| Alicante | vara | 399 | ,20 | 108 | ,22 | 135 | ,27 |
| Altona | elle | 270 | ,60 | 159 | ,64 | 199 | ,50 |
| elle Brabant measure | 326 | ,54 | 132 | ,30 | 165 | ,37 | |
| Amberg | elle | 394 | ,40 | 109 | ,58 | 136 | ,91 |
| Amsterdam | elle | 326 | , | 132 | ,51 | 165 | ,64 |
| Ancona | braccio | 303 | ,40 | 142 | ,38 | 177 | ,98 |
| Anspach | elle | 289 | ,80 | 149 | ,07 | 186 | ,34 |
| Antwerp | aune long measure | 327 | ,90 | 131 | ,75 | 164 | ,69 |
| aune short measure | 323 | ,25 | 133 | ,64 | 167 | ,05 | |
| Archangel | archine | 336 | , | 128 | ,57 | 160 | ,71 |
| Arragon | vara | 364 | ,13 | 118 | ,64 | 148 | ,30 |
| Arras | aune | 329 | ,65 | 131 | ,05 | 163 | ,81 |
| Augsburg | elle long measure | 287 | ,85 | 150 | ,08 | 187 | ,60 |
| elle short measure | 279 | ,75 | 154 | ,42 | 193 | ,02 | |
| Avigon | canne | 918 | ,80 | 47 | ,02 | 58 | ,77 |
| aune | 551 | ,20 | 78 | ,37 | 97 | ,96 | |
| Basil | aune | 556 | ,80 | 77 | ,58 | 96 | ,98 |
| Bamberg | elle | 344 | ,65 | 125 | ,35 | 156 | ,69 |
| Barcelona | cana | 727 | ,45 | 59 | ,39 | 74 | ,23 |
| Bayreuth | elle | 283 | ,60 | 152 | ,33 | 190 | ,41 |
| Batavia | covid | 237 | ,60 | 181 | ,82 | 227 | ,27 |
| Bautzen | elle | 272 | , | 158 | ,82 | 198 | ,53 |
| Bayonne | aune | 417 | ,40 | 103 | ,50 | 129 | ,38 |
| Bengal | covid | 108 | , | 400 | , | 500 | , |
| Bergamo | braccio | 309 | ,50 | 139 | ,58 | 174 | ,47 |
| Bergen | elle | 296 | ,45 | 145 | ,72 | 182 | ,15 |
| Berg-op-Zoom | elle | 327 | ,07 | 132 | ,08 | 165 | ,10 |
| Berlin | elle | 314 | ,90 | 137 | ,19 | 171 | ,48 |
| Bern | elle | 255 | ,80 | 168 | ,89 | 211 | ,10 |
| Bielefeld | elle | 276 | ,25 | 156 | ,38 | 195 | ,47 |
| Bilboa | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Bologne | braccio for silk stuffs | 281 | ,25 | 153 | ,60 | 192 | , |
| braccio for cloths | 299 | ,90 | 144 | ,05 | 180 | ,06 | |
| Bolzano | elle | 373 | ,20 | 115 | ,75 | 144 | ,69 |
| braccio | 259 | ,60 | 166 | ,40 | 208 | , | |
| Bombay | cuz | 336 | , | 128 | ,57 | 160 | ,71 |
| heat | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , | |
| Bordeaux | aune | 562 | ,51 | 76 | ,80 | 96 | , |
| Brabant | aune | 326 | ,54 | 132 | ,30 | 165 | ,37 |
| Breda | elle | 327 | ,07 | 132 | ,08 | 165 | ,10 |
| Bremen | elle | 273 | ,15 | 158 | ,15 | 197 | ,69 |
| Brescia | braccio | 221 | ,06 | 195 | ,42 | 244 | ,28 |
| Breslaw | elle | 259 | ,65 | 166 | ,38 | 207 | ,97 |
| elle Silesia measure | 272 | , | 158 | ,82 | 198 | ,53 | |
| Bretagne | aune | 636 | ,25 | 67 | ,90 | 84 | ,87 |
| Bruges | aune | 327 | ,90 | 131 | ,75 | 164 | ,69 |
| aune for linens | 342 | ,40 | 126 | ,17 | 157 | ,71 | |
| Brunswick | elle | 269 | ,55 | 160 | ,27 | 200 | ,33 |
| Brussels | aune long measure | 327 | ,90 | 131 | ,75 | 164 | ,69 |
| aune short measure | 323 | ,25 | 133 | ,64 | 167 | ,05 | |
| Burgos | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Cadiz | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| ana Brabant measure | 327 | ,90 | 131 | ,75 | 164 | ,69 | |
| Caën | aune | 558 | ,25 | 77 | ,38 | 96 | ,73 |
| Cagliari | raso | 259 | ,20 | 166 | ,66 | 208 | ,33 |
| Cairo | pike | 319 | ,60 | 135 | ,17 | 168 | ,96 |
| Calais | aune | 558 | ,25 | 77 | ,38 | 96 | ,73 |
| Calicut | covid | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , |
| guz | 338 | ,40 | 127 | ,66 | 159 | ,57 | |
| Cambrai | aune | 338 | ,35 | 127 | ,68 | 159 | ,60 |
| Canary Islands | vara | 406 | ,20 | 106 | ,35 | 132 | ,94 |
| Candia | pike | 301 | , | 143 | ,52 | 179 | ,40 |
| Canton | covid | 175 | ,50 | 240 | ,15 | 307 | ,70 |
| Carthagena | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Cassel | elle | 265 | , | 163 | , | 203 | ,75 |
| Castille | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Chambery | raso | 271 | ,35 | 159 | ,20 | 199 | , |
| China | covid | 175 | ,50 | 246 | ,15 | 307 | ,70 |
| Christiania | elle | 296 | ,45 | 145 | ,72 | 182 | ,15 |
| Coblentz | elle | 263 | ,55 | 163 | ,91 | 204 | ,84 |
| Coburg | elle | 276 | ,90 | 156 | , | 195 | , |
| Cologne | elle long measure | 328 | ,15 | 131 | ,65 | 164 | ,56 |
| elle short measure | 271 | ,15 | 159 | ,32 | 199 | ,15 | |
| Constance | elle long measure | 351 | ,05 | 123 | ,06 | 153 | ,82 |
| elle short measure | 326 | ,33 | 132 | ,38 | 165 | ,48 | |
| Constantinople | pike long measure | 316 | , | 136 | ,70 | 170 | ,88 |
| pike short measure | 306 | , | 141 | ,18 | 176 | ,47 | |
| Copenhagen | alen | 296 | ,45 | 145 | ,72 | 182 | ,15 |
| Corfu | pike | 271 | , | 159 | ,41 | 199 | ,26 |
| Corsica | palmo | 118 | ,15 | 365 | ,64 | 457 | ,05 |
| Cracow | elle | 291 | ,40 | 148 | ,25 | 185 | ,32 |
| Cremona | braccio | 290 | ,50 | 148 | ,70 | 185 | ,93 |
| Cyprus | pike | 317 | ,15 | 136 | ,21 | 170 | ,26 |
| Damascus | pike | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Dantzic | elle | 271 | , | 159 | ,41 | 199 | ,26 |
| Delft | elle | 326 | , | 132 | ,51 | 165 | ,64 |
| Denmark | alen | 296 | ,45 | 145 | ,72 | 182 | ,15 |
| Dresden | elle | 267 | ,30 | 161 | ,61 | 202 | ,02 |
| Dublin | yard | 432 | , | 100 | , | 125 | , |
| ell | 540 | , | 80 | , | 100 | , | |
| Dunkirk | aune | 319 | ,40 | 135 | ,25 | 169 | ,06 |
| Dusseldorf | elle | 254 | ,80 | 169 | ,54 | 211 | ,93 |
| Elbing | elle | 266 | ,88 | 161 | ,87 | 202 | ,34 |
| Embden | elle | 316 | ,60 | 136 | ,45 | 170 | ,56 |
| England | yard | 432 | , | 100 | , | 125 | , |
| elle | 540 | , | 80 | , | 100 | , | |
| Erfurt | elle long measure | 259 | ,60 | 166 | ,40 | 208 | , |
| elle short measure | 190 | ,70 | 226 | ,53 | 283 | ,17 | |
| Erlang | elle | 311 | ,50 | 138 | ,62 | 173 | ,35 |
| Fermo | braccio | 310 | , | 139 | ,35 | 174 | ,20 |
| Ferrara | braccio for cloths | 316 | , | 136 | ,70 | 170 | ,88 |
| braccio for silk stuffs | 297 | , | 145 | ,45 | 181 | ,82 | |
| Flensburg | elle | 270 | ,60 | 159 | ,64 | 199 | ,50 |
| Florence | braccio for cloths | 278 | ,90 | 154 | ,90 | 193 | ,62 |
| braccio for silk stuffs | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 | |
| Forli | braccio | 290 | ,50 | 148 | ,70 | 185 | ,93 |
| France | aune of 528 lines | 562 | ,51 | 76 | ,80 | 96 | , |
| netre | 472 | ,27 | 91 | ,47 | 114 | ,34 | |
| Francfort on the Maine | elle | 254 | ,80 | 169 | ,54 | 211 | ,93 |
| elle Brabant measure | 326 | ,54 | 132 | ,30 | 165 | ,37 | |
| aune of Paris | 561 | ,27 | 76 | ,97 | 96 | ,21 | |
| Francfort on the Oder | elle | 313 | ,33 | 137 | ,87 | 172 | ,34 |
| Freyberg | elle | 267 | ,60 | 161 | ,43 | 201 | ,79 |
| Gand | aune | 327 | ,90 | 131 | ,75 | 164 | ,69 |
| aune for linens | 342 | ,40 | 126 | ,17 | 157 | ,71 | |
| Geneva | aune | 540 | ,13 | 79 | ,98 | 99 | ,97 |
| aune of France | 562 | ,51 | 76 | ,80 | 96 | , | |
| Genoa | canna of 10¹⁄₂ palmi | 1245 | ,10 | 34 | ,70 | 43 | ,37 |
| canna of 10 palmi | 1185 | ,80 | 36 | ,43 | 45 | ,54 | |
| canna of 9 palmi | 1067 | ,20 | 40 | ,48 | 50 | ,60 | |
| braccio | 276 | ,70 | 156 | ,13 | 195 | ,16 | |
| palmo | 118 | ,58 | 364 | ,32 | 455 | ,40 | |
| Gibraltar | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Glatz | elle | 276 | ,80 | 150 | ,07 | 195 | ,08 |
| Gombroon | gueze | 464 | ,52 | 93 | , | 116 | ,25 |
| Gorlitz | elle | 266 | ,25 | 169 | ,90 | 212 | ,37 |
| Gottenburg | alle | 280 | ,40 | 154 | ,06 | 192 | ,58 |
| Gottingen | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Guastalla | braccio | 321 | ,85 | 134 | ,22 | 167 | ,78 |
| Gueldres | elle | 313 | ,22 | 137 | ,92 | 172 | ,40 |
| Guinea | jactam | 1728 | , | 25 | , | 31 | ,25 |
| Halle | elle long measure | 314 | ,90 | 137 | ,19 | 171 | ,48 |
| elle short measure | 269 | ,75 | 160 | ,15 | 200 | ,18 | |
| Hamburgh | elle | 270 | ,60 | 159 | ,64 | 199 | ,50 |
| elle Brabant measure | 326 | ,54 | 132 | ,30 | 165 | ,37 | |
| Hanover | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Harburg | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Harlem | elle | 343 | ,70 | 125 | ,69 | 157 | ,11 |
| Havre de Grace | aune | 558 | ,25 | 77 | ,38 | 96 | ,73 |
| Hague | elle | 326 | , | 132 | ,51 | 165 | ,64 |
| Heidelberg | elle | 394 | ,25 | 109 | ,57 | 136 | ,97 |
| Hildesheim | elle | 264 | ,53 | 163 | ,30 | 204 | ,13 |
| Hirchsberg | elle | 272 | , | 158 | ,82 | 198 | ,53 |
| Hoff | elle | 301 | , | 143 | ,52 | 179 | ,40 |
| Jagerndorf | elle | 268 | ,50 | 160 | ,90 | 201 | ,12 |
| Japan | inck | 897 | ,60 | 48 | ,13 | 60 | ,16 |
| Java | covid | 237 | ,60 | 181 | ,82 | 227 | ,27 |
| Jerusalem | pike | 324 | , | 133 | ,33 | 166 | ,67 |
| Ingolstadt | elle | 376 | ,07 | 114 | ,87 | 143 | ,59 |
| Inspruck | elle | 371 | ,30 | 116 | ,35 | 145 | ,23 |
| Kiel | elle | 271 | ,70 | 159 | , | 198 | ,75 |
| Kintzingen | elle | 281 | ,60 | 153 | ,41 | 191 | ,76 |
| Konigsberg | elle | 314 | ,90 | 137 | ,19 | 171 | ,48 |
| Krems | elle | 353 | ,25 | 122 | ,29 | 152 | ,87 |
| Lauban | elle | 266 | ,25 | 169 | ,90 | 212 | ,37 |
| Leghorn | canna for cloths | 1115 | ,60 | 38 | ,72 | 48 | ,40 |
| braccio | 278 | ,90 | 154 | ,90 | 193 | ,62 | |
| palmo | 139 | ,45 | 309 | ,80 | 387 | ,24 | |
| canna for silk stuffs | 1099 | ,40 | 39 | ,29 | 49 | ,12 | |
| braccio | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 | |
| palmo | 137 | ,42 | 314 | ,34 | 392 | ,94 | |
| Leipsic | elle | 267 | , | 161 | ,80 | 202 | ,25 |
| Leutkirch | elle | 331 | ,87 | 130 | ,17 | 162 | ,72 |
| Leyden | elle | 322 | ,60 | 133 | ,91 | 167 | ,39 |
| Liebau | elle | 267 | , | 161 | ,80 | 202 | ,25 |
| Liege | elle | 260 | ,50 | 165 | ,84 | 207 | ,30 |
| Lisbon | vara | 517 | ,80 | 83 | ,43 | 104 | ,29 |
| covado | 319 | ,85 | 135 | ,06 | 168 | ,83 | |
| palmo craveiro | 106 | ,62 | 405 | ,17 | 506 | ,47 | |
| palmo menor | 103 | ,56 | 417 | ,15 | 521 | ,44 | |
| Lisle | aune | 332 | ,40 | 129 | ,96 | 162 | ,45 |
| London | yard | 432 | , | 100 | , | 125 | , |
| ell | 540 | , | 80 | , | 100 | , | |
| Louvain | aune long measure | 327 | ,90 | 131 | ,75 | 164 | ,69 |
| aune short measure | 323 | ,25 | 133 | ,64 | 167 | ,05 | |
| Lubec | elle | 272 | ,50 | 158 | ,52 | 198 | ,16 |
| Lucca | braccio for cloths | 285 | ,84 | 151 | ,13 | 188 | ,92 |
| braccio for silk stuffs | 273 | ,25 | 158 | ,10 | 197 | ,62 | |
| Lunenburg | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Lyons | aune | 552 | ,70 | 78 | ,16 | 97 | ,70 |
| Madeira | vara | 517 | ,80 | 83 | ,43 | 104 | ,29 |
| Madras | covid | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , |
| Madrid | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Magdeburg | elle | 314 | ,90 | 137 | ,19 | 171 | ,48 |
| Mahon | cana | 756 | , | 57 | ,14 | 71 | ,43 |
| Majorca | cana | 810 | , | 53 | ,33 | 66 | ,66 |
| Malaga | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Malines | aune | 323 | ,25 | 133 | ,64 | 167 | ,05 |
| Malta | canna | 1058 | ,40 | 40 | ,82 | 51 | ,02 |
| Manheim | elle | 263 | ,45 | 163 | ,98 | 204 | ,97 |
| Mantua | braccio | 219 | ,70 | 196 | ,63 | 245 | ,79 |
| Marseilles | canne | 948 | ,20 | 45 | ,56 | 56 | ,95 |
| aune | 552 | ,60 | 78 | ,18 | 97 | ,72 | |
| Mastrick | elle | 322 | ,80 | 133 | ,83 | 167 | ,28 |
| Mecca | covid | 324 | , | 133 | ,33 | 166 | ,66 |
| Memel | elle | 271 | , | 159 | ,41 | 199 | ,26 |
| Memmingen | elle | 331 | ,33 | 130 | ,38 | 162 | ,98 |
| Mentz | elle | 259 | ,20 | 166 | ,66 | 208 | ,33 |
| Messina | canna | 918 | ,72 | 47 | ,02 | 58 | ,77 |
| palmo | 114 | ,84 | 376 | ,18 | 470 | ,22 | |
| Middelburg | elle | 326 | , | 132 | ,51 | 165 | ,64 |
| Milan | braccio for cloths | 319 | ,40 | 135 | ,25 | 169 | ,06 |
| braccio for silk stuffs | 253 | ,34 | 170 | ,52 | 213 | ,15 | |
| Minden | elle | 273 | ,40 | 158 | , | 197 | ,50 |
| Minorca | cana | 756 | , | 57 | ,14 | 71 | ,43 |
| Mocha | guz | 300 | , | 144 | , | 180 | , |
| covid | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , | |
| Modena | braccio | 302 | ,35 | 142 | ,88 | 178 | ,60 |
| Montpellier | canne | 946 | , | 45 | ,66 | 57 | ,08 |
| Morea | pike | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , |
| Morlaix | aune | 636 | ,25 | 67 | ,90 | 84 | ,87 |
| Morocco | covado | 238 | ,10 | 181 | ,44 | 226 | ,80 |
| Munich | elle | 394 | ,30 | 109 | ,56 | 136 | ,95 |
| Munster | elle | 381 | ,80 | 113 | ,15 | 141 | ,43 |
| Munden | elle | 276 | ,15 | 156 | ,44 | 195 | ,55 |
| Namur | elle | 313 | ,22 | 137 | ,92 | 172 | ,40 |
| Nantes | aune of Bretagne | 636 | ,25 | 67 | ,90 | 84 | ,87 |
| Naples | canna | 996 | ,32 | 43 | ,36 | 54 | ,20 |
| palmo | 124 | ,54 | 346 | ,88 | 433 | ,60 | |
| Narva | elle | 279 | ,66 | 154 | ,47 | 193 | ,09 |
| archine | 336 | , | 128 | ,57 | 160 | ,71 | |
| Naumburg | elle | 267 | , | 161 | ,80 | 202 | ,25 |
| Negropont | pike | 291 | , | 148 | ,45 | 185 | ,57 |
| Neufchatel | elle | 525 | ,45 | 82 | ,22 | 102 | ,77 |
| Nice | raso | 259 | ,20 | 166 | ,66 | 208 | ,33 |
| palmo | 124 | ,65 | 346 | ,57 | 433 | ,21 | |
| Nienburg | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Nimeguen | elle | 313 | ,22 | 137 | ,92 | 172 | ,40 |
| Nordlingen | elle | 288 | ,40 | 149 | ,80 | 187 | ,24 |
| Norway | elle | 296 | ,45 | 145 | ,72 | 182 | ,15 |
| Nuremberg | elle | 311 | ,50 | 138 | ,68 | 173 | ,35 |
| Oporto | vara | 517 | ,80 | 83 | ,43 | 104 | ,29 |
| covado | 313 | ,62 | 137 | ,75 | 172 | ,18 | |
| palmo craveiro | 104 | ,54 | 413 | ,25 | 516 | ,54 | |
| palmo menor | 103 | ,56 | 417 | ,50 | 521 | ,44 | |
| Oran | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| pike for cloths | 324 | , | 133 | ,33 | 166 | ,66 | |
| Osnabruck | elle | 275 | ,50 | 156 | ,80 | 196 | , |
| elle for linens | 284 | ,20 | 152 | , | 190 | , | |
| Ostend | aune | 330 | ,25 | 130 | ,81 | 163 | ,51 |
| Osterode | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Oudenard | elle | 315 | ,35 | 137 | , | 171 | ,25 |
| Oviedo | vara | 407 | ,50 | 106 | ,02 | 132 | ,52 |
| Paderborn | elle | 254 | ,80 | 169 | ,54 | 211 | ,93 |
| Padua | braccio | 316 | ,75 | 136 | ,38 | 170 | ,48 |
| Palermo | canna | 918 | ,72 | 47 | ,02 | 58 | ,77 |
| palmo | 114 | ,84 | 376 | ,18 | 470 | ,22 | |
| Paris | aune of 528 lines | 562 | ,51 | 76 | ,80 | 96 | , |
| aune of 526⁵⁄₆ lines | 561 | ,27 | 76 | ,97 | 96 | ,21 | |
| aune of 524 lines | 558 | ,25 | 77 | ,38 | 96 | ,73 | |
| metre | 472 | ,27 | 91 | ,47 | 114 | ,34 | |
| Parma | braccio | 258 | ,15 | 167 | ,35 | 209 | ,19 |
| Patras | pike for cloths and linens | 324 | , | 133 | ,33 | 166 | ,66 |
| pike for silk stuffs | 300 | , | 144 | , | 180 | , | |
| Pekin | peking | 168 | ,33 | 256 | ,64 | 320 | ,80 |
| Pernau | elle | 259 | ,10 | 166 | ,73 | 208 | ,41 |
| Persia | gueze | 297 | ,50 | 145 | ,21 | 181 | ,52 |
| gueze monkelse | 446 | ,40 | 96 | ,77 | 120 | ,97 | |
| Perugia | braccio | 305 | ,34 | 141 | ,48 | 176 | ,85 |
| Piedmont | raso | 281 | ,25 | 153 | ,60 | 192 | , |
| Pisa | palmo | 140 | ,95 | 306 | ,50 | 383 | ,12 |
| Placentia | braccio | 306 | ,30 | 141 | ,04 | 176 | ,30 |
| Poland | elle | 291 | ,40 | 148 | ,25 | 185 | ,32 |
| Pondicherry | covid | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , |
| Pontremoli | braccio | 326 | ,10 | 132 | ,47 | 165 | ,59 |
| Posen | elle | 269 | , | 160 | ,59 | 200 | ,74 |
| Prague | elle | 279 | , | 154 | ,84 | 193 | ,55 |
| Presburg | elle | 263 | ,60 | 163 | ,89 | 204 | ,86 |
| Queda | covid | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , |
| Ragusa | ana | 242 | ,40 | 178 | ,22 | 222 | ,78 |
| Ratisbon | elle | 383 | , | 112 | ,80 | 141 | , |
| Ratzeburg | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Ravenna | braccio | 317 | ,50 | 136 | ,06 | 170 | ,08 |
| Ravensburg | elle | 324 | ,60 | 133 | ,08 | 166 | ,36 |
| Reccanati | braccio | 314 | ,20 | 137 | ,50 | 171 | ,87 |
| Reggio | braccio | 250 | ,20 | 172 | ,66 | 215 | ,82 |
| Revel | elle | 252 | ,80 | 170 | ,88 | 213 | ,60 |
| Rhodes | pike | 357 | , | 121 | , | 151 | ,25 |
| Riga | elle | 258 | ,90 | 166 | ,86 | 208 | ,57 |
| Rimini | braccio | 302 | ,35 | 142 | ,88 | 178 | ,60 |
| Rochelle | aune | 558 | ,25 | 77 | ,38 | 96 | ,73 |
| Rome | canna for linens | 987 | , | 43 | ,77 | 54 | ,71 |
| braccio ditto | 299 | ,80 | 144 | ,10 | 180 | ,12 | |
| canna for cloths and silk stuffs | 939 | ,66 | 45 | ,97 | 57 | ,47 | |
| braccio | 400 | ,50 | 107 | ,86 | 134 | ,83 | |
| Rostock | elle | 273 | ,15 | 158 | ,15 | 197 | ,69 |
| Rotenburg | elle | 276 | ,90 | 156 | , | 195 | , |
| Rotterdam | elle | 326 | , | 132 | ,51 | 165 | ,64 |
| Rouen | aune for cloths | 549 | ,75 | 78 | ,58 | 98 | ,23 |
| aune for linens | 659 | ,68 | 65 | ,49 | 81 | ,86 | |
| Roveredo | braccio for cloths | 299 | ,90 | 144 | ,05 | 180 | ,06 |
| braccio for silk stuffs | 351 | ,80 | 122 | ,80 | 153 | ,50 | |
| Ruremonde | elle | 324 | , | 133 | ,33 | 166 | ,66 |
| Russia | archine | 336 | , | 128 | ,57 | 160 | ,71 |
| Saltzburg | elle for silk stuffs | 379 | ,15 | 113 | ,94 | 142 | ,42 |
| elle for cloths | 474 | ,95 | 90 | ,96 | 113 | ,70 | |
| Sayd | pike | 285 | ,50 | 151 | ,31 | 189 | ,14 |
| St. Gall | elle for cloths | 291 | , | 1?8 | ,45 | 185 | ,57 |
| elle for linens | 378 | ,30 | 114 | ,20 | 142 | ,75 | |
| St. Malo | anne | 636 | ,25 | 67 | ,90 | 84 | ,87 |
| St. Petersburg | archine | 336 | , | 128 | ,57 | 160 | ,71 |
| St. Sebastian | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Saragossa | cana | 978 | ,40 | 44 | ,15 | 55 | ,19 |
| Sardinia | raso | 259 | ,20 | 166 | ,66 | 208 | ,33 |
| palmo | 118 | ,58 | 364 | ,32 | 455 | ,40 | |
| Schafhausen | elle | 285 | , | 151 | ,58 | 189 | ,47 |
| Schweinfurt | elle | 275 | ,50 | 156 | ,80 | 196 | , |
| Scio | pike long measure | 324 | , | 133 | ,33 | 166 | ,66 |
| pike short measure | 311 | ,80 | 138 | ,55 | 173 | ,19 | |
| Scotland | ell old measure | 446 | ,40 | 96 | ,77 | 120 | ,96 |
| Seville | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Siam | ken | 453 | ,85 | 95 | ,18 | 118 | ,98 |
| covid | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , | |
| Sicily | canna | 918 | ,72 | 47 | ,02 | 58 | ,77 |
| palmo | 114 | ,84 | 376 | ,18 | 470 | ,22 | |
| Sienna | braccio for linens | 283 | ,50 | 152 | ,38 | 190 | ,48 |
| braccio for cloths | 178 | ,35 | 242 | ,22 | 302 | ,78 | |
| Silesia | elle | 272 | , | 158 | ,82 | 198 | ,53 |
| Smyrna | pike | 324 | , | 133 | ,33 | 166 | ,66 |
| Soleure | elle | 259 | ,60 | 166 | ,40 | 208 | , |
| Spain | vara | 295 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Stade | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Stettin | elle | 307 | ,36 | 140 | ,55 | 175 | ,69 |
| Stockholm | elle | 280 | ,40 | 154 | ,06 | 192 | ,58 |
| Stralsund | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Strasburg | elle | 562 | ,51 | 76 | ,80 | 96 | , |
| brache | 254 | ,60 | 169 | ,68 | 212 | ,10 | |
| Surat | guz | 336 | , | 128 | ,57 | 160 | ,75 |
| cobit | 216 | , | 200 | , | 250 | , | |
| Sweden | elle | 280 | ,40 | 154 | ,06 | 192 | ,58 |
| Teneriff | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Thorn | elle | 269 | , | 160 | ,59 | 200 | ,74 |
| Toledo | vara | 395 | ,25 | 109 | ,30 | 136 | ,62 |
| Tortosa | cana | 751 | ,75 | 57 | ,46 | 71 | ,83 |
| Toulon | canne | 915 | ,80 | 47 | ,17 | 58 | ,96 |
| Toulouse | canne | 859 | ,75 | 50 | ,25 | 62 | ,81 |
| Tournai | aune | 292 | ,45 | 147 | ,72 | 184 | ,65 |
| Trente | elle for cloths | 319 | ,60 | 135 | ,17 | 168 | ,96 |
| elle for silk stuffs | 289 | , | 149 | ,48 | 186 | ,85 | |
| Treves | elle | 263 | ,60 | 163 | ,89 | 204 | ,86 |
| Trevigo | braccio | 316 | ,75 | 136 | ,38 | 170 | ,48 |
| Trieste | elle for cloths | 319 | ,20 | 135 | ,34 | 169 | ,17 |
| elle for silk stuffs | 302 | ,55 | 142 | ,78 | 178 | ,48 | |
| Tripoli in Barbary | pike | 260 | ,90 | 165 | ,58 | 206 | ,98 |
| Tripoli in Syria | pike | 324 | , | 133 | ,33 | 166 | ,66 |
| Troppau | elle | 268 | ,50 | 160 | ,90 | 201 | ,12 |
| Troyes | aune | 374 | ,70 | 115 | ,29 | 144 | ,12 |
| Tunis | pike for cloths | 317 | ,80 | 135 | ,93 | 169 | ,92 |
| pike for silk stuffs | 297 | ,93 | 145 | , | 181 | ,25 | |
| pike for linens | 223 | ,40 | 193 | ,38 | 241 | ,72 | |
| Turkey | pike long measure | 316 | , | 136 | ,70 | 170 | ,88 |
| pike short measure | 306 | , | 141 | ,18 | 176 | ,47 | |
| Turin | raso | 284 | ,90 | 151 | ,63 | 189 | ,54 |
| Ulm | elle | 268 | ,50 | 160 | ,90 | 201 | ,12 |
| Valencia | vara | 428 | ,20 | 100 | ,88 | 120 | ,10 |
| Valenciennes | aune | 311 | ,10 | 138 | ,86 | 173 | ,58 |
| Venice | braccio for cloths | 314 | ,90 | 137 | ,19 | 171 | ,48 |
| braccio for silk stuffs | 296 | ,40 | 145 | ,75 | 182 | ,18 | |
| Verden | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Verona | braccio | 296 | ,40 | 145 | ,75 | 182 | ,18 |
| Vicenza | braccio | 323 | ,45 | 133 | ,56 | 166 | ,95 |
| Vienna | elle | 367 | , | 117 | ,71 | 147 | ,14 |
| Waldenburg | elle | 272 | , | 158 | ,82 | 198 | ,53 |
| Warendorf | elle | 276 | ,25 | 156 | ,38 | 195 | ,47 |
| Warsaw | elle | 291 | ,40 | 148 | ,25 | 185 | ,32 |
| Windesheim | elle | 311 | ,50 | 138 | ,68 | 173 | ,35 |
| Wirtemburg | elle | 318 | , | 135 | ,85 | 169 | ,81 |
| Wismar | elle | 275 | ,30 | 156 | ,92 | 196 | ,15 |
| Wurtzburg | elle | 274 | ,10 | 157 | ,60 | 197 | , |
| Xativa | vara | 420 | ,50 | 102 | ,73 | 128 | ,42 |
| Ypres | aune | 330 | ,25 | 130 | ,81 | 163 | ,51 |
| Zell | elle | 274 | ,85 | 157 | ,17 | 196 | ,47 |
| Zittau | elle | 269 | ,10 | 160 | ,54 | 200 | ,67 |
| Zurich | elle | 283 | ,40 | 152 | ,43 | 190 | ,54 |
The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.
Examples.
Let it be required to reduce 100 archines of Russia into varas of Spain.
The archine measuring 336 English lines, and the vara 395,25, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:
| 100 | archines = x | ||||
| 1 | archine | = | 336 | lines | |
| 395 | ,25 | lines | = | 1 | vara |
| Result 85,01 varas. | |||||
Reduce 100 varas into archines.
| 100 | varas = x | ||||
| 1 | vara | = | 395 | ,25 | lines |
| 336 | lines | = | 1 | archine | |
| Result 117,63 archines. | |||||
English Long Measure.
| inch | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3 | palm | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 9 | 3 | span | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 12 | 4 | 1 | ¹⁄₄ | foot | ||||||||||||||||||
| 18 | 6 | 2 | 1 | ¹⁄₂ | cubit | |||||||||||||||||
| 36 | 12 | 4 | 3 | 2 | yard | |||||||||||||||||
| 45 | 15 | 5 | 3 | ³⁄₄ | 2 | ¹⁄₂ | 1 | ¹⁄₄ | ell | |||||||||||||
| 60 | 20 | 6 | ²⁄₃ | 5 | 3 | ¹⁄₂ | 1 | ³⁄₄ | 1 | ¹⁄₄ | pace | fath- om | ||||||||||
| 72 | 24 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 1 | ³⁄₄ | 1 | ¹⁄₅ | |||||||||||||
| 198 | 66 | 22 | 16 | ¹⁄₂ | 11 | 5 | ¹⁄₂ | 4 | 3 | ¹⁄₁₀ | 2 | ³⁄₄ | pole | fur- long | ||||||||
| 7920 | 2640 | 880 | 660 | 440 | 220 | 176 | 132 | 110 | 40 | |||||||||||||
| 63360 | 21120 | 7040 | 5280 | 3520 | 1760 | 1408 | 1056 | 880 | 320 | 8 | mile | |||||||||||
Jewish Long or Itinerary Measure.
| Eng. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| miles. | paces. | feet.dec. | |||||||
| cubit | 0 | 0 | 1 | .824 | |||||
| 400 | stadium | 0 | 145 | 4 | .6 | ||||
| 2000 | 5 | Sab. day’s journey | 0 | 729 | 3 | .0 | |||
| 4000 | 10 | 2 | eastern mile | 1 | 403 | 1 | .0 | ||
| 12000 | 30 | 6 | 3 | parasang | 4 | 153 | 3 | .0 | |
| 96000 | 240 | 48 | 24 | 8 | a day’s journey | 33 | 172 | 4 | .0 |
Roman long Measure, reduced to English.
| Eng. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| paces. | ft. | dec. inch | ||||||||||||||||||||
| digitus transversus | 0 | 0 | 0 | .725¹⁄₄ | ||||||||||||||||||
| 1 | ³⁄₄ | uncia | 0 | 0 | 0 | .967 | ||||||||||||||||
| 4 | 3 | palmus minor | 0 | 0 | 2 | .901 | ||||||||||||||||
| 16 | 12 | 4 | pes | 0 | 0 | 11 | .604 | |||||||||||||||
| 20 | 15 | 5 | 1 | ¹⁄₄ | palmipes | 0 | 1 | 2 | .505 | |||||||||||||
| 24 | 18 | 6 | 1 | ¹⁄₂ | 1 | ¹⁄₅ | cubitus | 0 | 1 | 5 | .406 | |||||||||||
| 40 | 30 | 10 | 2 | ¹⁄₂ | 2 | 1 | ²⁄₃ | gradus | 0 | 1 | 5 | .01 | ||||||||||
| 80 | 60 | 20 | 5 | 4 | 3 | ¹⁄₂ | 2 | passus | 0 | 4 | 10 | .02 | ||||||||||
| 10000 | 7500 | 2500 | 625 | 500 | 416 | ²⁄₃ | 250 | 215 | stadium | 120 | 4 | 4 | .5 | |||||||||
| 80000 | 60000 | 20000 | 5000 | 4000 | 3333 | ¹⁄₃ | 2000 | 1000 | 8 | milliare | 967 | 0 | 0 | |||||||||
English square or superficial Measures, are raised from the yard of 36 inches multiplied into itself; and this producing 1296 square inches in the square yard, the divisions of this are square feet and inches, and the multipliers, poles, roods, and acres.
English square Measure.
| inches | ||||||||||||
| 144 | feet | |||||||||||
| 1296 | 9 | yards | ||||||||||
| 3600 | 25 | 2 | paces | |||||||||
| 39204 | 272 | ¹⁄₄ | 30 | ¹⁄₄ | 10 | ,89 | poles | |||||
| 1568160 | 10890 | 1210 | 435 | ,6 | 40 | roods | ||||||
| 6272640 | 43560 | 4840 | 1743 | ,6 | 160 | 4 | acres | |||||
Long Measure.
| 12 | Inches | make | 1 | Foot. | |
| 3 | Feet | —— | 1 | Yard. | |
| 5 | ¹⁄₂ | Yards | —— | 1 | Pole, or perch. |
| 40 | Poles | —— | 1 | Furlong. | |
| 8 | Furlongs | —— | 1 | Mile. | |
| 4 | Inches | —— | 1 | Hand. | |
| 6 | Feet | —— | 1 | Fathom, or toise. | |
| 3 | Miles | —— | 1 | League. | |
| 60 | Nautical, or geographical miles, or 69¹⁄₂ statute miles | —— | 1 | Degree. |
Square Measure.
| 144 | Square inches | make | 1 | Square foot. | |
| 9 | Square feet | —— | 1 | Square yard. | |
| 30 | ¹⁄₄ | Square yards | —— | 1 | Square pole. |
| 40 | Square poles | —— | 1 | Square rood. | |
| 4 | Square roods | —— | 1 | Square acre. |
Solid, or Cubic Measure.
| 1728 | Cubic in. | make | 1 | Cubic foot. | |
| 27 | Cubic feet | —— | 1 | Cubic yard. | |
| 251 | Cubic in. | —— | 1 | Gal. wine measure. | |
| 281 | do. | —— | 1 | Gal. beer measure. | |
| 168 | ³⁄₅ | do. | —— | 1 | Gal. dry measure. |
Dry Measure.
| 8 | Pints | make | 1 | Gallon. |
| 2 | Gallons | —— | 1 | Peck. |
| 4 | Pecks | —— | 1 | Bushel. |
| 4 | Bushels | —— | 1 | Coom. |
| 2 | Cooms | —— | 1 | Quarter. |
| 5 | Quarters | —— | 1 | Wey. |
| 2 | Weys | —— | 1 | Last. |
Avoirdupois Weight.
| 16 | Drams | make | 1 | Ounce. |
| 16 | Ounces | —— | 1 | Pound. |
| 28 | Pounds | —— | ¹⁄₄ | of a Hundred. |
| 4 | Quarters | —— | 1 | Hundred. |
| 20 | Hundred | —— | 1 | Ton. |
| 14 | Pounds | —— | 1 | Stone. |
French square Measures, are regulated by 12 square lines in the inch square, 12 inches in the foot, 22 feet in the perch, and 100 perches in the arpent or acre.
French liquid Measures. At Paris, and in a great part of the kingdom, the smallest measure is the possou, which contains six cubic inches; 2 possous make the demi-septier; 2 demi-septiers the chopine; 2 chopines a pint; 2 pints a quart or pot; 4 quarts the gallon, or septier of estimation; 36 septiers the muid; which is subdivided into 2 demi-muids, 4 quarter muids, and 8 half quarter muids. The queue in Orleans, Blois, &c. contains a Paris muid and a half. The tun used at Bayonne and Bourdeaux, consists of 4 bariques, and equal to 3 Paris muids; at Orleans to 2: so that the first tun contains 864 pint, and the second 576. The demi-queue in Champagne, 96 quarts; the pipe in Anjou and Poictou, 2 bussards, equal to a demi-queues of Orleans, &c. or a muid and a half of Paris. The millerolle used in Provence, contains 66 Paris pints; and the poincon at Nantz, in Touraine, and the Blessois, equal to half the Orleans tun. The poincou at Paris is the same with the demi-queue.
French Weights and Measures.
The toise is commonly used in France for military purposes, and is divided into 6 feet: each foot 12 inches; each inch 12 lines; each line 12 points. The pace is usually reckoned at 2¹⁄₂ feet.
Poids de Marc, ou de Paris.
| 24 | Grains | make | 1 | Den’r. |
| 3 | Den’rs. | —— | 1 | Gros. |
| 8 | Gros | —— | 1 | Ounce. |
| 8 | Ounces | —— | 1 | Marc. |
| 2 | Marcs | —— | 1 | Pound. |
The French have lately formed an entire new system of weights and measures: the following short account of them, and their proportion to the old weights and measures of France, and those of English standard, is extracted from Nicholson’s Natural Philosophy.
| Proportions of the measures of each species to its principal measure or unity. | First part of the name which indicates the proportion to the principal measure or unity. | PRINCIPAL MEASURES, OR UNITIES. | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Length. | Capacity. | Weight. | Agrarian. | For Firewood. | |||||
| 10,000 | Myria | - | Metre. | Litre. | Gramme. | Are. | Stere. | ||
| 1,000 | Kilo | ||||||||
| 100 | Hecto | ||||||||
| 10 | Deca | ||||||||
| 0 | —— | ||||||||
| 0 | .1 | Deci | |||||||
| 0 | .01 | Centi | |||||||
| 0 | .001 | Milli | |||||||
| Proportion of the principal measures between themselves, and the length of the Meridian. | 10,000,000th part of the dist. from the Pole to the Equator. | A Decimetre cube. | Weight of a centimetre cube of distilled Water. | 100 square metres. | One cubic metre. | ||||
| Value of the principal measures in the ancient French measures. | 3 feet 11 lines and ¹⁄₂ nearly. | 1 pint and ¹⁄₂₀ or 1 litron and ¹⁄₄ nearly. | 18 grains and 841,000 parts. | Two square perches des eaux et foret. | 1 demi voie or ¹⁄₄ of a cord des eaux et foret. | ||||
| Value in English measures. | Inches 39·383. | 61.083 inch, which is more than the wine and less than the beer quart. | 22·966 grains. | 11·968 square yards. | |||||
By the new metrical system of the French, the geometrical circle used in astronomical, geographical, and topographical calculations, is divided instead of 360, into 400 equal parts, which are called grades: each grade is divided into 100 equal parts which are called minutes of grades: and each minute into 100 seconds, of grades. The proportion of the new to the old degree is 0.9; and the next proportion or minute is 54′ of the old division; and the new second is 32″.4 of the ancient.
Reduction of the old French Weights and measures to English; and the contrary.
| 1st. To reduce English Avoirdupois to Paris weight: | ||||||
| The avoirdupois pound of 16 ounces, or 7000 troy grains | = | 8538 | - | Paris grains | ||
| The ounce | = | 533.6250 | ||||
| 2d. To reduce Paris running feet or inches into English, multiply by | - | 1.065977 | ||||
| —— English running feet or inches into Paris divide by | ||||||
| 3d. To reduce Paris cubic feet or inches into English, multiply by | - | 1.211278 | ||||
| —— English cubic feet or inches into Paris, divide by | ||||||
| 4th. To reduce the Paris pint to the English, multiply by | - | 2.0171082 | ||||
| —— To reduce the English pint to the Paris, divide by | ||||||
German Measures. The Rhinland rood is the measure commonly used in Germany and Holland, and in most of the northern states, for all military purposes.
It is divided into 12 feet. The Rhinland rood is sometimes divided into tenths, or decimal feet, and the pace is made equal to 2 decimal feet, or ²⁄₁₀ of a rood.
Proportions between the English Weights and Measures, and those of the principal Places in Europe.
| Places. | Foot in Parts. | Pound in Parts. |
|---|---|---|
| London | 1000 | 100 |
| Paris | 1068 | 108 |
| Amsterdam | 942 | 93 |
| Rhinland | 1033 | 96 |
| Antwerp | 946 | 98 |
| Lovaine | 958 | 98 |
| Middleburgh | 991 | 98 |
| Strasburgh | 920 | 93 |
| Bremen | 964 | 94 |
| Cologne | 954 | 97 |
| Frankfort | 948 | 93 |
| Leipsig | — | 117 |
| Hamburg | — | 95 |
| Venice | 1153 | 151 |
| Prague | 1026 | 106 |
| Copenhagen | 965 | 94 |
| Nuremburgh | 1006 | 94 |
| Bavaria | 954 | 40 |
| Vienna | 1053 | 83 |
| Madrid | 1001 | 99 |
| Toledo | 899 | 100 |
| Bologne | 1204 | 127 |
| Naples | 861 | — |
| Florence | — | 123 |
| Genoa | — | 142 |
| Mantua | 1569 | 143 |
| Turin | 1062 | — |
| Dantzig | 944 | 119 |
Cubical Measures, or measures of capacity for liquors. English liquid measures were originally raised from troy weight, it being ordained that pounds troy of wheat, gathered from the middle of the ear, and well dried, should weigh a gallon of wine measure; yet a new weight, viz. the avoirdupois weight, had been introduced, to which a second standard gallon was adjusted, exceeding the former in the proportion of the avoirdupois weight to the troy weight. From this latter standard were raised two measures, the one for ale, the other for beer.
The sealed gallon at Guildhall, London, which is the English standard for wine, spirits, oil, &c. is supposed to contain 231 cubic inches; yet by actual experiment made in 1688, before the lord mayor and commissioners of excise, it only contains 224 cubic inches. It was however agreed to continue the common supposed contents of 231: hence, as 12 : 231 ∷ 14¹²⁄₂₀ : 281¹⁄₂ the cubic inches in an ale gallon; but in effect, the ale quart contains 70¹⁄₂ cubic inches; on which principles the ale and beer gallon will be 282 cubic inches.
Dry Measure, is different from both the ale and wine measure, being nearly a mean between both.
According to a British act of parliament, passed in 1697, every round bushel with a plain and even bottom, being 18¹⁄₂ inches throughout, and eight inches deep, is to be accounted a legal Winchester bushel, according to the standard in the exchequer; consequently a corn gallon will contain 268.8 inches, as in the following table.
| inches | ||||||||
| 2688 | gallons | |||||||
| 5376 | 2 | pecks | ||||||
| 21504 | 8 | 4 | ¹⁄₂ | bushels | ||||
| 172032 | 64 | 32 | 8 | quarters | ||||
Winchester Measure.
| 2 | Pints | make | 1 | Quart. |
| 4 | Quarts | —— | 1 | Gallon. |
| 9 | Gallons | —— | 1 | Firkin. |
| 2 | Firkins, or 18 Gallon | —— | 1 | Kilderkin. |
| 2 | Kilderkins, or 36 Gallons | —— | 1 | Barrel. |
| 1 | Barrel and half, or 54 Gallons | —— | 1 | Hogshead. |
| 2 | Hogsheads or 3 barrels, or 108 Gallons | —— | 1 | Butt. |
| 2 | Butts, or 216 Gallons | —— | 1 | Tun. |
Table Cloth Measure.
| 2 | Inches and a Quarter | make | 1 | Nail. |
| 4 | Nails | —— | ¹⁄₄ | of a Yard. |
| 4 | Quarters | —— | 1 | Yard. |
| ³⁄₄ | of a Yard | —— | 1 | Ell Flemish. |
| 5 | Quarters, or 1 Yard 1 Quarter | —— | 1 | Ell English. |
| 6 | Quarters | —— | 1 | French Ell. |
Measure of wood for firing, is the cord, being four feet high, as many broad, and the length of the wood is as by law established, it is divided into two half cords.
Measure for horses, is the hand, which by statute contains 4 inches.
Powder Measures, made of copper, holding from an ounce to 12 pounds, are very convenient in a siege, when guns or mortars are to be loaded with loose powder, especially in ricochet-firing, &c.
The French recommend measures that are made of block tin, such as are used for measuring out salt, viz. 1 ounce, 2, 3, 4, 8, which make the half pound; and lastly, of 16, which make the pound. These quantities answer every sort of ordnance.
Diameters and Heights of Cylindric Powder Measures, holding from 1 to 15 Ounces.
| Ounces | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 0 | 1·256 | 1·583 | 1·811 | 1·994 | 2·148 |
| 1 | 2·706 | 2·793 | 2·876 | 2·953 | 3·027 | 3·098 |
Diameters and Heights of Cylindric Powder Measures, holding from 1 to 15 Pounds.
| Pounds | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 0 | 3·165 | 3·988 | 4·565 | 5·024 | 5·412 |
| 1 | 6·890 | 7·039 | 7·245 | 7·442 | 7·628 | 7·805 |
The above are in inches and decimals.
Measure-angle, a brass instrument to measure angles, either saliant or rentrant, for exactly ascertaining the number of degrees and minutes, to delineate them on paper.
| MEASURING, | - | |
| MENSURATION, |
in military mathematics, the assuming any certain quantity, and expressing the proportion of other similar quantities to the same; or the determining, by a certain known measure, the precise extent, quantity, or capacity of any thing.
Measuring, in general, constitutes the practical part of geometry; and from the various subjects which it embraces, it acquires various names, and constitutes various arts, viz.
[Longimetry], [Altimetry], [Levelling], [Geodesia], or [Surveying], [Stereometry], [Superficies], and [Solids], &c. which see.
Measuring. See [Chain].
MECHANICS, a mixed mathematical science, which considers motion and moving powers, their nature and laws, with the effects thereof, in machines, &c. The word is derived from the Greek. That part which considers motion arising from gravity, is sometimes called statics, in contradistinction from that part which considers the mechanical powers and their application, properly called mechanics: it is, in fine, the geometry of motion.
Mechanics. The whole momentum or quantity of force of a moving body, is the result of the quantity of matter, multiplied by the velocity with which it is moved; and when the product arising from the multiplication of the particular quantities of matter in any two bodies, by their respective velocities are equal, their momentum will be so too. Upon this easy principle depends the whole of mechanics; and it holds universally true, that when two bodies are suspended on any machine, so as to act contrary to each other; if the machine be put in motion, and the perpendicular ascent of one body multiplied into its weight, be equal to the perpendicular descent of the other, multiplied into its weight, those bodies, how unequal soever in their weights, will balance each other in all situations: for, as the whole ascent of the one is performed in the same time as the whole descent of the other, their respective velocities must be as the spaces they move through; and the excess of weight in one is compensated by the excess of velocity in the other. Upon this principle it is easy to compute the power of any engine, either simple or compound; for it is only finding how much swifter the power moves than the weight does, (i. e. how much further in the same time,) and just so much is the power increased by the help of the engine.
The simple machines usually called mechanic powers, are six in number, viz. the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw.
There are four kinds of levers: 1st, where the prop is placed between the weight and the power. 2d, where the prop is at one end of the lever, the power at the other, and the weight between them. 3d, where the prop is at one end, the weight at the other, and the power applied between them. 4th, the bended lever, which differs from the first in form, but not in property.
In the first and 2d kind, the advantage gained by the lever, is as the distance of the power from the prop, to the distance of the weight from the prop. In the 3d kind, that there may be a balance between the power and the weight, the intensity of the power must exceed the intensity of the weight, just as much as the distance of the weight from the prop exceeds the distance of the power from the prop. As this kind of lever is disadvantageous to the moving power, it is seldom used.
Wheel and axle. Here the velocity of the power is to the velocity of the weight, as the circumference of the wheel is to the circumference of the axle.
Pulley. A single pulley, that only turns on its axis, and does not move out of its place, serves only to change the direction of the power, but gives no mechanical advantage. The advantage gained in this machine, is always as twice the number of moveable pullies; without taking any notice of the fixed pullies necessary to compose the system of pullies.
Inclined plane. The advantage gained by the inclined plane, is as great as its length exceeds its perpendicular height. The force wherewith a rolling body descends upon an inclined plane, is to the force of its absolute gravity, as the height of the plane is to its length.
Wedge. This may be considered as two equally inclined planes, joined together at their bases. When the wood does not cleave at any distance before the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between the power impelling the wedge, and the resistance of the wood acting against its two sides; when the power is to the resistance, as half the thickness of the wedge at the back, is to the length of either of its sides; because the resistance then acts perpendicular to the sides of the wedge: but when the resistance on both sides acts parallel to the back, the power that balances the resistance on both sides will be, as the length of the whole back of the wedge is to double its perpendicular height. When the wood cleaves at any distance before the wedge, (as it generally does) the power impelling the wedge will be to the resistance of the wood, as half the length of the back is to the length of either of the sides of the cleft, estimated from the top, or acting part of the wedge.
Screw. Here the advantage gained is as much as the circumference of a circle described by the handle of the winch, exceeds the interval or distance between the spirals of the screw.
There are few compound engines, but what, on account of the friction of parts against one another, will require a third part more power to work them when loaded, than what is required to constitute a balance between the power and the weight.
MECHANICAL, something relating to mechanics.
Mechanical philosophy, that which explains the phenomena of nature, and the operations of corporeal things, on the principles of mechanics; namely, the motion, gravity, figure, arrangement, &c. of the parts which compose natural bodies.
Mechanical powers. When two heavy bodies or weights are made by any contrivance to act against each other, so as mutually to prevent each other, from being put into motion by gravity, they are said to be in equilibrio. The same expression is used with respect to other forces, which mutually prevent each other from producing motion.
Any force may be compared with gravity, considered as a standard. Weight is the action of gravity on a given mass. Whatever therefore is proved concerning the weights of bodies will be true in like circumstances of other forces.
Weights are supposed to act in lines of direction parallel to each other. In fact, these lines are directed to the centre of the earth, but the angle formed between any two of them within the space occupied by a mechanical engine is so small, that the largest and most accurate astronomical instruments are scarcely capable of exhibiting it.
The simplest of those instruments, by means of which weights or forces are made to act in opposition to each other, are usually termed mechanical powers. Their names are, the lever, the axis or axle, and wheel, the pully or tackle, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw.
Of the Lever.
The lever is defined to be a moveable and inflexible line, acted upon by three forces, the middle one of which is contrary in direction to the other two.
One of these forces is usually produced by the re-action of a fixed body, called the fulcrum.
If two contrary forces be applied to a lever at unequal distances from the fulcrum, they will equiponderate when the forces are to each other in the reciprocal proportion of their distances. For, by the resolution of force it appears, that if two contrary forces be applied to a straight lever, at distances from the fulcrum in the reciprocal proportion of their quantities, and in directions always parallel to each other, the lever will remain at rest in any position.
Since of the three forces which act on the lever, the two which are applied at the extremes, are always in a contrary direction to that which is applied in the space between them: this last force will sustain the effects of the other two; or, in other words, if the fulcrum be placed between the weights, it will be acted upon by their difference.
On the principle of the lever are made, scales for weighing different quantities of various kinds of things; the steelyard, which answers the same purpose by a single weight, removed to different distances from the fulcrum on a graduated arm, according as the body to be weighed is more or less in quantity; and the bent lever balance, which, by the revolution of a fixed weight, increasing in power as it ascends in the arc of a circle, indicates the weight of the counterpoise.
On this principle also, depend the motions of animals; the overcoming or lifting great weights by means of iron levers, called crows; the action of nutcrackers, pincers, and many other instruments of the same nature.
Of the Axis or Axle, and Wheel, and of the Pulley or Tackle.
The axis and wheel may be considered as a lever, one of the forces being applied at the circumference of the axis, and the other at the circumference of the wheel, the central line of the axis being as it were the fulcrum.
For if the semidiameter of the axis, be to the semidiameter of the wheel, reciprocally as the power of A is to the power B, the first of which is applied in the direction of a tangent of the axis, and the other in the direction of the tangent of the wheel, they will be in equilibrium.
To this power may be referred the capstan or crane, by which weights are raised; the winch and barrel, for drawing water, and numberless other machines on the same principle.
The pully is likewise explained on the same principle of the lever. Suppose the line A. C. to be a lever, whose arms A. B. and B. C. are equidistant from the fulcrum B. consequently the two equal powers E. and F. applied in the directions of the tangents to the circle in which the extremities are moveable, will be in equilibrium, and the fulcrum B. will sustain both forces.
But, suppose the fulcrum is at C. then a given force at E. will sustain in equilibrium a double force at F. for in that proportion reciprocally are their distances from the fulcrum. Whence it appears, that considering E. as a force, and F. as a weight to be raised, no increase of power is gained, when the pulley is fixed, but that a double increase of power is gained, when the pulley moves with the weight.
A combination of pullies is called a tackle, and a box containing one or more pullies, is called a block.
This is a tackle composed of four pullies, two of which are in the fixed block A. and the other two in the block B. that moves with the weight F. Now, because the rope is equally stretched throughout, each lower pulley will be acted upon by an equal part of the weight; and because in each pully that moves with the weight a double increase of power is gained; the force by which F. may be sustained will be equal to half the weight divided by the number of lower pullies: that is, as twice the number of lower pullies is to one, so is the weight suspending force.
But if the extremity of the rope C. be affixed to the lower block, it will sustain half as much as a pulley; consequently the analogy will then be, as twice the number of lower pullies, more 2 is to 1, so is the weight suspended to the suspending force.
The pulley or tackle is of such general utility, that it would seem unnecessary to point out any particular instance.
Of the inclined Plane, and of the Wedge.
The inclined plane has in its effects a near analogy to the lever; and the forces by which the same weight tends downwards in the directions of various planes, will be as the sines of their inclinations.
The wedge is composed of two inclined planes joined together at their common bases, in the direction of which the power is impressed.
This instrument is generally used in splitting wood, and was formerly applied in engines for stamping watch plates. The force impressed is commonly a blow, which is found to be much more effectual than a weight or pressure. This may be accounted for on the principles which obtain when resisting bodies are penetrated, as if the mass and velocity vary, the depths to which the impinging body penetrates will be in the compound ratio of the masses and the squares of the velocities.
All cutting instruments may be referred to the wedge. A chizel, or an axe, is a simple wedge; a saw is a number of chizels fixed in a line: a knife may be considered as a simple wedge, when employed in splitting; but if attention be paid to the edge, it is found to be a fine saw, as is evident from the much greater effect all knives produce by a drawing stroke, than what would have followed from a direct action of the edge.
Of the Screw, and of mechanical Engines, in general.
The screw is composed of two parts, one of which is called the screw, and consists of a spiral protuberance, called the thread, which is wound round a cylinder; and the other called the nut, is perforated to the dimensions of the cylinder, and in the internal cavity is cut a spiral groove adapted to receive the thread.
It would be difficult to enumerate the very many uses to which the screw is applied. It is extremely serviceable in compressing bodies together, as paper, linen, &c. It is the principal organ in all stamping instruments for striking coins, or making impressions on paper, linen, or cards, and is of vast utility to the philosopher, by affording an easy method of measuring or subdividing small spaces. A very ordinary screw will divide an inch into 5,000 parts; but the fine hardened steel screws, that are applied to astronomical instruments, will go much farther.
It is easy to conceive, that when forces applied to mechanical instruments are in equilibrium, if the least addition be made to one of them, it will preponderate and overcome the effort. But the want of a perfect polish or smoothness in the parts of all instruments, and the rigidity of all ropes, which increases with the tension, are great impediments to motion, and in compounded engines are found to diminish about one fourth of the effect of the power.
The properties of all the mechanical powers depending on the laws of motion, and the action or tendency to produce motion of each of the two forces, being applied in directions contrary to each other, the following general rule for finding the proportion of the forces in equilibrium on any machine will require no proof.
If two weights applied to the extremes of any mechanical engine, be to each other in the reciprocal proportion of the velocities resolved into a perpendicular direction, (rejecting the other part) which would be acquired by each when put in motion for the same indefinitely small time, they will be in equilibrio.
Whence it may be observed, that in all contrivances by which power is gained, a proportional loss is suffered in respect of time. If one man by means of a tackle, can raise as much weight, as ten men could by their unassisted strength, he will be ten times as long about it.
It is convenience alone, and not any actual increase of force, which we obtain from mechanics. As may be illustrated by the following example:
Suppose a man at the top of a house draws up ten weights, one at a time, by a single rope, in ten minutes: let him then have a tackle of five lower pullies, and he will draw up the whole ten at once with the same ease as he before raised up one; but in ten times the time, that is, in ten minutes. Thus we see the same work is performed in the same time, whether the tackle be used or not: but the convenience is, that if the whole ten weights be joined into one, they may be raised with the tackle, though it would be impossible to move them by the unassisted strength of one man; or suppose, instead of ten weights, a man draws ten buckets of water from the hold of a ship in ten minutes, and that the ship being leaky, admits an equal quantity in the same time. It is proposed that by means of a tackle, he shall raise a bucket ten times as capacious. With this assistance he performs it, but in as long a time as he required to draw the ten, and therefore is as far from gaining on the water in this latter case as in the former.
Since then no real gain of force is acquired from mechanical contrivances, there is the greatest reason to conclude, that a perpetual motion is not to be obtained. For in all instruments the friction of their parts, and other resistances, destroy a part of the moving force, and at last put an end to the motion.
Mechanical, in mathematics, denotes a construction of some problem, by the assistance of instruments, as the duplicature of the cube, and quadrature of the circle, in contradistinction to that which is done in an accurate and geometrical manner.
MECHE, Fr. See [Match].
MEDECIN, Fr. Physician.
MEDIATOR. Any state or power which interferes to adjust a quarrel between any two or more powers, is called a mediator.
MEDICINE-CHEST, is composed of all sorts of medicines necessary for a campaign, together with such chirurgical instruments as are useful, fitted up in chests, and portable. The army and navy are supplied with these at the expence of government.
Specific regulations have been issued by the war and navy offices, respecting the quantity and quality of the different medicines.
MEDIUM GUARD, a preparatory guard of the broad sword or sabre, which consists in presenting the sword in a perpendicular line with the centre of the opposed object, having the point upwards, the ward iron, and the cutting edge next the object.
MEER BUKSHY, Ind. Chief paymaster.
MEER TOZUK, Ind. A marshal whose business is to preserve order in a procession or line of march, and to report absentees.
MEGGHETERIARQUE, Fr. The commanding officer of a body of men, who formerly did duty at Constantinople, and were called Héteriennes, being composed of soldiers that were enlisted in the allied nations.
MELEE, Fr. a military term, which is used among the French to express the hurry and confusion of a battle; thus, Un Général habile conserve sa tranquillité au milieu du combat, et dans l’horreur de la mêlée:—An able general preserves his presence of mind in the thickest of the battle, and remains calm during the whole of the conflict. Mêlée corresponds with the English expression thick of the fight.
MEMOIRS, in military literature, a species of history, written by persons who had some share in the transactions they relate, answering, in some measure, to what the Romans call commentarii, i. e. commentaries. Hence Cæsar’s Commentaries, or the Memoirs of his Campaigns.
Memoir is the title given by military officers to those plans which they offer to their government or commanders on subjects relating to war or military economy.
MEMORIAL, an address to the government on any matter of public service.
BATTALION-MEN. All the soldiers belonging to the different companies of an infantry regiment are so called, except those of the two flank companies.
Camp-Color MEN. Soldiers under the immediate command and direction of the quarter-master of a regiment. Their business is to assist in marking out the lines of an encampment, &c. to carry the camp colors to the field on days of exercise, and fix them occasionally for the purpose of enabling the troops to take up correct points in marching, &c. So that in this respect they frequently, indeed almost always, act as guides, or what the French call Jalonneurs. They are likewise employed in the trenches, and in all fatigue duties.
Drag-rope MEN. In the old artillery exercise, the men attached to light or heavy pieces of ordnance, for the purpose of advancing or retreating in action, were so called; the drag rope being exploded for the bricole, the term is preserved merely for explanation. The French servans à la prolonge are of this description.
MENACE, an hostile threat. Any officer or soldier using menacing words or gestures in presence of a court-martial, or to a superior officer, is punishable for the same.—See the [Articles of War].
MENSURATION, in general, denotes the act or art of measuring lines, superficies, and solids.
Mensuration, in military mathematics, is the art or science which treats of the measure of extension, or the magnitude of figures; and it is, next to arithmetic, a subject of the greatest use and importance, both in affairs that are absolutely necessary in human life, and in every branch of mathematics: a subject by which sciences are established, and commerce is conducted; by whose aid we manage our business, and inform ourselves of the wonderful operations in nature; by which we measure the heavens and the earth, estimate the capacities of all vessels and bulks of all bodies, gauge our liquors, build edifices, measure our lands and the works of artificers, buy and sell an infinite variety of things necessary in life, and are supplied with the means of making the calculations which are necessary for the construction of almost all machines.
It is evident that the close connection of this subject with the affairs of men would very early evince its importance to them; and accordingly the greatest among them have paid the utmost attention to it; and the chief and most essential discoveries in geometry in all ages, have been made in consequence of their efforts in this subject. Socrates thought that the prime use of geometry was to measure the ground, and indeed this business gave name to the subject; and most of the ancients seem to have had no other end besides mensuration in view in all their labored geometrical disquisitions. Euclid’s elements are almost entirely devoted to it; and although there be contained in them many properties of geometrical figures, which may be applied to other purposes, and indeed of which the moderns have made the most material uses in various disquisitions of exceedingly different kinds; notwithstanding this, Euclid himself seems to have adapted them entirely to this purpose: for, if it be considered that his elements contain a continued chain of reasoning, and of truths, of which the former are successively applied to the discovery of the latter, one proposition depending on another, and the succeeding propositions still approximating towards some particular object near the end of each book; and when at the last we find that object to be the quality, proportion or relation between the magnitudes of figures both plane and solid; it is scarcely possible to avoid allowing this to have been Euclid’s grand object. And accordingly he determined the chief properties in the mensuration of rectilineal plane and solid figures; and squared all such planes, and cubed all such solids. The only curve figures which he attempted besides, are the circle and sphere; and when he could not accurately determine their measures, he gave an excellent method of approximating to them, by shewing how in a circle to inscribe a regular polygon which should not touch another circle, concentric with the former, although their circumferences should be ever so near together; and, in like manner, between any two concentric spheres to describe a polyhedron which should not any where touch the inner one: and approximations to their measures are all that have hitherto been given. But although he could not square the circle, nor cube the sphere, he determined the proportion of one circle to another, and of one sphere to another, as well as the proportions of all rectilineal similar figures to one another.
Archimedes took up mensuration where Euclid left it, and carried it a great length. He was the first who squared a curvilineal space, unless Hypocrates must be excepted on account of his lunes. In his times the conic sections were admitted in geometry, and he applied himself closely to the measuring of them as well as other figures. Accordingly he determined the relations of spheres, spheroids, and conoids, to cylinders and cones; and the relations of parabolas to rectilineal planes whose quadratures had long before been determined by Euclid. He hath left us also his attempts upon the circle: he proved that a circle is equal to a right angled triangle, whose base is equal to the circumference, and its altitude equal to the radius; and consequently that its area is found by drawing the radius into half the circumference; and so reduced the quadrature of the circle to the determination of the ratio of the diameter to the circumference; but which however hath not yet been done. Being disappointed of the exact quadrature of the circle, for want of the rectification of its circumference, which all his methods would not effect, he proceeded to assign an useful approximation to it: this he effected by the numerical calculation of the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons; from which calculations it appears, that the perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of 192 sides is to the diameter in a less ratio than that of 3¹⁄₇ (3¹⁰⁄₇₀) to 1, and that the inscribed polygon of 96 sides is to the diameter in a greater ratio than that of 3¹⁰⁄₇₁ to 1; and consequently much more than the circumference of the circle is to the diameter in a less ratio than that of 3¹⁄₇ to 1, but greater than that of 3¹⁰⁄₇₁ to 1: the first ratio of 3¹⁄₇ to 1, reduced to whole numbers, gives that of 22 to 7, for 3¹⁄₇ : 1 ∷ 22 : 7, which therefore will be nearly the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. From this ratio of the circumference to the diameter he computed the approximate area of the circle, and found it to be to the square of the diameter as 11 to 14. He likewise determined the relation between the circle and elipsis, with that of their similar parts. The hyperbola too in all probability he attempted; but it is not to be supposed, that he met with any success, since approximations to its area are all that can be given by all the methods that have since been invented.
Besides these figures, he hath left us a treatise on the spiral described by a point moving uniformly along a right line, which at the same time moves with an uniform angular motion; and determined the proportion of its area to that of its circumscribed circle, as also the proportion of their sectors.
Throughout the whole works of this great man, which are chiefly on mensuration, he every where discovers the deepest design and finest invention; and seems to have been (with Euclid) exceedingly careful of admitting into his demonstrations nothing but principles perfectly geometrical and unexceptionable: and although his most general method of demonstrating the relations of curved figures to straight ones, be by inscribing polygons in them, yet to determine those relations, he does not increase the number and diminish the magnitude of the sides of the polygon ad infinitum; but from this plain fundamental principle, allowed in Euclid’s elements, viz. that any quantity may be so often multiplied, or added to itself, as that the result shall exceed any proposed finite quantity of the same kind, he proves that to deny his figures to have the proposed relations, would involve an absurdity.
He demonstrated also many properties, particularly in the parabola, by means of certain numerical progressions, whose terms are similar to the inscribed figures: but without considering such series to be continued ad infinitum, and then summing up the terms of such infinite series.
He had another very curious and singular contrivance for determining the measures of figures, in which he proceeds, as it were, mechanically by weighing them.
Several other eminent men among the ancients wrote upon this subject, both before and after Euclid and Archimedes; but their attempts were usually upon particular parts of it, and according to methods not essentially different from theirs. Among these are to be reckoned Thales, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Bryson, Antiphon, Hypocrates of Chios, Plato, Apollonius, Philo, and Ptolomy; most of whom wrote of the quadrature of the circle, and those after Archimedes, by his method, usually extended the approximation to a greater degree of accuracy.
Many of the moderns have also prosecuted the same problem of the quadrature of the circle, after the same methods, to greater lengths: such are Viera, and Metius, whose proportion between the diameter and circumference is that of 113 to 355, which is within about ³⁄₁₀₀₀₀₀₀₀ of the true ratio; but above all, Ludolph van Ceulen, who with an amazing degree of industry and patience, by the same methods extended the ratio to 20 places of figures, making it that of 1 to 3.14159265358979323846+.
The first material deviation from the principles used by the ancients in geometrical demonstrations was made by Cavalerius: the sides of their inscribed and circumscribed figures they always supposed of a finite and assignable number and length; he introduced the doctrine of indivisibles, a method which was very general and extensive, and which with great ease and expedition served to measure and compare geometrical figures. Very little new matter however was added to geometry by this method, its facility being its chief advantage. But there was great danger in using it, and it soon led the way to infinitely small elements, and infinitesimals of endless orders; methods which were very useful in solving difficult problems, and in investigating or demonstrating theories that are general and extensive; but sometimes led their incautious followers into errors and mistakes, which occasioned disputes and animosities among them. There were now, however, many excellent things performed in this subject; not only many new things were effected concerning the old figures, but new curves were measured; and for many things which could not be exactly squared or cubed, general and infinite approximating series were assigned, of which the laws of their continuation were manifest, and of some of which the terms were independent on each other. Mr. Wallis, Mr. Huygens, and Mr. James Gregory, performed wonders. Huygens in particular must be admired for his solid, accurate, and very masterly works.
During the preceding state of things several men, whose vanity seemed to have overcome their regard for truth, asserted that they had discovered the quadrature of the circle, and published their attempts in the form of strict geometrical demonstrations, with such assurance and ambiguity as staggered and misled many who could not so well judge for themselves, and perceive the fallacy of their principles and arguments. Among those were Longomontanus, and the celebrated Hobbes, who obstinately refused all conviction of his errors.
The use of infinites was however disliked by several people, particularly by sir Isaac Newton, who among his numerous and great discoveries hath given us that of the method of fluxions; a discovery of the greatest importance both in philosophy and mathematics; it being a method so general and extensive, as to include all investigations concerning magnitude, distance, motion, velocity, time, &c. with wonderful ease and brevity; a method established by its great author upon true and incontestible principles; principles perfectly consistent with those of the ancients, and which were free from the imperfections and absurdities attending some that had lately been introduced by the moderns; he rejected no quantities as infinitely small, nor supposed any parts of curves to coincide with right lines; but proposed it in such a form as admits of a strict geometrical demonstration. Upon the introduction of this method most sciences assumed a different appearance, and the most abstruse problems became easy and familiar to every one; things which before seemed to be insuperable, became easy examples or particular cases of theories still more general and extensive; rectifications, quadratures, cubatures, tangencies, cases de maximis & minimis, and many other subjects, became general problems, and delivered in the form of general theories which included all particular cases: thus, in quadratures, an expression would be investigated which defined the areas of all possible curves whatever, both known and unknown, and which, by proper substitutions, brought out the area for any particular case, either in finite terms, or infinite series, of which any term, or any number of terms could be easily assigned; and the like in other things. And although no curve, whose quadrature was unsuccessfully attempted by the ancients, became by this method perfectly quadrable, there were assigned many general methods of approximating to their areas, of which in all probability the ancients had not the least idea or hope; and innumerable curves were squared which were utterly unknown to them.
The excellency of this method revived some hopes of squaring the circle, and its quadrature was attempted with eagerness. The quadrature of a space was now reduced to the finding of the fluent of a given fluxion; but this problem however was found to be incapable of a general solution in finite terms; the fluxion of every fluent was always assignable, but the reverse of this problem could be effected only in particular cases; among the exceptions, to the great grief of the geometers, was included the case of the circle, with regard to all the forms of fluxions attending it. Another method of obtaining the area was tried: of the quantity expressing the fluxion of any area, in general, could be assigned the fluent in the form of an infinite series, which series therefore defined all areas in general, and which, on substituting for particular cases, was often found to break off and terminate, and so afford an area in finite terms; but here again the case of the circle failed, its area still coming out an infinite series. All hopes of the quadrature of the circle being now at an end, the geometricians employed themselves, in discovering and selecting the best forms of infinite series for determining its area, among which it is evident, that those were to be preferred which were simple, and which would converge quickly; but it generally happened, that these two properties were divided, the same series very rarely including them both: the mathematicians in most parts of Europe were now busy, and many series were assigned on all hands, some admired for their simplicity, and others for their rate of convergency; those which converged the quickest, and were at the same time simplest, which therefore were most useful in computing the area of the circle in numbers, were those in which, besides the radius, the tangent of some certain arc of the circle, was the quantity by whose powers the series converged; and from some of these series the area hath been computed to a very great extent of figures: Mr. Edmund Hally gave a remarkable one from the tangent of 30 degrees, which was rendered famous by the very industrious Mr. Abraham Sharp, who by means of it extended the area of the circle to 72 places of figures, as may be seen in Sherwin’s book of logarithms; but even this was afterwards outdone by Mr. John Machin, who, by means described in professor Hutton’s Mensuration, composed a series so simple, and which converged so quickly, that by it, in a very little time, he extended the quadrature of the circle to 100 places of figures; from which it appears, that if the diameter be 1, the circumference will be 3.1415926535, 8979323846, 2643383279, 5028841971, 6939937510, 5820974944, 5923078164, 0628620899, 8628034825, 3421170679+, and consequently the area will be .7853981633, 9744830961, 5660849819, 857210492, 9234984377, 6455243736, 1480769541, 0157155224, 9657008706, 3355292669+.
From hence it appears, that all or most of the material improvements or inventions in the principles or method of treating of geometry, have been made especially for the improvement of this chief part of it, mensuration, which abundantly shows, what we at first undertook to declare, the dignity of this subject; a subject which, as Dr. Barrow says, after mentioning some other things, “deserves to be more curiously weighed, because from hence a name is imposed upon that mother and mistress of the rest of the mathematical sciences, which is employed about magnitudes, and which is wont to be called geometry (a word taken from ancient use, because it was first applied only to measuring the earth, and fixing the limits of possessions) though the name seemed very ridiculous to Plato, who substitutes in its place that more extensive name of Metrics or Mensuration; and others after him gave it the title of Pantometry, because it teaches the method of measuring all kinds of magnitudes.” See [Surveying], [Levelling], and [Geometry].
MERHAU, Ind. A deduction or abatement is so called in India.
MERIT. Desert, excellence, deserving honor or reward.
MERIT, Order of, a military distinction given to officers or soldiers, for some signal service: the badge of which is generally expressive of the service. Such was the medal, or order of merit, presented by the Austrian emperor to the officers of the 15th British light dragoons, for their bravery in the affair of Villers en Couché, in 1794.
MERKIN. A mop to clean cannon.
MERLIN. Handspike.
MERLON. See [Fortification].
MESS. It is usual and advantageous to discipline that the officers of a camp or garrison form one or more messes.
MESSENGERS of state in England, are officers under the direction of the secretaries of state, of whom there were 20 always in waiting, who were relieved monthly, and distributed in the following manner: four at court, five at each secretary’s office, two at the third office for North Britain, three at the council office, and one at the lord chamberlain’s office, who attended that office always in readiness to be sent with dispatches, either domestic or foreign; either to apprehend persons accused or suspected of high treason, or other offences against the state, being empowered by warrant from the secretaries; for the safe keeping of which, their houses are made a sort of confinement or prison; and for the maintenance of the prisoners they have a certain allowance from government. The number has been increased with the system of espionage since 1794.
Military Messengers. Confidential persons that are sent to and from head quarters, &c.
MESTRE de CAMP, Fr. The commanding officer of a regiment of cavalry was so called in the old French service. He was distinguished by this appellation on account of there being a colonel-general in the cavalry. The duty of a mestre de camp was principally confined to the following heads:—To see that the troops or companies were kept complete, that the arms were in good state and condition, the horses of a proper size, sound, and well trained. He had likewise the direction of the different guards, &c.
Mestre de Camp général, Fr. The next officer in rank, in the old French cavalry service, to the colonel-general. This appointment was created under Henry II. in 1552.
Mestre de Camp général des dragons, Fr. An appointment which first took place under Louis the XIVth. in 1684.
MESURES à poudre, Fr. Tin cases or vessels used in the artillery, to measure out gunpowder, according to the size and calibre of each piece of ordnance. See [Powder Measures].
Over-METAL, (in gunnery,) when the mouth of a piece of ordnance, in disparting it, lies higher than the breech, it is then said to be laid over metal.
Under-Metal, (in gunnery) is when the mouth of a piece of ordnance lies lower than her breech.
Right with Metal, (in gunnery.) When a piece of ordnance lies truly level, point blank, or right with the mark, she is said to lie right with her metal.
Superficies of Metals, (in gunnery.) The surface or outside of a gun.
METIER, Fr. Means, literally, any calling or business. In a military sense, it is peculiarly applicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit. In speaking of military matters, it is common among the French to say—Guerre sur terre est notre métier; Guerre sur mer est le métier des Anglois—The land service is our peculiar business or calling; the sea service is the peculiar business or calling of the English; meaning thereby to express their reciprocal superiority.
Chevalier Folard gives the following definition relative to the question which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a trade or a science? The English call it a profession. Folard, however, distinguishes it in this manner:—La guerre est un métier pour les ignorans, et une science pour les habiles gens. War in the apprehension, and under the management of ignorant persons, is certainly a mere trade or business, but among able men, it becomes an important branch of science.
METTRE à la main, Fr. To grasp or take hold of any thing.
Mettre l’épée à la main, Fr. To draw swords. Ils mirent l’épée à la main, a figurative expression, signifying, they took their ground, and stood prepared to fight.
Mettre les armes à la main de quelqu’un, Fr. To teach a person the first rudiments of war, or lead him for the first time into action. C’est lui qui m’a mis les armes à la main. He first taught me how to fight, or I fought the first campaign under his orders.
Mettre aux arrêts, Fr. To put under arrest.
Mettre sur pied, Fr. To arm, to equip, to put troops upon an established footing.
MEURTRIERES, Fr. Small loop holes, sufficiently large to admit the barrel of a rifle gun or musquet, through which soldiers may fire, under cover, against an enemy. They likewise mean the cavities that are made in the walls of a fortified town or place. See [Murdresses].
MICHE. See [Malingerer].
MICROMETER, (Micromêtre, Fr.) an instrument contrived to measure small spaces, as in the divisions of the worm of a screw.
MIDI, Fr. the South.
MILE, in geography, a long measure, whereby the English, &c. express the distance between places: it is of different extent in different countries. The geometrical mile contains 1000 geometrical paces, or mille passus, from whence miles are denominated.
We shall here give a table of the miles in use among the principal nations of Europe, in geometrical paces, 60,000 of which, according to the English Military Dictionary, make a degree of the equator.
| Geometrical paces. | ||
|---|---|---|
| Mile of | Russia | 750 |
| Italy | 1000 | |
| England | 1200 | |
| Scotland and Ireland | 1500 | |
| The old league of France | 1500 | |
| The small ditto | 2000 | |
| The great ditto | 3000 | |
| Mile of | Poland | 3000 |
| Spain and Portugal | 3428 | |
| Germany | 4000 | |
| Sweden | 5000 | |
| Denmark | 5010 | |
| Hungary | 6000 | |
| Holland | 3500 | |
Mile. Comparison of the different miles, in geometric paces, each of which is equal to 5 feet French royal, 5·6719 feet Rhinland, or 6·1012 English feet.
| Geometric paces. | |
|---|---|
| The mile of Sweden | 5761 |
| The mile of Switzerland | 4512 |
| The mile of Denmark | 4071 |
| Common, of Germany | 4000 |
| Common, of Holland | 3158 |
| League of France | 2400 |
| League of Spain | 2286 |
| League of Scotland | 1500 |
| Mile of Italy | 1000 |
| Mile of England | 868 |
| Werste of Russia | 575 |
MILICE, Fr. soldiery, but more particularly the militia or trained bands.
Milices gardes-côtes, Fr. A militia, somewhat similar to our sea fencibles, which existed during the old French government, and whose services were confined to the coast. Every province, contiguous to the sea, was obliged to furnish a certain proportion of its male inhabitants, from 16 to 60 years old. This militia was exempted from the regulations which governed the land militia. It was under the admiralty.
MILITANT, the state of warfare, or business of war.
| MILITAR, | - | |
| MILITARY, |
something belonging to the soldiery or militia, &c.
Military architecture, the same with fortification. See [Fortification].
Military ways, the large Roman roads which Agrippa procured to be made through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and conveying of carriages. They were paved from the gates of Rome to the utmost limits of the empire. The British have constructed a military road throughout India; with wells and other accommodations at certain distances.
Military discipline. Next to the forming of troops, military discipline is the first object that presents itself to our notice: it is the soul of all armies; and unless it be established amongst them with great prudence, and supported with unshaken resolution, soldiers become a contemptible rabble, and are more dangerous to the very state that maintains them, than even its declared enemies. See [Discipline].
Military execution, the ravaging or destroying of a country or town that refuses to pay the contribution inflicted upon them. Also the punishment inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.
Military first principles, is the bodily training for a soldier, to make him hardy, robust, and capable of preserving health amidst fatigue, bad weather, and change of climate; to march at such possible pace, and for such length of time, and with such burden, as, without training, he would not be able to do.
MILITARY REGULATIONS. The rules and regulations, by which the discipline, formations, field exercise, and movements of the whole army, are directed to be observed in one uniform system. The American military system is scarcely entitled to the name of a system; and as to regulation that requires yet to be established, the worst of all is that there does not appear to be a suspicion in congress that any regulation is required. See [Regulations].
MILITIA. A force whose services, in general, do not exceed the boundaries of the nation, but which may volunteer beyond them. The American militia has no coherent system, every state has power to regulate its own, and the effect is, that there is either no regulation at all, or what is worst, an imbecile mockery, the only use of which is the preservation on the statute book that there is a power though there is not a will to regulate the militia. The militia among the Romans was frequently called Agrarian soldiers. The system of our revolution though it was not complete in general was the most effectual ever established; the French system of conscription was borrowed from America, who borrowed it from the Romans.
MILL, properly denotes a machine for grinding corn, &c. but more generally all such machines whose action depends upon a circular motion. There are various kinds, though foreign to this work.
Gunpowder Mill, is that used for pounding and beating together the ingredients of which gunpowder is composed.
These ingredients being duly proportioned, and put into the mortars of the mills, which are hollow pieces of wood, each capable of holding 20 pounds of paste, are incorporated by means of the pestle and spindle. There are 24 mortars in each mill, where are made each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care being taken to sprinkle the ingredients in the mortars with water, from time to time, lest they should take fire. The pestle is a piece of wood 10 feet high, and 4¹⁄₂ inches broad, armed at bottom with a round piece of metal. It weighs about 60 pounds.
MIM BASHY, Ind. A commander of one thousand horse.
MINE, in a military sense, implies a subterraneous passage dug under the wall or rampart of a fortification, for the purpose of blowing it up by gunpowder.
The excavation formed by the blowing up of a mine is found by experiment to be nearly a paraboloid. It was formerly supposed that the diameter of the entonnoir, or excavation, was always equal to only double the line of least resistance; but experiments have proved, that the diameter of the excavation may be increased to six times the line of least resistance; and that the diameter of the globe of compression may be increased to eight times that line; this is called the maximum of a mine, or the greatest effect that can be produced by a globe of compression. In any mine intended to produce an effect within this extent, the effects will be nearly as the charges.
The globes are to each other as the cubes of their radii. Their radii are the hypothenuse of rightangled triangles, of which the line of least resistance, and the semi-diameter of the excavation, are the other two sides. Therefore, to find the charge to produce any required diameter of the excavation, the following will be the rule, the radius being found as above:
As the cube of the radius of the globe of compression in the following table, (having the same line of least resistance as the required globe,)
Is to the cube of the radius of the required globe;
So is the charge corresponding in the following table,
To the charge required.
Table for the Charges of Mines, according to Valliere.
| Line of least Resistance. | Charge for the Mine. | Line of least Resistance. | Charge for the Mine. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feet. | lbs. | oz. | Feet. | lbs. | oz. |
| 1 | 0 | 2 | 21 | 868 | 3 |
| 2 | 0 | 12 | 22 | 998 | 4 |
| 3 | 2 | 8 | 23 | 1140 | 10 |
| 4 | 6 | — | 24 | 1296 | — |
| 5 | 11 | 11 | 25 | 1558 | 9 |
| 6 | 20 | 4 | 26 | 1647 | 12 |
| 7 | 32 | 2 | 27 | 1815 | 4 |
| 8 | 48 | — | 28 | 2053 | — |
| 9 | 68 | 5 | 29 | 2286 | 7 |
| 10 | 93 | 12 | 30 | 2530 | 4 |
| 11 | 124 | 12 | 31 | 2792 | 4 |
| 12 | 162 | — | 32 | 3072 | — |
| 13 | 205 | 15 | 33 | 3369 | 1 |
| 14 | 257 | 4 | 34 | 3680 | 12 |
| 15 | 316 | 4 | 35 | 4019 | 8 |
| 16 | 384 | — | 36 | 4374 | — |
| 17 | 460 | 9 | 37 | 4748 | 11 |
| 18 | 546 | 12 | 38 | 5144 | 4 |
| 19 | 643 | — | 39 | 5561 | 2 |
| 20 | 750 | — | 40 | 6000 | — |
This table is calculated upon a supposition that the excavation of the mine is a paraboloid, having a base double the line of resistance; and that 10 lbs. 10 oz. of powder is sufficient for raising one cubic fathom of earth. By the rule above given may be found the charge for any mine, that shall only shake the ground, without making any excavation, by making the line of least resistance of the required globe only equal to the radius of the globe of compression.
The charges thus found by means of this table, being only for one nature of soil; viz., light earth and sand, (that for which the table is calculated) must be augmented according to the following table of Vauban’s, by one, four, five, seven, or nine elevenths of the charge found.
Table of the quantity of powder required to raise a cubic fathom, according to the soil.
| 1 | Light earth, mixed with sand | 11 | pounds. |
| 2 | Common earth | 12 | |
| 3 | Strong sand | 15 | |
| 4 | Clay, or fat earth | 16 | |
| 5 | Old and good masonry | 18 | |
| 9 | Rock | 20 |
The following rule is however laid down by Belidor, and generally adopted, if it be intended that the mine shall produce its maximum or greatest effect: multiply the line of least resistance, expressed in feet, by 300, the product will be the charge in pounds.
In making mines of any kind, the following remarks may be of service.
The best form for the chamber would be spherical; but from the difficulty of its construction, it is always made a cube, of one inch larger dimensions than the box to contain the powder.
The chamber must not be made in the prolongation of the branch of the mine, but at one side, and lower than the level of the branch, if the soil be dry; but higher if it be wet.
One cubic foot will contain 75 lbs of powder; upon which principle the size of the case to contain the powder must be regulated. The auget is generally one inch square interior dimensions, and the end of it must reach the centre of the chamber; where the saucisson must be fastened, to prevent its being easily pulled out.
The branch of the mine to be sprung must be closed in the strongest manner by doors well secured by props, and must be stopped with earth or rubbish to a distance, taken in a straight line, equal to 1¹⁄₂ times the line of least resistance.
In proportioning the length of saucisson, in order that any number of mines may be fired at the same instant, a return of a right angle is generally reckoned equal to 4 inches in a right line.
The first step in making a mine, whether for attack or defence, is to sink a shaft to the depth of the bottom of the gallery, having two of its sides in the direction of the sides of the gallery. These shafts should be where the galleries are to cross each other, or in the centre of the length of gallery to be made. These shafts should never be further apart than 40 or 50 fathoms; for it is found, that the air is not fit for respiration in the larger galleries at a greater distance from the shaft than 25 fathoms; at 20 fathoms in those of medium dimensions; and at 15 in the smallest.
The rectangular frames used in sinking a shaft are commonly placed 4 feet asunder; and in the galleries they are only 3 feet. A gallery intended to be lined with masonry, must be 7 feet high and 6 feet wide, in order that it may be when finished, 6 feet high and 3 feet wide.
Temporary galleries are only made 4¹⁄₂ feet high, and 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet wide.
The branches, at the ends of which the chambers are to be placed, are only made 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet high, and 2 feet, or 2 feet 3 inches wide.
The first of these is dug on the knees; the second sitting or lying.
The miners are divided into squads of 4 each; and the rate of the work for each squad is 3 feet of the temporary gallery in 4 hours. The first squad is relieved by a second, after having worked 4 hours, or laid one frame; which second squad is again relieved by the first, at the expiration of the same time.
In the most easy ground to work, a miner may be heard to the distance of 14 or 15 fathoms under ground; and the noise made by fixing the frames of the galleries may often be heard as far as 20 or 25 fathoms. A drum braced, standing on the ground, with a few peas or other round substances on the head, will be very sensibly affected by an approaching miner.
It is of the most essential consequence to place the entrances to the countermines beyond the reach of any surprise from the enemy.
To prevent an enemy gaining possession of the galleries of the countermines they should be well secured by strong doors, at every 15 fathoms. These should be musquet proof.
A glacis, properly countermined, and every advantage taken of it to retard the besiegers, may, with proper management, prolong a siege at least 2 months; and if the rest of the works are also countermined, and properly defended, they may add another month to the siege. Every system of countermines must depend upon the system of fortification to which they are to be adapted; the general principle for their regulation is, that the galleries should occupy situations, from which branches can be most readily run out under the most probable points of the besieger’s batteries and approaches. The general system of countermines commonly used in a place prepared before hand, is as follows: the principal or magistral gallery runs all round the work, under the banquette of the covert way, and across the places of arms, having the entrances at the re-entering places of arms. Nearly parallel to this at 20, 25 or 30 fathoms distance is another gallery, called the envellope. These two galleries are connected by galleries of communication, under the gutters of the re-entering parts of the glacis, and under the ridges of the salient parts. From the envellope are run out about 15 or 16 fathoms, galleries in directions parallel to the capitals of the works, and at 23 fathoms distance from each other. These are called listeners.
Sometimes, shafts are sunk from the end of these listeners, and by connecting these shafts, a second envellope formed. Behind the escarps of the different works, galleries are likewise made, about the level of the bottom of the ditch; from whence branches may be run out into or under the foundations of the walls; and if the ditch be dry, galleries of communication may be made from these to the magistral gallery; and from which communications branches may be run out for chambers to annoy the besiegers in their passage of the ditch. The entrances to the escarp galleries are by means of posterns, which descend from behind the interior slope of the rampart.
If a place be not countermined before hand, a great deal may be done even after the investment of the place, to prolong the siege by countermines. In this case, the first thing to be done immediately that the place is invested, is to sink a shaft in each of the places of arms of the covert way; one in each branch of the covert way opposite that part of the bastion where the breach will most probably be made; and one in the flanked angle of each bastion. Those on the covert way will be on the banquette, and sunk to about 18 inches below the bottom of the ditch. Those in the bastions to about 12 feet below the bottom of the ditch. Thus prepared, the moment the side on which the attack is to be made can be ascertained, galleries must be carried on from these shafts on the side attacked along the capitals, in the form of trefles, or double T; and advanced as far into the country as the time will admit. Communication galleries may likewise be driven between these different works on the covert way, and from them to the work in the bastion; which will prevent the enemy gaining possession of their entrances. All these works may be carried on after the investment of the place; and be in sufficient forwardness by the time the enemy gains the third parallel.
The following rules are given by Vauban for fougasses, or small mines, having the diameter of the excavation equal to double the line of least resistance. The side of the chamber must be exactly a sixth part of the depth of the shaft. The side of the box to hold the powder exactly a ninth part of the depth of the shaft.
These remarks respecting mines are principally extracted from the General Essay on Fortification before mentioned, written in French and published at Berlin, 1799.
Counter-Mines, are those made by the besieged, whereas mines are generally made by the besiegers. Both mines and counter-mines are made in the same manner, and for the like purposes, viz. to blow up their enemies and their works; only the principal galleries and mines of the besieged, are usually made before the town is besieged, and frequently at the same time the fortification is built, to save expence.
Eventer la Mine, Fr. to spring a mine. When used figuratively, this expression signifies to discover a plot, or make it known. It is likewise used to express the failure of any expedition or undertaking.
Definitions of Mines. A mine is a subterraneous cavity made according to the rules of art, in which a certain quantity of powder is lodged, which by its explosion blows up the earth above it.
It has been found by experiments, that the figure produced by the explosion is a paraboloid, and that the centre of the powder, or charge, occupies the focus.
The place where the powder is lodged is called the chamber of the mine, or fourneau.
The passage leading to the powder is called the gallery.
The line drawn from the centre of the chamber, perpendicular to the nearest surface of the ground, is called the line of least resistance.
The pit or hole, made by springing the mine, is called the excavation.
The fire is communicated to the mines by a pipe or hose, made of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about one and a half inch, called a saucisson, (for the filling of which near half a pound of powder is allowed to every foot) extending from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, to the end of which is fixed a match, that the miner who sets fire to it may have time to retire, before it reaches the chamber.
To prevent the powder from contracting any dampness, the saucisson is laid in a small trough, called an auget made of boards, three and a half inch broad, joined together, lengthwise, with straw in it, and round the saucisson, with a wooden cover nailed upon it.
Foyer, Fr. Focus or centre of the chamber, some authors call the end of the saucisson that comes within the work, and which is to be set fire to, the foyer, or focus: but by most people, this is generally understood to be the centre of the chamber.
Galleries and chambers of Mines. Galleries made within the fortification, before the place is attacked, and from which several branches are carried to different places, are generally 4 or 4¹⁄₂ feet wide, and 5 or 5¹⁄₂ feet high. The earth is supported from falling in by arches and walls, as they are to remain for a considerable time; but when mines are made to be used in a short time, then the galleries are but 3 or 3¹⁄₂ feet wide, and 5 feet high, and the earth is supported by wooden frames or props.
The gallery being carried on to the place where the powder is to be lodged, the miners make the chamber. This is generally of a cubical form, large enough to hold the wooden box, which contains the powder necessary for the charge: the box is lined with straw and sand-bags, to prevent the powder from contracting dampness.
The chamber is sunk something lower than the gallery, if the soil permits; but where water is to be apprehended, it must be made higher than the gallery; otherwise the besieged will let in the water, and spoil the mine.
Quantities of powder to charge, Mines. Before any calculation can be made of the proper charge for a mine, the density and tenacity of the soil in which it is to be made, must be ascertained, either by experiment, or otherwise; for, in soils of the same density, that which has the greatest tenacity, will require the greatest force to separate its parts. The density is determined by weighing a cubic foot (or any certain quantity) of the soil; but the tenacity can only be determined by making a mine. The following table contains experiments in 6 different soils, which may be of some assistance to form a judgment of the nature of the soil, when an actual experiment cannot be had.
| Nature of the soil. | Density. | Tenacity. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Weight of 1 cubic foot. | Quantity of power to raise 1 cubic fathom. | |||||
| 1. | Loose earth or sand | 95 | pds. | 8 | pds. | |
| 2. | Common light soil | 124 | 10 | |||
| 3. | Loam, or strong soil | 127 | 12 | ¹⁄₄ | ||
| 4. | Potter’s clay, or stiff soil | 135 | 13 | ¹⁄₂ | ||
| 5. | Clay, mixed with stones | 160 | 16 | |||
| 6. | Masonry | 205 | 21 | ¹⁄₂ | ||
All the requisites in mining may be determined by the following problems, which admit of 4 cases; for any 3 of the articles below being given, the 4th may thence be found.
1. The nature of the soil,
2. The diameter of the excavation,
3. The line of least resistance,
4. The charge.
Problem. I.
Given the nature of the soil, the diameter of the excavation, and the line of least resistance, to find the charge.
Rules.
1. To the square of the diameter of the excavation, add the square of double the line of least resistance, and reserve the said sum.
2. Multiply the square root of the reserved sum by double the line of least resistance, and subtract the product from the same sum.
3. Multiply half the remainder by the line of least resistance, and 1.57 times the product, will give the solidity of the excavation.
4. The charge will then be determined from the nature of the soil, as in the following example.
Example I.
It is required to make a mine in the second sort of soil, mentioned in the foregoing experiments, which shall have a line of least resistance of 10 feet, and the diameter of its excavation 20 feet; what will be the proper charge?
The nature of this soil, by the table, requires 10 pounds of powder to 216 cubic feet.
Calculation.
| 1. The diameter of the excavation is 20, and its square | 400 |
| Double the line of least resistance is 20, and its square | 400 |
| Therefore the sum to be reserved is | 800 |
| 2. The square root of 800 is 28.3 Double the line of least resistance is 20 | 566 |
| Which leaves the remainder | 234 |
| 3. Half the remainder is | 117 |
| Which multiplied by the line of least resistance, | 10 |
| Gives the product | 1170 |
| Which multiplied by | 1.57 |
| Gives the solidity of the excavation feet | 1836.9 |
4. If feet.216 : lb.10 ∷ feet.1836.9 : lb.85 which is the charge required.
By Logarithms.
| 1. Diam. of excavation is = 20 | 1.301030 | |
| Diameter squared is | 2.602060 | 400 |
| Double the line of least resistance is = 20 and its square | 400 | |
| The sum to be reserved is | 2.903090 | 800 |
| 2. Square root of sum is 28.3 | 1.451545 | |
| Double the line of least resistance is = 20 | 1.301030 | |
| Product to be subtracted is | 2.752575 | 566 |
| Remainder is | 2.369216 | 234 |
| Line of least resist. = 10 | 1.000000 | |
| 10 pounds of powder | 1.000000 | |
| To 216 cubic feet, compl. arith. | 7.665546 | |
| To which add the const. log. | 9.894870 | |
And the sum is the logarithm charge required 1.929632 = 85 lb.
Problem II.
Given the nature of the soil, the line of least resistance, and the charge, to find the diameter of the excavation.
Rules.
1. Find the solidity of the earth to be raised, by a proportion from the nature of the soil, and multiply it by 1.27.—Divide the product by the line of least resistance, and to the quotient add the square of the line of least resistance: reserve the sum.
2. Multiply the square root of the sum reserved by twice the line of least resistance, and add the product to the said sum, and from the result subtract 3 times the square of the line of least resistance; so will the square root of the remainder be the diameter of the required excavation.
Example I.
Let a mine be charged with 100 pounds of powder in a soil which requires 11 pounds of powder to raise 216 cubic feet, and let its line of least resistance be 10 feet: what will be the diameter of the excavation?
By the nature of the soil 11lb. : 216 feet ∷ 100lb. : 1964 feet, which is the solidity of the earth to be raised.
| 1. Therefore multiply | 1964 |
| By | 1.27 |
| The product is | 2494.28 |
| Which divided by the line of least resistance, 10, is | 249.428 |
| To which add the square of the line of least resistance | 100.000 |
| And the sum to be reserved is | 349.428 |
| 2. The square root of 349.428 is 18.7, which multiplied by twice the line of least resistance, 20, gives | 374. |
| This added to the sum reserved gives | 723.428 |
| From which subtract 3 times the square of least resistance | 300. |
| And there will remain | 423.428 |
The square root of which is, 20.5 feet, being the required diameter of the excavation.
By Logarithms.
| Numb. | Logar. | Numb. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cubic feet = | 216 | 2.334454 | ||
| Powder 11lb. co. ar. | 8.958607 | |||
| Charge = | 100 | 2.000000 | ||
| Line of least resist. 10 co. ar. | 9.000000 | |||
| Constant logarithm | 0.103804 | |||
| 2.396865 | 249.4 | |||
| To which add the square of line of least resistance | 100.0 | |||
| Sum to be reserved is | 2.543323 | 349.4 | ||
| Half of which logar. | 1.271661 | |||
| Twice line of least resistance, 20, | 1.301030 | |||
| Product to be added is | 2.572691 | 373.8 | ||
| The result is | 723.2 | |||
| From which subtract thrice the square of the line of least resistance | 300.0 | |||
| And there remains | 2.626546 | 423.2 | ||
Half of which logar. is 1.313273 20.57 feet, the diameter of the excavation required.
Loading and stopping of Mines. The gallery and chamber being ready to be loaded, a strong box of wood is made of the size and figure of the chamber, being about ¹⁄₃d or ¹⁄₄th bigger than is required for containing the necessary quantity of powder: against the sides and bottom of the box is put some straw; and this straw is covered over with empty sand bags, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness: a hole is made in the side next the gallery, near the bottom for the saucisson to pass through, which is fixed to the middle of the bottom, by means of a wooden peg, to prevent its loosening from the powder: or that, if the enemy should get to the entrance, he may not be able to tear it out. This done, the powder is brought in sand bags, and thrown loose in the box, and covered also with straw and sand bags; upon this is put the cover of the box, pressed down very tight with strong props; and, to render them more secure, planks are also put above them, against the earth, and wedged in as fast as possible.
This done the vacant space between the props are filled up with stones and dung, and rammed in the strongest manner: the least neglect in this work will considerably alter the effect of the mine.
Then the auget is laid from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, with some straw at the bottom; and the saucisson laid in it, with straw over it: lastly, it must be shut with a wooden cover nailed upon it. Great care must be taken, in stopping up the gallery, not to press too hard upon the auget, for fear of spoiling the saucisson, which may hinder the powder from taking fire, and so prevent the mine from springing. The gallery is stopped up with stones, earth, and dung, well rammed, 6 or 7 feet further from the chamber than the length of the line of least resistance.
Globe of compression in Mines, from Belidor. If you imagine a large globe of earth homogeneous in all its parts, and, a certain quantity of powder lodged in its centre, so as to produce a proper effect without bursting the globe; by setting fire to the powder, it is evident, that the explosion will act all round, to overcome the obstacles which oppose its motion; and as the particles of the earth are porous, they will compress each other in proportion as the flame increases, and the capacity of the chamber increases likewise; but the particles of earth next to the chamber will communicate a part of their motion to those next to them, and those to their neighbors; and this communication will thus continue in a decreasing proportion, till the whole force of explosion is entirely spent; and the particles of earth beyond this term, will remain in the same state as they were at first. The particles of earth that have been acted upon by the force of explosion will compose a globe, which Mr. Belidor calls the globe of compression.
MINERS, in a military sense, are generally soldiers: most of the European regiments of artillery have each a company of miners, commanded by a captain and two lieutenants. When the miners are at work in the mines, they wear a kind of hood, to keep the earth that falls out of their eyes. In the English service the artificers are ordered for that purpose.
Miners tools, consist in several sorts of spades, wheel-barrows, axes, hand-levers, chissels, sounding-augres, sledge-hammers, masons’ hammers, mattocks, augets, plummets, miner’s rule, and miner’s dial, &c.
Different sorts of Mines, are as follows:
Fougasses, are a sort of small mines, frequently made before the weakest parts of a fortification, as the salient angles and faces, not defended by a cross fire.
Treffle Mines, are mines with two chambers only.
T-Mines, so called from their great resemblance to that letter. They are double mines, having four lodgments.
Double T-Mines, have eight lodgments, and four doors.
Triple T-Mines, have twelve lodgments, and six doors.
Double Treffle Mines, have four lodgments, and eight doors.
Triple Treffle-Mines, have six lodgments, and twelve doors.
MINING, in the art of war, is become one of the most essential parts of the attack and defence of places; so much artillery is used, that nothing above ground can withstand its effects; the most substantial ramparts and parapets can resist but a short time; the outworks, though numerous serve only to retard for a time the surrender of the place.
History informs us, that mines were made long before the invention of gun powder; for the ancients made galleries or underground passages, much in the same way as the moderns, from without, under the walls of the places, which they cut off from the foundation, and supported them with strong props; then they filled the intervals with all manner of combustibles, which being set on fire burnt their props and the wall being no longer supported, fell, whereby a breach was made.
The besieged also made under-ground passages from the town under the besieger’s machines, by which they battered the walls, to destroy them; which proves necessity to have been the inventress of mines, as well as of other arts.
The first mines, since the invention of gunpowder, were made in 1487, by the Genoese, at the attack of Serezanella, a town in Florence; but these failing, they were for some time neglected, till Peter Navarro, being then engineer to the Genoese, and afterwards to the Spaniards in 1503, against the French, at the siege of the castle del Ovo, at Naples, made a mine under the wall, and blew it up. In consequence of which the castle was taken by storm.
M. Valliere relates the same story, but differs in the name of the engineer; he says it was Francis George, an Italian, who, serving at Naples in quality of architect, proposed to Peter Navarro, the Spanish governor to take this castle by mines.
Names of every thing used in Mining.
Auget, a kind of small trough, made of strong inch boards, about 4 inches square, in which the saucisson is laid in straw, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness.
Chamber, the place where the powder is lodged, being first put in cubical boxes made for that purpose.
| Excavation, | - | |
| Entonnoir, |
the pit or hole made by a mine when sprung.
Focus, the centre of the chamber where the powder is lodged.
Fougas, a kind of small mine.
Fourneau, See [Chamber].
Miners’ Tools, are augers of several sorts, levers of different sorts, needles for working in rocks, rakes, spades, shovels, sledge-hammers, masons’ hammers, pick-axes, picks, mattocks, chissels, plummets, rules, a miner’s dial, &c.
Line of least resistance, is a line drawn from the centre of the space containing the powder, perpendicular to the nearest surface.
Gallery, the passage leading to the powder.
Saucisson, is a pipe or hose made of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about an inch, and filled with gunpowder; then laid in a trough or auget, which extends from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, that the miner who sets fire to it, may have time to retire before it reaches to the chamber.
MINING, in military affairs, is the art of blowing up any part of a fortification, building, &c. by gunpowder. The art of mining requires a perfect knowlege both of fortification and geometry; and by these previous helps, the engineer may be qualified to ascertain correctly the nature of all manner of heights, depths, breadths, and thicknesses; to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether they be such as are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual; together with the true levels of all kinds of earth. To which must be added, a consummate skill in the quality of rocks, earths, masonry, and sands; the whole accompanied with a thorough knowlege of the strength of all sorts of gunpowder
MINION, a piece of ordnance, of which there are two kinds, the large and ordinary: the large minion has its bore 3¹⁄₄ inches diameter, and is 1000 pounds weight; its load is 3¹⁄₄ pounds of powder; its shot three inches in diameter, and 3³⁄₄ pounds weight; its length is eight feet, and its level range 125 paces. The ordinary minion is three inches diameter in the bore, and weighs about 800 pounds weight: it is seven feet long, its load 2¹⁄₂ pounds of powder, its shot near three inches in diameter, and weighs three pounds four ounces, and shoots point blank 120 paces.
MINISTER, according to Johnson, is one who acts not by any inherent authority of his own, but under another. Thus in England all ministers act under a supreme authority, which is vested in the king, lords, and commons, to whom they are responsible. In military matters, there is not only a war minister, but a secretary at war, who likewise acts conjointly with the secretary of state. All dispatches and papers of consequence relating to the army must first pass through the secretary of state, and the war minister, before they are laid before parliament, or otherwise acted upon by the secretary at war. The common arrangements of corps, directions with respect to marching, &c. are transmitted to the secretary at war, and to the quarter-master general’s office, without previously passing through the secretary of state, or war minister.
Ministre de la guerre, Fr. Minister of the war department. The appointment of minister and secretary at war, among the French, first took place in the reign of Henry the II. in 1549. See [War].
MINUTE, a hasty sketch taken of any thing in writing. Hence minutes of a general or regimental court-martial.
Minutes of council in the military department. The notification of orders and regulations, which are directed to be observed by the British army in India, is so called. These minutes receive the sanction of the governor-general in council, and are the result of previous communications from the court of directors in Europe. They answer to the French word Résultat, which was prefixed to all orders and regulations that were occasionally issued by the military boards, or conseils de guerre, for the government of the army. The term, jugement d’un conseil de guerre, corresponded with our minutes of a general or regimental court-martial, and expressed not only the minutes but the sentence of the court.
MINUTE, the 60th part of each degree of a circle; and, in computation of time, the 60th part of an hour: it also denotes a short memoir or hasty sketch taken of any thing in writing. See [Measure].
La Minute, Fr. The original of a sentence or decree.
To MISBEHAVE, in a military sense, to act in any manner unbecoming the character of an officer or soldier.
To Misbehave before the enemy, to abandon the colors, or shamefully give way in action, &c. See [War].
MIQUELETS, Fr. A banditti that infest the Pyrenean mountains, and are extremely obnoxious to travellers.
MIQUELETTI. A small body of mountain fusileers, belonging to the Neapolitan army.
MIRE, Fr. In the French artillery, a piece of wood about four inches thick, one foot high, and two feet and a half long, which is used in pointing cannon.
Coins de Mire, Fr. Wedges made of wood, which serve to raise or depress any piece of ordnance. They are likewise used for the same purpose in mortars.
MIRZA, Ind. Sir, lord, master.
MISCELLANEOUS, an item or charge in the estimates of the British army, so distinguished as miscellaneous services; the same as our contingent expenditures.
MISERICORDE, Fr. a short dagger, which the cavalry formerly used, for the purpose of dispatching an enemy who would not ask quarter or mercy.
| MISSILE, | - | |
| MISSIVE, |
any weapon which is either thrown by the hand, or which strikes at a distance from the moving power.
MITRAILLE, Fr. small pieces of old iron, such as heads of nails, &c. with which pieces of ordnance are frequently loaded.
Tirer à Mitraille, Fr. To fire with grape shot. This term is frequently used by the French, to express the bribery which is practised in war time by one nation upon another, for the purpose of fomenting civil insurrections. Hence tirer à mitraille d’or.
| MITRE, | - | |
| MITER, |
a mode of joining two boards, or other pieces of wood together at right angles.
MOAT, A wet or dry ditch, dug round the walls of a town, or fortified place. When an enemy attacks a town, which has dry moats round it, the rampart must be approached by galleries under ground, which galleries are run beneath the moat; when the place is attempted through wet moats, your approaches must be made by galleries above ground, that is to say, by galleries raised above the surface of the water. The brink of the moat next the rampart is called the scarp, and the opposite one the counterscarp.
Dry-Moat, that which has no water. It should invariably be deeper than the one that is full of water.
Flat bottomed Moat, that which hath no sloping, its corners being somewhat rounded.
Lined Moat, that whose scarp and counterscarp are cased with a wall of mason work made aslope.
MODEL, a mould; also a diminutive representation of any thing. Thus models of warlike instruments, fortifications, &c. &c. are preserved in the British laboratory at Woolwich.
MODERN, something of our own times, in opposition to what is antique or ancient.
Modern Tactics, and Modern Art of War, That system of manœuvre and evolution, which has been adopted since the invention of gunpowder, and particularly the system improved by the French within twenty years. See Am. Mil. Lib.
Ancient Tactics, and ancient art of War. The system which was pursued by the Greeks and Romans, &c. before the invention of gunpowder and fire arms.
MOGNIONS, from the French Maignon, signifying the stump of a limb. A sort of armor for the shoulders.
MOGUL, the emperor of India, from whom the nabobs (properly Naib, a deputy,) originally received their appointments, as governors and superintendants of provinces.
Mogul Tartars, a nation so called that made considerable conquests in India.
MOHUR, Ind. A golden coin, of which there are several values, but generally goes for fifteen or sixteen rupees; a rupee half our dollar.
MOIENNE, Fr. A piece of ordnance, which is now called a four pounder, and which is ten feet long, was formerly so called.
MOINEAU, a French term for a little flat bastion, raised upon a re-entering angle, before a curtain which is too long, between two other bastions. It is commonly joined to the curtain, but sometimes separated by a fosse, and then called a detached bastion. They are not raised so high as the works of the place.
Mois Romains, Fr. a term used in Germany, to signify a particular tax or contribution, which the emperors had a right to demand on urgent occasions. This tax grew out of an old custom which originally prevailed when the emperors went to Rome to be crowned, and which served to defray their expences thither. Thus when the tax was required, it was called for as a contribution of so many Roman months; implying a certain sum for so many.
MOISSON, Fr. Harvest. This word is used in various senses by the French, particularly in two of a poetical and figurative kind, viz. Il a vu cinquante moissons; he has lived fifty years, literally, has seen fifty harvests.
Moisson de lauriers, Fr. a succession of victories, &c. literally a harvest of laurels.
Moisson de gloire, is taken in the same sense.
MOISSONNER des lauriers, Fr. To reap laurels.
Moissonner les hommes, Fr. To kill off, &c. To mow down men.
MOLLER, Fr. Literally means to wax soft. It is used figuratively among the French to signify, in a military sense, the yielding or giving way of armed men, viz. les troupes mollisent, the troops gave way.
MOLLESSE, Fr. in a figurative sense, signifies want of firmness or resolution. Je crains la mollesse de vos conseils; I mistrust the pliant tendency of your advice or counsel.
MONDE, Fr. in a military sense, means men or soldiers, viz.
Ce capitaine n’avoit que la moitié de son monde; such a captain had only half his complement of men.
On a perdue beaucoup de monde, Fr. They lost a considerable number of men.
Il a un monde d’ennemis sur les bras, Fr. he is assailed by a multiplicity of foes.
Aller à l’autre monde, Fr. This expression bears the same import in English that it does in French, viz. to die—literally, to go into the other world.
Le Nouveau Monde, Fr. This term is frequently used to denote America. Hence L’Ancien et le Nouveau Monde, means the two continents.
MONEY-matters. An expression in familiar use to express all pecuniary concerns. It cannot be too strongly recommended to every responsible military man to be scrupulously correct on this head. More than half the breaches of friendship and common acquaintance that occur in life, may be traced to irregularity: but in no instance are its effects so fatal, as when the soldier is wronged, or is induced to think so by the omissions, &c. of officers or serjeants.
Of the Monies, Weights, and Measures, of Foreign Nations respectively with those of England.
In order to the attainment of a just comparison of foreign monies with our own, the following tables are subjoined.
The [first table] contains the denominations of the principal foreign monies of account, and their intrinsic value in English money, calculated upon the existing proportion between gold and silver in the respective countries.
The [second table] shews the names of the principal foreign coins in gold, their weight, their fineness, their pure contents, and the intrinsic value of each in relation to the gold coins of Great Britain.
The [third table] relates to silver coins, upon similar principles to those of the second.
The comparison of the weights and measures of foreign nations with those of England is established by the following tables.
The [fourth table] bespeaks the names of the weights used for precious metals, the quantity which each contains in grains troy-weight, and the relation of the several foreign weights to 100 pounds troy-weight.
The [fifth table] denotes the names of the weights used in the sale of merchandize, the quantity which each contains in troy-weight, and the relation of foreign weights to 100 and to 112 pounds avoirdupois-weight.
The [sixth table] relates to the measures used in the sale of corn, to the number of English cubic inches of the internal measurement of each, and to the relation of foreign measures to 10 quarters Winchester measure.
The [seventh table] comprises the measures for liquids, the quantity of English cubic inches which each contains internally, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 gallons English.
The [eighth table] relates to cloth measures, to the length of each in lines, and to the relation of foreign measures to 100 yards and to 100 ells.
The [ninth table] is descriptive of measures of length for measuring masts, timber, and other solid bodies, of the number of lines contained in each, and of the proportion between foreign measures of a similar description and 100 feet English.
The [tenth table] refers to land measures, to the quantity of English square feet which each contains, and to the proportion between foreign measures of this description and 100 acres.
The eleventh and [last table] is founded upon itinerary measures, the length of each in feet, and the proportion between the measures severally adopted in different countries and a degree of the equator.
Independently of the facility which will be afforded by these tables in the comparison of the monies, weights, and measures of foreign nations with those of England, it will not be difficult to find the relation of the monies, weights, and measures of foreign countries, in respect to each other, by the guidance of the explanations at the foot of each of the tables in question.
It will be observed, that in order to avoid the multiplicity of the denominators of fractions, and to give to the several calculations a greater degree of exactitude, the unit has constantly been divided, in the following tables, into 100 parts.
Table, which shews the intrinsic Value of the monies of account of Foreign Nations expressed in pence sterling.
Monies of Account.
| Pence | 100 | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Aix la Chapelle, | the specie rixdollar | 42, | 75 |
| the current rixdollar | 32, | 25 | |
| Amsterdam, | the pound Flemish banco | 132, | 48 |
| the florin banco | 22, | 08 | |
| the pound Flemish current | 126, | 36 | |
| the florin current | 21, | 06 | |
| Arragon, | the libra jaquesa | 47, | 80 |
| Augsburgh, | the gulden exchange money | 32, | 51 |
| the gulden currency | 25, | 60 | |
| the gulden white money | 21, | 33 | |
| Barcelona, | the libra catalana | 27, | 32 |
| Basil, | the rixdollar of exchange | 48, | 25 |
| the current rixdollar | 43, | 40 | |
| the current livre | 14, | 46 | |
| Bengal, | the current rupee | 21, | |
| the sicca rupee | 30, | ||
| Bergamo, | the lira | 5, | 13 |
| Berlin, | the rixdollar gold currency | 39, | 66 |
| the rixdollar silver currency | 35, | 97 | |
| the pound banco | 48, | 75 | |
| Bern, | the current livre | 14, | 67 |
| Bologna, | the scudo di cambio | 48, | 09 |
| the lira di cambio | 11, | 31 | |
| the current livre | 11, | 05 | |
| Bolzano, | the gulden exchange money | 35, | |
| the gulden current money | 25, | 66 | |
| Bombay, | the current rupee | 23, | 63 |
| Bremen, | the rixdollar | 38, | 40 |
| Breslaw, | the rixdollar gold currency | 39, | 66 |
| the rixdollar silver currency | 35, | 97 | |
| the pound banco | 48, | 75 | |
| Brunswick, | the current thaler | 38, | 40 |
| Bussorah, | the mamudi | 5, | 50 |
| Calcutta, | the sicca rupee | 30, | |
| the current rupee | 21, | ||
| the arcot rupee | 24, | ||
| Canary Islands, | the current real | 5, | 82 |
| Cassel, | the thaler | 38, | 40 |
| China, | the tale | 80, | |
| Cologne, | the specie rixdollar | 31, | 71 |
| the current rixdollar | 30, | 92 | |
| Copenhagen, | the specie reichsthaler | 55, | 85 |
| the current reichsthaler | 45, | 46 | |
| Curacoa, | the dollar | 43, | 09 |
| Dantzic, | the florin | 9, | 14 |
| Dublin, | the pound Irish | 221, | 54 |
| Elsinore, | the specie rixdollar | 34, | 75 |
| the crown rixdollar | 32, | 18 | |
| the current rixdollar | 30, | 92 | |
| England, | the pound sterling | 240, | |
| Flanders, | the florin or exchange | 20, | 25 |
| the current florin | 17, | 37 | |
| Florence, | the scudo d’oro | 62, | 45 |
| the ducato | 58, | 29 | |
| the pezza of 8 reals | 47, | 88 | |
| the lira moneta buona | 8, | 32 | |
| France, | the livre tournois | 9, | 49 |
| the franc | 9, | 61 | |
| Francfort, | the thaler | 38, | 40 |
| the gulden | 25, | 60 | |
| Geneva, | the current crown | 49, | 20 |
| the current livre | 40, | 16 | |
| the florin | 4, | 68 | |
| Genoa, | the scudo d’oro marche | 89, | 50 |
| the scudo d’argento | 73, | 13 | |
| the pezza fuori di banco | 48, | 12 | |
| the scudo di cambio | 38, | 50 | |
| the lira fuori di banco | 8, | 37 | |
| Germany, | the reichsthaler constitution money | 56, | 84 |
| the thaler ditto | 42, | 63 | |
| the gulden ditto | 28, | 42 | |
| the reichsthaler convention money | 51, | 20 | |
| the thaler ditto | 38, | 40 | |
| the gulden ditto | 25, | 60 | |
| Hamburgh, | the pound Flemish banco | 138, | 37 |
| the rixdollar banco | 55, | 35 | |
| the marc banco | 18, | 45 | |
| the rixdollar currency | 45, | ||
| the marc currency | 15, | ||
| Hanover, | the current thaler | 42, | 63 |
| Konigsberg, | the gulden | 12, | 17 |
| Leghorn, | the pezza of 8 reals | 47, | 88 |
| the lira moneta buona | 8, | 32 | |
| the lira moneta lunga | 7, | 97 | |
| Leipsic, | the current thaler | 38, | 40 |
| Liege, | the gulden | 12, | 96 |
| Lubec, | the reichsthaler | 45, | 21 |
| the marc | 15, | 07 | |
| Lucca, | the scudo d’oro | 56, | 32 |
| the lira | 7, | 51 | |
| Madras, | the pagoda of 36 fanams | 94, | 75 |
| the Carnatic rupee of 10 fanams | 26, | 32 | |
| Malta, | the silver crown | 40, | 26 |
| the copper crown | 26, | 84 | |
| Martinique, | the livre currency | 7, | 12 |
| Mexico, | the dollar | 52, | 60 |
| Milan, | the scudo imperiale | 64, | 14 |
| the current scudo | 45, | 33 | |
| the lira currency | 7, | 88 | |
| Modena, | the lira | 3, | 81 |
| Morocco, | the ducat | 105, | |
| Munich, | the current thaler | 32, | 04 |
| the current gulden | 21, | 36 | |
| Naples, | the ducato di regno | 42, | 50 |
| Navarre, | the ducado of 10⁸⁄₉ reals | 53, | 95 |
| the libra of 60 maravedis | 8, | 25 | |
| the real of 36 ditto | 4, | 95 | |
| Nuremberg, | the current thaler | 38, | 40 |
| the thaler gold money | 38, | 95 | |
| the thaler white money | 31, | 97 | |
| Pegu, | the silver tical | 33, | 70 |
| Persia, | the toman | 289, | 65 |
| Poland, | the florin of Great Poland | 7, | 10 |
| Poland, | the florin of Little Poland | 14, | 20 |
| Pondicherry, | the pagoda | 93, | 50 |
| the current rupee | 24, | 20 | |
| Portugal, | the milreis | 67, | 50 |
| Prague, | the current gulden | 25, | 60 |
| Ratisbon, | the gulden white money | 25, | 60 |
| Riga, | the albertus rixdollar | 53, | 29 |
| Rome, | the scudo di stampa d’oro | 80, | 92 |
| the scudo moneta | 53, | 16 | |
| Rostock, | the thaler | 45, | 20 |
| the zweydrittel | 30, | 13 | |
| Russia, | the ruble | 33, | 58 |
| St. Eustatia, | the dollar | 38, | 25 |
| St. Gall, | the gulden exchange money | 27, | 90 |
| the gulden currency | 24, | ||
| Sardinia, | the lira | 11, | 50 |
| Siam, | the gold tical | 465, | 50 |
| the silver tical | 39, | 25 | |
| Sicily, | the onza | 130, | 77 |
| Smyrna, | the piastre | 13, | 50 |
| Spain, | the pistole of exchange | 153, | |
| the ducat of exchange | 52, | 73 | |
| the dollar of exchange | 38, | 25 | |
| the real of plate | 4, | 78 | |
| the real of vellon | 2, | 54 | |
| Sweden, | the riksdahler | 55, | 35 |
| Surat, | the rupee | 25, | |
| Surinam, | the florin | 25, | 25 |
| Trieste, | the gulden of 60 kreitzers | 25, | 60 |
| the florin of 5 lire | 24, | 20 | |
| Turin, | the scudo of 6 lire | 69, | 84 |
| the lira | 11, | 64 | |
| Turkey, | the piastre | 13, | 50 |
| United States, | the dollar at par | 54, | |
| Valencia, | the libra of 20 sueldos | 38, | 25 |
| Venice, | the lira piccoli inclusive of the agio on the zecchins | 5, | 12 |
| Vienna, | the current thaler | 38, | 40 |
| the current gulden | 25, | 60 | |
| Zante, | the real of 10 lire | 41, | 15 |
| Zurich, | the gulden exchange money | 27, | 50 |
| the gulden currency | 25, | ||
The following example will shew in what manner the relation between the monies of account of any two given countries may be ascertained.
Example.
Let it be required to express, in pence Irish, the value of a marc banco of Hamburgh.
The marc being worth 18,45 pence sterling, and the pound Irish 221,54, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:
| 1 | marc banco = x | |||||
| 1 | marc ban. | = | 18 | ,45 | pence sterling | |
| 221 | ,54 | pence ster. | = | 1 | pound Irish | |
| 1 | pound Irish | = | 240 | pence Irish | ||
| Result 19,99 pence Irish. | ||||||
Table, which shews the Weight, Fineness, and pure Contents of the principal Gold Coin of foreign Nations, as well as their intrinsic Value, expressed in English Money.
Gold Coins.
| Weight —— | Fineness —— | Pure contents —— | Value —— | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grs.100 | Car. | grs. | Grs.100 | s. | d.100 | ||||||
| Bavaria, | the carl | 150 | ,32 | 18 | 2 | ⁵⁄₆ | 117 | ,18 | 20 | 8 | ,87 |
| the max | 100 | ,21 | 18 | 2 | ²⁄₃ | 77 | ,94 | 13 | 9 | ,54 | |
| Bengal, | the gold mohur | 176 | ,50 | 23 | 3 | 174 | ,66 | 30 | 10 | ,95 | |
| Brunswick, | the carl | 102 | ,36 | 21 | 3 | 92 | ,76 | 16 | 5 | ,02 | |
| Denmark, | the ducat of 12 marcs | 48 | ,21 | 21 | 0 | ²⁄₃ | 42 | ,52 | 7 | 6 | ,30 |
| England, | the guinea | 129 | ,44 | 22 | 118 | ,65 | 21 | ||||
| the half guinea | 64 | ,72 | 22 | 59 | ,33 | 10 | 6 | , | |||
| the 7s piece | 43 | ,13 | 22 | 39 | ,55 | 7 | |||||
| Flanders, | the double souverain | 171 | ,50 | 22 | 157 | ,20 | 27 | 9 | ,79 | ||
| the souverain | 85 | ,75 | 22 | 78 | ,60 | 13 | 10 | ,89 | |||
| France, | the louis of 1726 | 122 | ,90 | 21 | 2 | ²⁄₃ | 110 | ,95 | 19 | 7 | ,65 |
| the louis of 1785 | 117 | ,83 | 21 | 2 | ²⁄₃ | 106 | ,37 | 18 | 9 | ,93 | |
| the 40 franc piece | 199 | ,25 | 21 | 2 | ²⁄₅ | 179 | ,32 | 31 | 8 | ,85 | |
| the 20 franc piece | 99 | ,62 | 21 | 2 | ²⁄₅ | 89 | ,66 | 15 | 10 | ,42 | |
| Geneva, | the pistole of 1752 | 87 | ,13 | 22 | 79 | ,87 | 14 | 1 | ,63 | ||
| Genoa, | the zecchino | 53 | ,80 | 23 | 3 | ¹⁄₂ | 53 | ,52 | 9 | 5 | ,67 |
| Germany, | the ducat | 53 | ,85 | 23 | 2 | ²⁄₃ | 53 | ,10 | 9 | 4 | ,78 |
| Hamburgh, | the ducat | 53 | ,85 | 23 | 2 | 52 | ,73 | 9 | 4 | , | |
| Hanover, | the georges | 103 | ,03 | 21 | 3 | 93 | ,37 | 16 | 6 | ,31 | |
| the gold gulden | 50 | ,06 | 19 | 0 | ¹⁄₃ | 39 | ,80 | 7 | 0 | ,54 | |
| Holland, | the ryder | 153 | ,54 | 22 | 14 | ,74 | 24 | 10 | ,92 | ||
| the ducat | 53 | ,85 | 23 | 2 | 52 | ,73 | 9 | 4 | , | ||
| Hungary, | the ducat of Kremnitz | 53 | ,85 | 23 | 3 | 53 | ,29 | 9 | 5 | ,18 | |
| Madras, | the star pagoda | 52 | ,75 | 19 | 2 | 42 | ,86 | 7 | 7 | ,05 | |
| Naples, | the onza | 68 | ,10 | 21 | 59 | ,59 | 10 | 6 | ,56 | ||
| Piedmont, | the zecchino | 54 | , | 23 | 3 | ¹⁄₂ | 53 | ,72 | 9 | 6 | ,09 |
| the pistole of 1741 | 110 | ,10 | 21 | 3 | 99 | ,78 | 17 | 7 | ,92 | ||
| the doppia of 1755 | 148 | ,50 | 21 | 3 | 134 | ,58 | 23 | 9 | ,83 | ||
| Portugal, | the joanese | 221 | ,87 | 22 | 203 | ,39 | 36 | ||||
| the moidore | 166 | , | 21 | 3 | ³⁄₄ | 151 | ,30 | 26 | 9 | ,35 | |
| Prussia, | the frederick | 103 | ,03 | 21 | 3 | 93 | ,37 | 16 | 6 | ,31 | |
| Rome, | the zecchino | 53 | ,55 | 23 | 2 | 52 | ,43 | 9 | 3 | ,36 | |
| Russia, | the imperial of 1755 | 255 | ,53 | 22 | 234 | ,23 | 41 | 5 | ,49 | ||
| the imperial of 1763 | 202 | ,18 | 22 | 185 | ,33 | 32 | 9 | ,62 | |||
| the imperial of 1801 | 202 | ,18 | 23 | 2 | ¹⁄₂ | 199 | ,90 | 35 | 2 | ,70 | |
| Saxony, | the august | 102 | , | 21 | 2 | ²⁄₃ | 92 | ,08 | 16 | 3 | ,57 |
| Siam, | the tical | 281 | ,88 | 19 | 0 | ¹⁄₃ | 224 | ,13 | 39 | 8 | ,04 |
| Sicily, | the onza | 67 | ,94 | 21 | 3 | 61 | ,57 | 10 | 10 | ,77 | |
| Spain, | the doubloon before 1772 | 416 | ,65 | 21 | 3 | ³⁄₄ | 380 | ,85 | 67 | 4 | ,87 |
| the doubloon of 1772 | 416 | ,65 | 21 | 2 | ²⁄₃ | 376 | ,14 | 66 | 6 | ,88 | |
| the doubloon of 1785 | 416 | ,65 | 21 | 2 | 373 | ,25 | 66 | 0 | ,74 | ||
| Sweden, | the adolphus | 102 | ,95 | 15 | 1 | ¹⁄₂ | 65 | ,77 | 11 | 7 | ,70 |
| Tuscany, | the ruopono | 161 | ,33 | 23 | 3 | ²⁄₃ | 160 | ,77 | 28 | 5 | ,45 |
| United States | the eagle | 268 | ,66 | 22 | 246 | ,27 | 43 | 7 | ,05 | ||
| Venice, | the zecchino | 54 | , | 23 | 3 | ¹⁄₂ | 53 | ,72 | 9 | 6 | ,09 |
| Wirtemberg, | the carl | 150 | ,32 | 18 | 2 | ⁵⁄₆ | 117 | ,18 | 20 | 8 | ,87 |
In the first column of this table is shewn the weight of each foreign coin in grains troy-weight; in the second column, the degree of the fineness in carats and grains of a carat; in the third column, the contents of fine gold in grains troy-weight; and in the fourth, the intrinsic value expressed in shillings and pence sterling.
The following example will be of guidance to ascertain the value of foreign coin in other money also foreign.
Example.
It is required to express the value of a louis d’or of France coined since 1785 in the money of Portugal.
As it is seen by the prefixed table that the louis of 24 livres tournois contains 106,37 grains of fine gold, and that the joanese of 6400 reis contains 203,39 grains of fine gold, I state the following equation:
| 1 | louis = x | |||||
| 1 | louis | = | 106 | ,37 | grains | |
| 203 | ,39 | grains | = | 1 | joanese | |
| 1 | joanese | = | 6400 | reis | ||
| Result 3347 reis. | ||||||
Table, which shews the Weight, Fineness and pure Contents of the principal Silver Coins of foreign Nations, as well as their intrinsic Value, expressed in English Money.
Silver Coins.
| Weight —— | Fineness —— | Pure contents —— | Value —— | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grs.100 | Oz. | dwt. | Grs.100 | d.100 | ||||||
| Aix la Chapelle, | the rathspræsentger | 95 | ,68 | 7 | 1 | 56 | ,21 | 7 | ,85 | |
| Arabia, | the larin | 74 | ,17 | 10 | 17 | ¹⁄₂ | 56 | ,84 | 7 | ,93 |
| Basil, | the reichsthaler | 436 | ,89 | 10 | 10 | 382 | ,28 | 53 | ,38 | |
| Bengal, | the sicca rupee | 179 | ,55 | 11 | 18 | ¹⁄₂ | 178 | ,43 | 24 | ,92 |
| Bern, | the patagon | 417 | ,63 | 10 | 348, | 48 | ,59 | |||
| Bombay, | the rupee | 178 | ,31 | 11 | 15 | 174 | ,60 | 24 | ,38 | |
| Denmark, | the riksdahler | 449 | ,87 | 10 | 10 | 393 | ,64 | 54 | ,97 | |
| the krohn | 344 | , | 8 | 1 | 230 | ,77 | 32 | ,23 | ||
| England, | the crown | 464 | ,52 | 11 | 2 | 429 | ,68 | 60 | ,00 | |
| the shilling | 92 | ,90 | 11 | 2 | 85 | ,94 | 12 | , | ||
| Flanders, | the ducaton | 513 | ,29 | 10 | 8 | ³⁄₄ | 446 | ,46 | 62 | ,34 |
| the croon | 456 | ,91 | 10 | 8 | ¹⁄₂ | 395 | ,71 | 55 | ,26 | |
| the patagon | 433 | , | 10 | 10 | 378 | ,88 | 52 | ,91 | ||
| France, | the ecu of 1726 | 452 | ,50 | 10 | 18 | 411 | ,03 | 57 | ,40 | |
| the 5 franc piece | 386 | ,14 | 10 | 16 | 347 | ,52 | 48 | ,53 | ||
| Geneva, | the patagon | 416 | ,87 | 10 | 347 | ,38 | 48 | ,51 | ||
| Genoa, | the genovina | 593 | ,10 | 11 | 9 | 565 | ,93 | 79 | ,03 | |
| the St. Gianbatista | 321 | ,66 | 11 | 294 | ,85 | 41 | ,17 | |||
| the giorgino | 91 | ,25 | 10 | 6 | ²⁄₃ | 78 | ,58 | 10 | ,97 | |
| the double madonina | 140 | ,19 | 10 | 1 | ²⁄₃ | 117 | ,80 | 16 | ,45 | |
| Germany, | the reichsthaler constitution money | 450 | ,97 | 10 | 13 | ¹⁄₃ | 400 | ,87 | 55 | ,98 |
| the gulden ditto | 225 | ,48 | 10 | 13 | ¹⁄₃ | 200 | ,43 | 27 | ,99 | |
| the reichsthaler convention money | 432 | ,93 | 10 | 360 | ,78 | 50 | ,38 | |||
| the gulden ditto | 216 | ,46 | 10 | 180 | ,39 | 25 | ,19 | |||
| the old zweydrittel | 229 | ,05 | 31 | ,98 | ||||||
| the new zweydrittel | 200 | ,42 | 27 | ,98 | ||||||
| Hamburgh, | the rixdollar banco | 450 | ,52 | 10 | 13 | ¹⁄₂ | 400 | ,47 | 55 | ,92 |
| the marc banco | 150 | ,17 | 10 | 13 | ¹⁄₃ | 133 | ,49 | 18 | ,64 | |
| the rix dollar lubs | 124 | ,41 | 9 | 318 | ,30 | 44 | ,43 | |||
| the marc lubs | 141 | ,47 | 9 | 106 | ,10 | 14 | ,81 | |||
| Holland, | the ducatoon | 503 | ,50 | 11 | 5 | 472 | ,03 | 65 | ,91 | |
| the three florin piece | 488 | , | 11 | 447 | ,33 | 62 | ,46 | |||
| the rixdaler | 433 | ,17 | 10 | 10 | 379 | ,03 | 52 | ,93 | ||
| the leeuwendaler | 422 | , | 8 | 18 | 312 | ,98 | 43 | ,70 | ||
| the gold florin | 307 | , | 7 | 7 | 188 | ,04 | 26 | ,26 | ||
| the current florin | 162 | ,70 | 10 | 19 | 148 | ,46 | 20 | ,73 | ||
| Madras, | the rupee | 178 | ,88 | 11 | 16 | ¹⁄₂ | 176 | ,28 | 24 | ,61 |
| Milan, | the philip | 430 | ,21 | 11 | 8 | ¹⁄₂ | 409 | ,30 | 57 | ,15 |
| Naples, | the ducat | 336 | , | 10 | 19 | 306 | ,60 | 42 | ,81 | |
| Piedmont, | the ducatoon | 491 | ,03 | 11 | 8 | ¹⁄₃ | 467 | ,17 | 65 | ,23 |
| the scudo of 1733 | 459 | ,88 | 10 | 19 | ¹⁄₆ | 419 | ,96 | 58 | ,64 | |
| the scudo of 1755 | 542 | ,95 | 10 | 17 | ¹⁄₂ | 492 | ,05 | 68 | ,71 | |
| Pondicherry, | the rupee | 177 | ,27 | 11 | 11 | 170 | ,63 | 23 | ,83 | |
| Poland, | the tympfe | 89 | ,75 | 6 | 3 | ¹⁄₂ | 46 | ,12 | 6 | ,44 |
| Portugal, | the cruzade | 265 | ,65 | 10 | 15 | ¹⁄₂ | 238 | ,54 | 33 | ,31 |
| Prussia, | the current rixdollar | 343 | ,42 | 9 | 257 | ,57 | 35 | ,97 | ||
| Rome, | the scudo moneta | 408 | ,70 | 11 | 374 | ,64 | 52 | ,31 | ||
| the testono | 130 | ,54 | 11 | 119 | ,67 | 16 | ,71 | |||
| the papeta | 81 | ,59 | 11 | 74 | ,79 | 10 | ,44 | |||
| Russia, | the ruble of 1755 | 402 | ,76 | 9 | 10 | 318 | ,85 | 44 | ,52 | |
| the ruble of 1763 | 369 | ,88 | 9 | 277 | ,41 | 38 | ,74 | |||
| the ruble of 1801 | 77 | ,48 | 10 | 8 | 240 | ,48 | 33 | ,58 | ||
| the livonina of 1757 | 411 | ,66 | 9 | 1 | ¹⁄₄ | 310 | ,99 | 43 | ,41 | |
| the rixdollar albertus | 433 | ,17 | 10 | 10 | 379 | ,03 | 52 | ,93 | ||
| Saxony, | the old reichsthaler | 450 | ,97 | 10 | 13 | ¹⁄₃ | 400 | ,87 | 55 | ,98 |
| the new reichsthaler | 432 | ,93 | 10 | 360 | ,78 | 50 | ,38 | |||
| the zweydrittelstucke | 212 | ,14 | 11 | 6 | ²⁄₃ | 200 | ,35 | 27 | ,98 | |
| Spain, | the hard dollar before 1772 | 416 | ,40 | 10 | 18 | ¹⁄₃ | 378 | ,81 | 52 | ,90 |
| the hard dollar since 1772 | 416 | ,40 | 10 | 15 | 373 | ,03 | 52 | ,09 | ||
| Sweden, | the reichsthaler of 1764 | 451 | ,56 | 10 | 10 | ⁵⁄₆ | 396 | ,69 | 55 | ,39 |
| the ducatoon | 484 | , | 11 | 1 | ¹⁄₄ | 446 | ,18 | 62 | ,30 | |
| the carolin | 160 | ,51 | 8 | 6 | ²⁄₃ | 111 | ,47 | 15 | ,56 | |
| the ten oere silver piece | 108 | ,30 | 5 | 6 | ²⁄₃ | 48 | ,13 | 6 | ,72 | |
| Tuscany, | the francescono | 422 | ,75 | 11 | 387 | ,52 | 54 | ,11 | ||
| the lanternina | 420 | , | 11 | 1 | 386 | ,75 | 54 | , | ||
| the livornina | 402 | , | 11 | 1 | 370 | ,18 | 51 | ,69 | ||
| United States, | the dollar | 409 | ,79 | 11 | 375 | ,64 | 52 | ,45 | ||
| Venice, | the ducat | 350 | ,83 | 9 | 18 | 289 | ,44 | 40 | ,42 | |
| the scudo | 489 | ,54 | 11 | 448 | ,75 | 62 | ,66 | |||
| the giustina | 433 | ,17 | 11 | 397 | ,07 | 55 | ,45 | |||
In the first column of this table is shewn the weight of each foreign coin in grains troy-weight; in the second column, the degree of fineness in carats and grains of a carat; in the third column, the contents of fine silver in grains troy-weight; and in the fourth, the intrinsic value expressed in pence sterling.
The following example will shew in what manner the value of a foreign coin in other money also foreign may be ascertained.
Example.
It is required to express the value of a Spanish hard dollar in the money of France.
As it is seen by the prefixed table that the hard dollar contains 373,03 grains of fine silver, and that the piece of 5 francs contains 347,52 grains of fine silver, I state the following equation:
| 1 | hard dollar = x | |||||
| 1 | hard dol. | = | 373 | ,03 | grains | |
| 347 | ,52 | grains | = | 5 | franc piece | |
| Result 5 francs 37 cents | ||||||
MONIES, in a military sense, are such sums as are issued for public service, and are more specifically distinguished by the appellation of army estimates. It is usual for the secretary at war to move for the estimates of the army. The following sums shew the amount of the British military establishment on the 17th of February, 1801:—
1,615,878l. for guards and garrisons.
1,743,773l. for maintenance of troops abroad.
17,232l. for land forces for Ireland.
355,000l. for recruiting in Great Britain.
319,479l. for ditto in Ireland.
86,523l. for generals and staff officers in Great Britain.
48,197l. for ditto in Ireland.
973,433l. for militia in Great Britain.
1,338,000l. for ditto in Ireland.
57,000l. for fencibles in Great Britain.
34,451l. for contingencies in Ireland.
25,876l. for supernumerary officers.
11,628l. for officers’ clerks, &c. in Great Britain.
6,416l. for ditto in Ireland.
255,000l. for increased rates for subsistence to inn-keepers in Great Britain.
115,384l. allowance for beer.
138,979l. for reduced officers in Great Britain.
148,382l. for the in and out pensioners of Chelsea.
35,923l. for ditto of hospital at Kilmainham, near Dublin.
455,000l. for volunteer cavalry in Great Britain.
425,139l. for ditto in Ireland.
33,394l. for foreign troops in British pay.
456,000l. for the augmentation of 10,000 in Great Britain.
21,332l. for contingencies in Ireland.
To be added, 1,033,750l. for the ordnance of the current year.
30,937l. for extraordinaries not provided for in 1799.
58,756l. for ditto not provided for in 1800.
Regimental Monies. All sums issued to paymasters for the subsistence, &c. of the men belonging to a regiment, are so called; for the regular distribution of which the paymasters and captains of companies are responsible. La comptabilité, among the French, corresponds with this explanation.
Ley-Money. The money which is paid for recruiting the army, is so called.
Smart Money. The money which was paid by the person who has taken the enlisting money, in order to get released from an engagement entered into previous to a regular enlistment.
Bounty Money.—See [Recruiting].
MONOMACHY, (Monomachie, Fr.) a single combat, or the fighting of two, hand to hand. It is derived from the Greek. A duel may be properly called Monomachy.
MONSON ou MOUSON, Fr. a word derived from the Arabic, signifying the wind of any particular season, or one that blows regularly. See [Monsoons].
MONSOONS. In India the year is divided into two seasons. From the month of October to March, the winds blow from the north-western, and during the rest of the year from the south-eastern points of the compass: these seasons are by mariners called monsoons; the change from the one to the other is generally preceded by an interval of about twenty days, in which calms, or light and uncertain winds prevail: the setting in of the northern monsoons generally falls out some time in the month of September, as that of the southern in the month of April. On the coast of Coromandel the northern monsoon sometimes begins with a violent tempest or hurricane; and if the monsoon sets in with moderation, it is often productive of tempestuous weather at different intervals, until the middle of December, and sometimes later; so that it is held dangerous for any vessels to remain on the coast after the 15th of October, or to return to it before the 20th of December.
MONTAGNES, Fr. Hills, mountains, &c. In a military sense, the term is peculiarly applicable to that species of warfare which is carried on in a mountainous and intersected country. We have already given a general outline of this species of warfare under the head [Guerre de Montagne]: nevertheless the following observations may not appear superfluous or irrelevant in this place. The chevalier Folard has written largely, and with no inconsiderable degree of method, on that part of a war among hills, &c. where an army might run the risk of being surrounded, or shut up. He observes, that a body of men may be drawn into snares by the well concerted movements of an able and active enemy, most especially in a country which is intersected by rivers, and occasionally broken with hills and eminences. Although disasters of this sort are manifest proofs of a want of ability in the person who holds the chief command, they become infinitely more disgraceful when a general runs headlong into a snare, as Euripidas did, without having sufficient courage to attempt a daring enterprize; for it certainly remains with ourselves to determine, whether we chuse to move into an impracticable country; and it equally rests with us to avoid stratagems and snares.
All this, however, depends upon a knowlege of the country into which the war is carried; and as it is impossible to be in possession of the requisite information without some extraneous means, every general ought to lay it down as a maxim, not to advance into a mountainous country without having a good number of intelligent and faithful guides. These, in addition to some able topographers, will prevent the possibility of being surprised, and make him thoroughly master of all the passes, &c.
It is not, however, sufficient to be in possession of the heights that immediately command a valley into which an army has moved; in proportion as you advance, you must be certain, that the enemy who retreats before, is not insensibly winding round a second range of hills, to get upon your flanks, or ultimately fall upon your rear.
It moreover frequently happens, that some vallies have not any outlets, and that others become so narrow, that an army is under the necessity of marching by single files, in order to reach a more open piece of ground, or to get at some important pass for the purpose of intercepting or obstructing the march of an enemy.
When it is found necessary to retreat, or to march over a country, as Hannibal did over the Alps, it is of little consequence what steps or measures you take, with regard to those parts which you are abandoning; but when you advance against an enemy, and are determined to dispute his march through a valley or hollow way, you must adopt every precaution to secure your rear and flanks, lest, as we have already observed, your antagonist should take advantage of the various passes and intricate bye-ways, which always exists in a mountainous country; and it must always be remembered, that many coups de main, and daring enterprises, may be undertaken by four or five hundred active partisans, which an army would find impracticable.
An able general cannot have a better, or more favorable field to exercise his military genius in, than that which is afforded by a mountainous country. All the chicane and stratagem of war may be resorted to; and however weak an army might be, yet such are the manifold resources of this peculiar kind of contest, that there is scarcely any thing which may not be attempted, provided the officer, who commands, has a thorough knowlege of the country, is fertile in expedients, and has a calm determined mind. Many instances might be adduced to illustrate these observations; we shall be satisfied with stating, that the prince of Conti, in the campaign of 1744, which he so ably conducted, owes a considerable part of his reputation to the scope afforded to his talents by the locality of Piedmont. This country, indeed, as well as Switzerland, seems to have been cut out as the peculiar theatre of great military talents. But neither the prince of Conti, nor the first consul of France, Bonaparte, would have succeeded in the brilliant manner, which they most unquestionably have done, had not the science of topography seconded the natural advantages of that mountainous part of Europe. Massena, Lecourbe, Ney, Lefebvre, Soult, and Macdonald have immortalized themselves in mountain warfare.
MONTE, Fr. This word is used among the French to express what we mean by carry; as, un vaisseau monté de cinquante pièces de canon: a ship that carries fifty guns, or a fifty gun ship.
Monter la tranchée, Fr. See [To Mount the Trenches].
Monter un Vaisseau, Fr. To embark on board a ship.
Monter, Fr. This word likewise means to rise from one rank to another, in the way of promotion, as from cornet or ensign to become lieutenant, from lieutenant to become captain, or from having the command of the youngest company to be promoted to that of the oldest.
MONTH, considered as a military period, in the British service, consists alternately of 30 and 31 days, commencing on the 24th, and ending on the 25th day (inclusive) of each month, properly so called.
Monthly Abstract. See [Pay].
Monthly Return. See [Return].
Monthly Report. See [Report].
Monthly Inspection. See [Regimental Inspection].
MONT-joie, Saint Denis, Fr. a national exclamation, adopted by the French in the reign of Louis, sirnamed Le Gros. See [Cri des armes].
Mont-Pagnote ou Poste des invulnérables, Fr. an expression which is derived from Pagnote, a coward, a poltroon; and signifies any eminence or place from whence the operations of a siege, or the actual conflict of two armies, may be seen without personal danger to the curious observer. It is a term of reproach, C’est un Général qui voit le combat du Mont-Pagnote; he is one of those generals that look on whilst others fight. During the American war a particular body of refugees or tories who seemed to side with the British, were called invulnerables.
Mont-Pagnote, in fortification, an eminence where persons post themselves out of the reach of cannon, to see a camp, siege, battle, &c. without being exposed to danger. It is also called the post of the invulnerables.
MONTRE, Fr. The review, or muster of the men. Le régiment a fait montre devant le commissaire. The regiment has passed muster before the commissary. Les officiers mirent leur valets dans les rangs, et les firent passer à la montre. The officers put their servants in the ranks, and made them pass muster.
Montre likewise signified, in the old French service, the money which was paid to soldiers every month, when they passed muster. Il a reçu sa montre; he has received his monthly pay.
Monture, Fr. The complement of men, and number of cannon, on board a French ship of war.
Monture d’un fusil, d’un pistolet, Fr. the stock of a gun or pistol.
MONUMENT, (Monument, Fr.) In a military sense, any public edifice, pillar, or mark of distinction, which is exhibited to perpetuate the memory of some illustrious character.
MOOTIANA, Ind. Soldiers employed to collect the revenue.
MOQUA, MUCK, a frenzical riot of some mahomedans, who have returned from Mecca, against those who have not professed mahomedanism. This horrid custom has been lately practised by the Malays, both at the island of Ceylon, and at the Cape of Good Hope. In the latter place indeed, the fanaticism of one of these blind enthusiasts went so far, that he stabbed a soldier who stood centinel at the governor’s gate. His intention was to have destroyed the governor. He that runs the moqua, or muck, gets intoxicated with bang, or opium, loosens his hair, (which is generally bound up under a handkerchief) then takes a dagger (called a kreese) in his hand, whose blade is usually half poisoned, and in the handle of which there is some of his mother’s or father’s hair preserved, and running about the streets kills all those he meets, who are not mahomedans, till he is killed himself; pretending to believe, that he serves God and Mahomed by destroying their enemies. When one of these madmen is slain, all the mahomedan rabble run to him, and bury him like a saint, every one contributing his mite towards making a noble burial.
MORAILLE, Fr. Barnacles. An instrument made commonly of iron for the use of farriers, to hold a horse by the nose, to hinder him from struggling when an incision is made.
Le MORAL, Fr. This word is frequently used among the French, as a substantive of the masculine gender, to express the moral condition of man. It likewise means the prepossession or assurance which we feel in conscious superiority, viz. Quand les Anglois se battent sur mer, ils ont le moral pour eux, les Francois l’ont sur terre.
MORASS, in military drawings, denotes moor, marshy, or fenny low grounds, on which waters are lodged.
MORATTOES, Mahrattahs, a considerable Hindoo tribe in Hindustan. Their army is chiefly composed of cavalry and they excel in the management of their horses. The weapon principally used by them in war is a sabre, extremely well tempered, and carefully chosen. Their dress, when accoutred for action, consists of a quilted jacket of cotton cloth, which descends half way down their thighs, and of a thin linen vest, which is fitted close to the body, and is always worn under the jacket. They wear upon their head a broad turban, which is made to reach the shoulders, for the double purpose of covering the neck from the heat of the sun, and of shielding it against the enemy’s sabre. Their thighs and legs are covered with a loose kind of trowsers, or cotton overhose. They are extremely temperate, and pay the most minute attention to their horses.
It is now more than a century that the Mahrattahs first made a figure, as the most enterprising soldiers of Hindustan; as the only nation of Indians, which seems to make war an occupation by choice; for the Rajpouts are Hindus, soldiers by birth. The strength of their armies consist in their numerous cavalry, which is more capable of resisting fatigue than any in India; large bodies of them having been known to march fifty miles in a day. They avoid general engagements, and seem to have no other idea in making war, but that of doing as much mischief as possible to the enemy’s country.
MOREAU, Fr. A species of bag which the drivers of mules use to carry their hay. It is likewise the name of a celebrated French general, who by his able retreat out of Germany, during the most disastrous period of the French revolution, acquired a reputation, as a general, superior to Xenophon.
MORGLAY, a deadly weapon.
MORTIER, Fr. See [Mortar].
MORION, Fr. Donner sur le morion. This was a species of punishment which was formerly inflicted upon French soldiers for crimes that were not capital. They were shut up in a guard-house, and received a certain number of strokes with a halbert. The gantelope was substituted in its stead; but neither one or the other are practised in the present French army.
MORISON. See [Helmet], [Casque], &c.
MORT d’Eau, Fr. Low water.
MORTARS, are a kind of short cannon, of a large bore, with chambers: they are made of stone, brass, or iron. Their use is to throw hollow shells, filled with powder; which, falling on any building, or into the works of a fortification, burst, and their fragments destroy every thing within reach. Carcasses are also thrown out of them. These are a sort of shells, with 5 holes, filled with pitch and other combustibles, in order to set buildings on fire; and sometimes baskets full of stones, the size of a man’s fist, are thrown out of them upon an enemy, placed in the covert-way during a siege. The very ingenious general Desaguliers contrived to throw bags, filled with grape-shot, containing in each bag, from 400 to 600 shot of different dimensions, out of mortars; the effect of which is extremely awful and tremendous to troops forming the line of battle, passing a defile, or landing, &c. pouring down shot, not unlike a shower of hail, on a circumference of above 300 feet. They are distinguished chiefly by the diameter of the bore. For example, a 13-inch mortar is that, the diameter of whose bore is 13 inches. There are some of 10 and 8-inch diameters; and some of a smaller sort, as cohorns of 4.6 inches, and royals of 5.8 inches.
Weight and Dimensions of English Mortars.
| Kind. | Weight. | Length. | [13]Powder contained in Chamber. | Range at 45°. | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ct. | qr. | lbs. | Ft. | In. | lbs. | oz. | Yds. | ||||||||||||
| 13 | - | Brass | - | Sea S. | - | 82 | — | 8 | 5 | 3 | 32 | — | 4100 | ||||||
| Iron | 82 | 1 | — | 20 | — | ||||||||||||||
| Brass | - | Land. | - | 25 | — | 10 | 3 | 7 | ¹⁄₂ | 9 | 12 | 2100 | |||||||
| Iron | 36 | 2 | 12 | 9 | 8 | ||||||||||||||
| 10 | - | Brass | - | Sea S. | - | 33 | — | — | 4 | 8 | 12 | 8 | 3800 | ||||||
| Iron | 41 | — | — | 10 | — | ||||||||||||||
| Brass | - | Land. | - | 10 | 1 | 25 | 2 | 9 | 4 | 10 | 1900 | ||||||||
| Iron | 16 | — | 6 | 4 | 8 | ||||||||||||||
| 8 | - | Brass | - | Land. | - | 4 | 1 | 8 | 2 | 1 | ³⁄₄ | 2 | — | 1600 | |||||
| Iron | 8 | — | 11 | 2 | 4 | ||||||||||||||
| 5 | ¹⁄₂ | Brass | — | Land. | - | 1 | — | 20 | 1 | 4 | ¹⁄₄ | — | 9 | 1200 | |||||
| 4 | ²⁄₅ | Brass | — | Land. | — | 3 | 11 | 1 | 1 | ¹⁄₂ | — | 4 | ¹⁄₂ | 1040 | |||||
[13] See the word [Chambers], for experiments on the best form.
Ranges with French Mortars, at 45 Degrees, in French Weights and Measures.
| 12 Inch. | 10 Inch, long Ranges. | 10 Inch, short Ranges. | 8 Inch. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Charge. | Range. | Charge. | Range. | Charge. | Range. | Charge. | Range. | ||||||
| lbs. | oz. | Yards. | lbs. | oz. | Yards. | lbs. | oz. | Yards. | lbs. | oz. | Yards. | ||
| 1 | — | 388 | 1 | — | 450 | 1 | — | 618 | — | 5 | 316 | ||
| 1 | 8 | 632 | 2 | — | 1080 | 1 | 8 | 964 | — | 10 | 794 | ||
| 2 | — | 862 | 3 | — | 1536 | 2 | — | 1280 | — | 15 | 1112 | ||
| 2 | 8 | 954 | 4 | — | 2070 | 2 | 8 | 1428 | 1 | 4 | 1280 | ||
| 3 | — | 1292 | 5 | — | 2206 | 3 | — | 1432 | |||||
| 3 | 8 | 1390 | 6 | 2 | ¹⁄₂ | 2304 | 3 | 10 | ¹⁄₄ | 1920 | |||
Ranges with a 10 Inch Sea Mortar, at 21 Degrees, on a Horizontal Plane.
| Weight of Mortar. | Weight of Shell. | Charge. | Eleva- tion. | Flight. | Range. | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ct. | qrs. | lbs. | lbs. | oz. | lbs. | oz. | Deg. | Sec. | Yards. | ||||||||||
| 34 | 2 | 14 | - | 86 | — | - | 5 | 8 | 21 | - | 14 | ³⁄₄ | 2335 | ||||||
| 87 | — | 16 | 2510 | ||||||||||||||||
Ranges with Sea Service, Iron Mortars, at 45 Degrees, upon a Horizontal Plane. 1798.
| 13 Inch. | 10 Inch. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Charge. | Flight. | Range. | Charge. | Flight. | Range. | ||||
| lbs. | oz. | Sec. | Yards. | lbs. | oz. | Sec. | Yards. | ||
| 2 | — | 13 | 690 | 1 | — | 13 | 680 | ||
| 4 | — | 18 | 1400 | 2 | — | 18 | 1340 | ||
| 6 | — | 21 | 1900 | 3 | — | 21 | 1900 | ||
| 8 | — | 24 | ¹⁄₂ | 2575 | 4 | — | 24 | ¹⁄₂ | 2500 |
| 10 | — | 26 | - | 2975 | 5 | — | 26 | 2800 | |
| 12 | — | 29 | 3500 | 6 | — | 27 | 3200 | ||
| 14 | — | 29 | - | 3660 | 7 | — | 29 | 3500 | |
| 16 | — | 30 | 3900 | 8 | — | 30 | 3800 | ||
| 18 | — | 30 | - | 4200 | 9 | — | 30 | ¹⁄₄ | 3900 |
| 20 | — | 31 | 4400 | 9 | 8 | 30 | ¹⁄₂ | 4000 | |
French Mortars, in their own Weights and Measures.
| lbs. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 12 | Inches | 2060 | 3 | 7 | 2400 | |||||
| 10 | for long Ranges | 2000 | 7 | 4 | 2800 | |||||
| 10 | for short do. | 1560 | 4 | — | 2200 | |||||
| 8 | for short do. | 595 | 1 | 4 | ³⁄₄ | 1160 | ||||
| Stone Mortars.[14] | 1100 | 2 | 8 | |||||||
| 12 | Inch | - | Gomers | 2750 | 12 | — | 2700 | |||
| 10 | Inch | 2000 | 6 | 8 | 2800 | |||||
| 8 | Inch | 600 | 2 | — | 1400 | |||||
[14] Stone Mortars should not be fired at a greater distance than 250 yards.
Medium Ranges with Land Service Iron Mortars, at 45 Degrees, 1798.
| 13 Inch. | 10 Inch. | 8 Inch. | 5¹⁄₂ Inch, Brass. | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ch’ge. | Flig’t. | Range. | Ch’ge. | Flig’t. | Range. | Ch’ge. | Flig’t. | Range. | Ch’ge. | Flig’t. | Range. | ||||||||
| lbs. | oz. | Sec. | Yds. | lb. | oz. | Sec. | Yds. | lbs. | oz. | Sec. | Yds. | oz. | dr. | Sec. | Yds. | ||||
| — | 14 | 6 | ¹⁄₂ | 245 | — | 8 | 6 | ¹⁄₂ | 235 | — | 5 | 6 | 225 | 1 | 8 | 5 | ¹⁄₂ | 155 | |
| 1 | — | 7 | - | 318 | — | 10 | 8 | 358 | — | 6 | 7 | ¹⁄₂ | 328 | 1 | 12 | 6 | 198 | ||
| 1 | 4 | 8 | - | 412 | — | 12 | 9 | 464 | — | 7 | 8 | 428 | 2 | — | 6 | - | 255 | ||
| 1 | 8 | 9 | - | 523 | — | 14 | 10 | 534 | — | 8 | 9 | - | 474 | 2 | 4 | 7 | - | 316 | |
| 1 | 12 | 10 | - | 613 | 1 | — | 10 | - | 638 | — | 9 | 10 | 560 | 2 | 8 | 8 | 380 | ||
| 2 | — | 11 | 697 | 1 | 2 | 11 | - | 749 | — | 10 | 11 | 664 | 2 | 12 | 8 | - | 426 | ||
| 2 | 4 | 12 | - | 840 | 1 | 4 | 13 | 873 | — | 11 | 12 | 762 | 3 | — | 9 | - | 470 | ||
| 2 | 8 | 13 | 906 | 1 | 6 | 13 | - | 956 | — | 12 | 12 | - | 801 | 3 | 4 | 10 | 540 | ||
| 2 | 12 | 14 | 1054 | 1 | 8 | 14 | 1028 | — | 13 | 13 | - | 859 | 3 | 8 | 10 | - | 590 | ||
| 3 | — | 15 | 1132 | 1 | 10 | 15 | 1123 | — | 14 | 14 | 960 | 3 | 12 | 11 | 630 | ||||
| 3 | 4 | 16 | 1244 | 1 | 12 | 15 | 1226 | — | 15 | 14 | - | 1011 | 4 | — | 11 | - | 725 | ||
| 3 | 8 | 16 | - | 1317 | 1 | 14 | 16 | 1325 | 1 | 0 | 14 | - | 1119 | 4 | 4 | 12 | 746 | ||
| 3 | 12 | 17 | 1424 | 2 | — | 16 | - | 1357 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 1156 | 4 | 8 | 12 | - | 800 | ||
| 4 | — | 17 | 1490 | 2 | 2 | 17 | 1480 | 1 | 2 | 16 | 1262 | 4 | 12 | 13 | - | 910 | |||
| 4 | 4 | 17 | - | 1580 | 2 | 4 | 17 | - | 1532 | 1 | 3 | 16 | - | 1320 | 5 | — | 13 | - | 935 |
| 4 | 8 | 18 | - | 1656 | 2 | 6 | 17 | - | 1571 | 1 | 4 | 17 | 1380 | 5 | 4 | 14 | 1016 | ||
| 4 | 12 | 19 | 1744 | 2 | 8 | 18 | - | 1700 | 1 | 5 | 17 | - | 1446 | 5 | 8 | — | — | ||
| 5 | — | 19 | - | 1824 | 2 | 10 | 19 | 1780 | 1 | 6 | 18 | 1530 | 5 | 12 | — | — | |||
| 5 | 4 | 19 | - | 1900 | 2 | 12 | 19 | - | 1825 | 1 | 7 | 18 | - | 1600 | 6 | — | 15 | 1175 | |
| 5 | 8 | 20 | 1950 | 2 | 14 | 20 | 1880 | 1 | 8 | 19 | 1660 | ||||||||
| 5 | 12 | 20 | - | 2062 | 3 | — | 20 | 1916 | 1 | 9 | 19 | - | 1720 | ||||||
| 6 | — | 21 | 2095 | 4 | — | 25 | 2485 | ||||||||||||
| 7 | — | 24 | 2510 | 4 | 8 | 26 | 2536 | ||||||||||||
| 8 | — | 25 | 2706 | ||||||||||||||||
Medium Ranges with Brass Mortars, at 45 Degrees. 1780.
| 13 Inch.[15] | 10 Inch. | 8 Inch. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ch’ge. | Range. | Ch’ge. | Range. | Ch’ge. | Range. | |||
| lb. | oz. | Y’ds. | lb. | oz. | Y’ds. | oz. | dr. | Y’ds. |
| 2 | 12 | 862 | 1 | 10 | 823 | 10 | 8 | 580 |
| 2 | 14 | 939 | 1 | 11 | 852 | 11 | — | 635 |
| 3 | — | 998 | 1 | 12 | 783 | 11 | 8 | 711 |
| 3 | 2 | 1003 | 1 | 13 | 758 | 12 | — | 708 |
| 3 | 4 | 1090 | 1 | 14 | 823 | 12 | 8 | 701 |
| 3 | 6 | 1139 | 1 | 15 | 888 | 13 | — | 777 |
| 3 | 8 | 1165 | 2 | — | 892 | 13 | 8 | 825 |
| 3 | 10 | 1209 | 2 | 1 | 940 | 14 | — | 870 |
| 3 | 12 | 1270 | 2 | 2 | 941 | 14 | 8 | 853 |
| 3 | 14 | 1322 | 2 | 3 | 1041 | 15 | — | 860 |
| 4 | — | 1309 | 2 | 4 | 1128 | 15 | 8 | 899 |
| 4 | 2 | 1331 | 2 | 5 | 1103 | 16 | — | 921 |
| 4 | 4 | 1391 | 2 | 6 | 1221 | 16 | 8 | 987 |
| 4 | 6 | 1363 | 2 | 7 | 1258 | 17 | — | 987 |
| 4 | 8 | 1324 | 2 | 8 | 1215 | 17 | 8 | 1062 |
[15] For the Ranges with the 5¹⁄₂ inch Brass, see the [Iron Mortars].
Ranges with a 5¹⁄₂ Inch Brass Mortar, at 15 Degrees.
| Charge. | Flight. | First Graze. | Rolled to. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| oz. | dr. | Sec. | Yards. | Yards. | |
| 2 | 8 | 3 | 209 | 303 | |
| 3 | — | 3 | ¹⁄₂ | 256 | 330 |
| 3 | 8 | 4 | 375 | 443 | |
| 4 | — | 4 | - | 457 | 501 |
| 4 | 8 | 5 | 530 | 600 | |
| 5 | — | 5 | - | 561 | 627 |
| 5 | 8 | 6 | - | 667 | 715 |
| 6 | — | 7 | 709 | 780 | |
Medium Ranges with Land Service Iron Mortars, at 10 Degrees Elevation....Powder in Cartridges.
| 10 Inch. | 8 Inch. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flight. | Charge. | First Graze. | Extreme Range. | Flight. | Charge. | First Graze. | Extreme Range. | ||||
| Sec. | lb. | oz. | Yds. | Yds. | Sec. | lb. | oz. | Yds. | Yds. | ||
| 3 | — | 12 | 198 | 415 | 3 | — | 8 | 202 | 403 | ||
| 3 | ¹⁄₂ | 1 | — | 278 | 458 | 3 | — | 10 | 266 | 461 | |
| 4 | 1 | 4 | 366 | 564 | 3 | ¹⁄₄ | — | 12 | 351 | 614 | |
| 4 | ¹⁄₂ | 1 | 8 | 451 | 685 | 4 | — | 14 | 413 | 630 | |
| 4 | 1 | 12 | 432 | 686 | 4 | ³⁄₄ | 1 | — | 468 | 754 | |
| 4 | ³⁄₄ | 2 | — | 559 | 938 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 562 | 811 | |
| 5 | 2 | 4 | 602 | 798 | 6 | 1 | 4 | 664 | 950 | ||
| 4 | ³⁄₄ | 2 | 8 | 597 | 976 | 6 | ¹⁄₂ | 1 | 6 | 700 | 1028 |
| 5 | 2 | 12 | 664 | 1121 | 6 | 1 | 8 | 768 | 1064 | ||
| 5 | ¹⁄₄ | 3 | — | 764 | 1169 | ||||||
Medium Ranges with the above Mortars, at 15 Degrees.
| 10 Inch. | 8 Inch. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ch’ge. | Flig’t. | Range. | Ch’ge. | Flig’t. | Range. | ||||
| lb. | oz. | Sec. | Yards. | lb. | oz. | Sec. | Y’ds. | ||
| 1 | 4 | 5 | 464 | — | 11 | 4 | ¹⁄₂ | 427 | |
| 1 | 6 | 5 | ¹⁄₂ | 543 | — | 12 | 4 | - | 485 |
| 1 | 8 | 6 | 590 | — | 13 | 5 | 513 | ||
| 1 | 12 | 6 | ³⁄₄ | 685 | — | 14 | 5 | - | 559 |
| 1 | 14 | 7 | 765 | 1 | — | 6 | - | 690 | |
| 2 | — | 7 | 805 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 822 | ||
| 2 | 4 | 7 | ¹⁄₂ | 884 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 827 | |
| 2 | 8 | 7 | ³⁄₄ | 960 | 1 | 6 | 7 | ³⁄₄ | 1004 |
| 2 | 12 | 8 | 1070 | 1 | 8 | 8 | ¹⁄₂ | 1012 | |
| 3 | — | 8 | ¹⁄₂ | 1154 | 1 | 10 | 8 | 1196 | |
| 1 | 11 | 9 | 1337 | ||||||
All English mortars are erroneously fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, and custom has prevailed to lash them strongly with ropes to that elevation. In a siege, shells should never be thrown with an angle of 45 degrees, excepting in one case only; that is, when the battery is so far off that they cannot otherwise reach the works: for when shells are thrown out of the trenches into the works of a fortification, or from the town into the trenches, they should have as little elevation as possible, in order to roll along and not bury themselves; whereby the injury they do, and the terror they cause to the troops, is much greater than if they sink into the ground. On the contrary, when shells are thrown upon magazines, or any other buildings, with an intention to destroy them, the mortars should be elevated as high as possible, that the shells may acquire a greater force in their fall, and consequently do more execution. The British are the only nation that fix mortars to an elevation of 45 degrees, the proper range is from 32¹⁄₂ to 35 degrees.
The use of mortars is thought to be older than that of cannon; for they were employed in the wars of Italy to throw balls of red-hot iron, and stones, long before the invention of shells. It is generally believed, that the Germans were the first inventors, and that they were actually used at the siege of Naples, in the reign of Charles the VIII., in 1435. History informs us, with more certainty, that shells were thrown out of mortars at the siege of Wachtendonk, in Guelderland, in 1588, by the earl of Mansfield. Shells were first invented by a citizen of Venlo, who, on a festival, celebrated in honor of the duke of Cleves, threw a certain number, one of which fell on a house, and set fire to it; by which misfortune the greatest part of the city was reduced to ashes. Mr. Malter, an English engineer, first taught the French the art of throwing shells, which they practised at the siege of Motte, in 1634. The method of throwing red-hot balls out of mortars, was first put in practice, with certainty, at the siege of Stralsund, in 1675, by the elector of Brandenburg; though some say in 1653, at the siege of Bremen.
Land-Mortars, are those used in sieges, and of late in battles, mounted on beds; and both mortar and bed are transported on block-carriages. There is also a kind of land-mortars, mounted on travelling carriages, invented by count Buckeburg, which may be elevated to any degree; whereas the British as we have already stated, are fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, and are firmly lashed with ropes.
Partridge Mortar, is a common mortar, surrounded by 13 other little mortars, bored round its circumference in the body of its metal. The centre one is loaded with a shell, and the others with grenades. The vent of the large mortar being fired, communicates its fire to the small ones; so that both shell and grenades go off at once. The French used them in the war of 1701, and more especially at the siege of Lisle, in 1708, and at the defence of Bouchain in 1702.
Hand-Mortars, were frequently used before the invention of cohorns. They were fixed at the end of a staff of 4¹⁄₂ feet long, the other end being shod with iron to stick in the ground: while the bombardier, with one hand, elevated it at pleasure, he with the other hand fired.
Firelock-Mortars, Bombards, are small mortars, fixed at the end of a firelock they are loaded as all common firelocks are; and the grenade, placed in the mortar at the end of the barrel, is discharged by a flint-lock; and, to prevent the recoil hurting the bombardier, the bombard rests on a kind of halberd, made for that purpose. They were first invented by major-general Siebach, a German, about the year 1710.
Names of the several parts of a Mortar.
Grand divisions exterior, viz.—The whole length, of the mortar, muzzle, chace, reinforce, breech, trunnions.
Small divisions exterior. The vent, dolphins, vent astragal and fillets, breech ring and ogee, reinforce ring and ogee, reinforce astragal and fillets, muzzle astragal and fillets, muzzle ring and ogee, muzzle moulding, shoulders.
Interior parts. Chamber, bore, mouth, vent.
Chamber in Mortars, is the place where the powder is lodged. There are different sorts, and made variously by different nations. The Spaniards use chiefly the spheric; the French, Germans, and Dutch, the conic, cylindric, and the concave or bottled; the Portuguese at present, the parabolic; and the English make them in the form of a frustrum of a cone. Each nation has its reasons, good or bad, to prefer their make before that of others: among which the English say the concave and cylindric chambers are the best; the French say the frustrum of a cone.
Sea-Mortars; are those which are fixed in the bomb-vessels, for bombarding places by sea: they are made somewhat longer, and much heavier than the land-mortars.
Land-Mortar-Beds, are made of very solid timber, and placed upon very strong timber frames, fixed in the bomb ketch; to which a pintle is attached in such a manner, that the bed may turn round. The fore part of these beds is an arc of a circle, described from the same centre as the pintle-hole. Land-mortar-beds are now made of cast iron.
Stone-Mortars, serve to throw stones into the enemy’s works, when near at hand; such as from the town into the trenches in the covert-way, or upon the glacis; and from these trenches into the town. The bore is terminated by two quadrants of a circle, terminated by the reinforce and lines drawn from the ends of the cylinder, made to lodge the tompions parallel to the axis of the mortar. The bottom of the conic chamber is terminated by an arc of 60 degrees, and the round part of the outside is a semi-circle.
Chambers in Mortars, are of different sorts and dimensions. Mr. Belidor mentions four; namely, the cylindric, the spheric, the conic, and the concave or bottled; to which a fifth may be added, the parabolic, invented by count de Lippe Buckeburg.
Cylindric chambers. Experience demonstrates, that concave chambers will throw the shell farthest of any with the same charge, yet, in this case, where but little powder is required, in the entrance would become too narrow, and consequently inconvenient to clean; whereas, when they are cylindric, the difference between the advantages of the one and the other will be but little, and not attended with any inconveniences.
Conic chambers, are generally made in a circular form at the bottom, so that the sides produced, meet the extremities of the diameter at the mouth.
Spheric chambers, are much inferior to the cylindric or concave; for it is well known by the properties of geometry, that when a cylinder and a frustrum of a cone occupy equal spaces, the surface of the cone is always greater than that of the cylinder. Hence, if the entrance of these chambers be not made very narrow, contrary to practice, as demonstrated by Mr. Muller, in his second edition of Artillery, page 38, of the introduction, and the examples that follow, we conclude that these and the conic chambers are the worst.
Concave chambers. The advantage of these kinds of chambers consist in this, that their entrance may be made narrower than that of any other form; and practice has sufficiently proved it. Yet, when the entrance is so small as not to admit a man’s hand, they are not easily cleaned: for which reason it is supposed that all 13 and 10-inch mortars should have concave chambers, and the others cylindric ones.
Parabolic chambers. These chambers, being the widest of any, may therefore be included among the worst; as it is not the inward figure of the chamber, but its entrance, which produces the effect; because the smaller it is, the nearer it reduces the effect into the direction of the shell. It has however one advantage, namely that the shells will have no windage.
Mortar, in military architecture, a composition of lime, sand, &c. mixed up with water, that serves as a cement to bind the stones, &c. of any building. Mine sand makes weak mortar, and the rounder the sand, the stronger the mortar; and if the sand is washed before it is mixed, so much the better.
The proportion of lime and sand for making mortar is extremely variable. Some use three parts of pit-sand, and two of river-sand, to one of lime; others, a proportion of sand to quick-lime as 36 to 35. It should be well mixed, and beat every 24 hours for a week together, letting it then lie for a week more; and when it is used, must be beat and mixed again. By this means it will make good mortar, though the lime is but indifferent.
Mortar for water-courses, cisterns, &c. is made of lime and hog’s lard; sometimes mixed with the juice of figs, and sometimes with liquid pitch, which is first slaked with wine; and, after application, it is washed over with linseed oil.
Mortar furnaces, &c. is made with red clay wrought in water wherein horse dung and chimney-soot have been steeped; by which a salt is communicated to the water, that binds the clay, and makes it fit to endure the fire. The clay must not be too fat, lest it should be subject to chinks: nor too lean or sandy, lest it should not bind enough.
Mortar, made of terras, puzolana, tile-dust, or cinders, is mixed and prepared in the same manner as common mortar; only these ingredients are mixed with lime instead of sand in a due proportion, which is to be in equal quantities. As this mortar is to be used in aquatic buildings, the lime should be the very best.
In fortifications, docks, or piers of harbors, lay all the works under water with terras-mortar, and the rest of the facings, both within and without, with cinder or tile-dust mortar, for about two feet deep.
The East India Mortar for building and plaistering, is made with shell lime, brick dust pulverized, (called soorkee) washed sand, and the raw juice of the sugar cane, (called jaggeree.) The proportions of different kinds of work are different; but well made and mixed, surpasses all others; the roofs of houses, as well as the floors of their chambers, and the walls are covered with this composition, which, skilfully executed, bears a polish and smoothness like marble.
Mortes-Payes, Fr. Soldiers that were paid for the constant duty of a town or fortified place, both in the time of peace and war. Infantry regiments, which were occasionally stationed in citadels and garrisoned towns, took the right of the mortes-payes, and had the precedence in chusing lodgings.
MORTISE, a hole cut in wood, so that another piece may be fitted into it.
MORTS, Fr. The dead on a field of battle are so called.
MOT, Fr. Parole, watchword.—This word bears the same import in French that it does in English. See [Parole].
Donner le MOT, Fr. To give the parole, or watch-word.
Aller prendre le MOT, Fr. To go for the parole or watch-word.
On l’envoya porter le MOT, Fr. he was sent with the parole or watch-word.
In the French service parole and countersign are frequently comprehended under the word mot, viz. Le mot qu’on avoit donné le jour du combat, étoit Saint Louis et Paris; which according to the English method of giving out orders would have stood thus:—Parole St. Louis, countersign Paris.
Mot de ralliement, Fr. Rallying word.
MOTHIR al moolk. In Indian fortification, barricadoes, intrenchments, or breastworks, are so called.
MOTION, is defined to be the continued and successive change of place.—There are three general laws of motion: 1. That a body always perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, till by some external force it be made to change its place: for as a body is passive in receiving its motion, and the direction of its motion, so it retains them without any change, till it be acted on by something external. 2. The second general law of motion is, that the change of motion is proportional to the force impressed, and is produced in the right line in which that force acts. 3. The third general law of motion is, that action and re-action are equal, with opposite directions, and are to be estimated always in the same right line.
MOTION. A word bearing the same signification as tems does in the French. It is peculiarly applicable to the manual and platoon exercise; as, draw ramrod, which is done in two motions:—Tirez la baguette en deux tems. Motion, in a military sense, is distinguished from movement, inasmuch as the former applies specifically to something done by an individual, with an instrument of war, as handling the firelock; whereas the latter is generally understood to mean the different changes, &c. which are made in evolutions, &c. Motion is the particular adjunct of the manual, and movement that of evolution. The French make the same distinction with respect to maniement.
Motion, mouvement, Fr. generally so called, a continual and successive change of place.
Motion, equal or uniform, (mouvement égal, ou uniforme) that by which a body moves over equal spaces in equal times; such are the motions of celestial bodies.
Motion absolute, (mouvement absolu, Fr.) is a mutation or change of absolute space, and its celerity is measured according to absolute space.
Motion relative, (mouvement relatif, Fr.) is a change or mutation of relative place, and its celerity is measured according to relative space.
Motion equally accelerated, (mouvement uniformément accéléré, Fr.) is such whose velocity equally increases in equal times.
Motion, equally retarded, (mouvement uniformément retardé) is such whose velocity equally decreases, in equal times, till the body comes to rest.
Motions of an army, (mouvemens d’une armée, Fr.) are the various changes which it undergoes in marching from one place to another; these are more generally understood by the word movement.
Motions of the firelock during the manual and platoon exercise. Motion in this sense is expressed by tems among the French. These consist of those prescribed methods which have been explained under [manual].
The new mode of carrying, (which is with nearly extended arm) is certainly less fatiguing than supporting arms; since the former leaves the circulation of the blood free, and the latter binds the soldier’s arm at the elbow. The French allow great latitude in the carrying of the firelock, especially in marching and manœuvring. The men are frequently permitted to slope arms.
Motion compound, (mouvement composé, Fr.) is the motion of one body impelled by two different powers.
Motion of projection, (mouvement de projection, Fr.) that by which bodies are impelled through the air, or through any other fluid. A shell which is forced out of a mortar by means of inflammable gunpowder has a motion of projection.
Motion of vibration, or vibrating motion, (mouvement de vibration, Fr.) is the circular motion of a body, which is generally round or spherical.
Motion of undulation, or undulating motion, (mouvement d’ondulation, Fr.) a circular motion which is perceptible in water, when any hard substance is thrown into it.
Motions of an enemy, (mouvemens d’un ennemi, Fr.) The different marches, positions, &c. which an enemy takes are so called.
To watch the MOTIONS of an enemy, (guétter un ennemi, Fr.) To keep a good look out by means of a regular communication between head-quarters, and the outposts of your army. On a large scale, the business of an army of observation is chiefly confined to this species of service. On a more limited one, the duty is frequently entrusted to partisans and light troops.
Motion of a bomb or ball. The progress which a bomb or ball makes through the air may be said to consist of three sorts, after it has been delivered out of the mortar, or emitted from a gun or musquet. These are:—
The violent MOTION, or first explosion, when the powder has worked its effect upon the ball, so far as the bomb or ball may be supposed to move in a right line.
The mixed MOTION, or yielding impulse, when the natural weight of the bomb or ball begins to overcome the force which was given by the gunpowder.
The natural MOTION, or exhaustion of the first impulse. This occurs when the bomb or ball is falling to the ground.
To MOTION a thing, to propose it in a military or civil meeting.
Motion, Fr. This word has been adopted by the French to convey the same meaning that it does in English, namely, a proposition; hence appuyer la motion dans une assemblée; to support a motion in a public assembly or meeting. Déliberer sur la motion, to deliberate upon the motion. Retirer sa motion, to withdraw one’s motion. Rejeter la motion, to throw out the motion.
MOTS d’ordre et de ralliement, Fr. In a recent publication, written by Paul Thiébault, adjutant-general, on the French staff, the following explanation is given of paroles and countersigns, which may be considered as the free translation of mots, with this exception, that the mot de ralliement seems peculiarly used in the French service. The parole and countersign only are practised, and their distinct import seems so little understood, that we shall not hesitate to give the whole article from the French.
The MOTS d’ordre et de ralliement, consist of three distinct and separate words, which are chosen for the specific purpose of enabling the soldiers belonging to the same army, to be in perfect intelligence with one another, especially during the night.
These words are composed in the following manner, viz. Le MOT d’ordre, or what we call the parole, must be taken from the name of some deceased person, to which must be added that of some town or country.
The mot de ralliement, must consist of a substantive, which does not relate either to the name of a man, the name of a town, or the name of a country.
These three words are given out every morning from head quarters, and are delivered sealed up, to the officers of the different guards, and to those persons who are entrusted with the command of an outpost, or have the charge of a patrole.
The MOT d’ordre, or parole, must never be confided beyond officers and non-commissioned officers; the mot de ralliement may in some cases be given to centries that are stationed at some distance from the outposts; but these should invariably consist of old soldiers, whose fidelity and courage can be depended on.
The mot d’ordre, or parole, as well as the mot de ralliement, is always given out from head quarters; nor ought any general or commanding officer to take upon himself to alter either, except under circumstances so peculiarly urgent, that the good of the service would justify the change. Among these circumstances may be considered, the desertion of a centinel from the out post, and the strong presumption, that the enemy has been made acquainted with the words, &c. Whenever this necessity occurs, all the commanding officers who have any communication with that quarter from whence the parole was issued, should instantly be made acquainted with the alteration.
With respect to the manner in which these words are to be delivered out, and the frequency of their circulation, the whole must depend upon circumstances. When an army or body of troops lies at some distance from the enemy, they are usually forwarded to the different quarters, camps, or cantonments, for five, ten, or fifteen days together. When close to the enemy, they are given out, as we have already observed, every day. When there is no ground to apprehend a surprize or attack, one word will be sufficient for each day: but, in critical cases, the parole must be changed two or three times during the night. If several corps are cantoned together, the mot d’ordre, or parole, must be sent to the officer commanding in the cantonment. When the troops are encamped, it is generally sent to the commanding officer of each regiment, and seldom to the commandant of each brigade.
The MOT, or parole, must always be given out during the day, except in cases of emergency; and it must never be delivered to any person, unless the individual who is entrusted with it be fully convinced, that he is authorised to receive it. It ought indeed to be given personally to him only to whom it is addressed by name. See Am Mil. Lib. Art. Staff.
MOTTO. Any sentence, either with or without a badge by which any regiment is particularly distinguished, as for example, the English 3d foot, or old Buffs, have a griffin embossed as their badge, and the motto, Veteri frondescit honore. The colors taken from this regiment in the American revolution are in the war office at Washington.
MOUCHARD, Fr. a domestic spy, an informer. Among the French it more particularly means a person who is employed to watch the motions of any marked man. Creatures of this infamous, although perhaps necessary, class, were constantly attached to the police of France. The term is little known in the United States, unless it be those mouchards established in the American coffee house, to give information to the British consuls. These gentlemen have been called, humorously enough, reporters. In a military sense, neither the term nor the practice can be properly understood; at least we should hope so, as it is beneath the high mind of a soldier to fetch and carry.
MOVEABLE PIVOT. When the pivot flank of any body of men describe in the wheel a smaller circle than the wheeling flank, the wheel is said to be made on a moveable pivot.
MOVEMENT. Every inspecting general should notice minutely and comparatively on the performance by each battalion of the great leading points of movement. He is particularly to observe and specify
Whether or not
The original formation be according to order? The marches are made with accuracy, at the required times and length of step, and on such objects as are given.
The proper distances in column and echellon are at all times preserved.
The wheelings are made just, and in the manner prescribed.
The formations into line are made true, without false openings, or necessity of correction.
The officers are alert in their changes of situation, exact in their own personal movements, and loud, decided, and distinct, in their words of command.
The march in line is uniformly steady, without floating, opening, or closing.
The march in file, close, firm, and without lengthening out.
The officers, and under-officers, give the aids required of them with due quickness and precision.
Hurry and unnecessary delay, are equally avoided.
In the firings the loading is quick, the levelling is just, the officers animated and exact in their commands.
Movements. In cavalry movements the following great leading points should be attended to by every inspecting officer, independent of the circumstances which relate to the dress and general appearance of man and horse, the exercise on foot, &c. &c.
He must particularly observe and specify in his communications to the commanding officer,
Whether or not
The original formation of squadrons and regiments be according to order?
The marches made with accuracy, at the paces required, and on such objects as have been given?
The proper distance in column are at all times preserved?
The wheelings are made quick, just and in the manner prescribed?
The formations into line are made true in the intended directions, without false openings, or necessity of correction; or that corrections, when necessary are instantly made?
The changes of position are made with due celerity and justness?
The officers are alert in their changes of situation, exact in their own personal movements, and loud, decided, and distinct in their words of command?
The march in line is uniformly steady, without opening, floating, or closing?
The flank march is compact, firm, and without improperly lengthening out?
The officers and under officers give the aids required of them with due quickness and precision?
Hurry and delay, in military movements, are two extremes which should be equally avoided.
In the firings the loading is quick, the levelling is just, and the officers firm in their commands.
The officers, non-commissioned officers, and men ride well, and the horses are active, vigorous, and well broken.
Movements, in a general sense, may be considered under the following heads, viz.—1st. Offensive movements; the great advantage which attends this movement, consists in the measure having been previously determined upon, and a consequent preparation made for rapid execution before the design is obvious. Much however, will depend, upon the justness of the distances, and of the march in column, having been so taken as to allow of decisive operations. Manœuvre will chiefly operate where an enemy is inferior in number, inexpert in movement, weakly posted, and where the weak point is found out, and is attacked before he can move to strengthen it.
Counter-Movements of defence, are movements calculated to defeat any premeditated attack. According to the regulations they may be briefly explained by observing, that if the flank of one body be thrown forward, that of the other may by similar means be thrown back. If one body prolongs its line to outflank, the other may by the same movement maintain its relative situation. Whatever change of position is made by one body, the other may counteract it by a similar change. If the wing of one body is refused, the wing of the others may be advanced to seize an advantage.
Movements of previous formation, are military dispositions which every general must have carefully digested, before he advances upon a direct line of offensive operations. A body of troops, which has a considerable march to make previous to the attack, must always approach an enemy in one, or more columns, at open or other distances, according to circumstances. Some general knowlege of an enemy’s situation, determines the manner in which he is to be approached, the composition of the columns, the flank of each which leads, and their combination in forming. A nearer view determines a perseverance in the first direction, or a change in the leading flanks, and direction of the columns, in order to form in the most speedy and advantageous manner.
Movements of attack, are made by bodies of men advancing in line or column to attack an opposing enemy. When a considerable body of troops is to act offensively, it must form in line at latest within 1200 or 1500 paces of a posted enemy, unless the ground particularly favor, and cover from the fire of the artillery, the enfilade of which is what chiefly prevents bodies in column from approaching nearer; and that space, under the unceasing fire of their own artillery, troops in line will march over in 18 minutes.
Movements of attack, when they are made from a parallel position, must be either in line, or by a flank of the line in echellon, that flank being reinforced, and the other refused; or from a new and advantageous position taken up, and not provided against by the enemy. From an oblique position the attack is directed against a comparatively weak point of the enemy. Attacks from the centre are more liable to be enfiladed, and are sooner guarded against than from the flank.
Movements of retreat, are combinations of columns of march, covered by positions, and a strong rear guard. Troops are occasionally taken out of the retiring columns of march, to occupy positions and heights; they remain till the rear has passed, and then become the rear guard; this they continue to be, till they find other troops in like manner posted; these last in their turn become also the rear guard, and in this way are the troops of columns in such situations relieved. A rear guard will fall back by the retreat in line—the chequered retreat—the passage of lines—the echellon changes of position.
Movements in echellon of the line. Echellon, or diagonal movements, especially of a great corps, are calculated not only to disconcert an enemy, but likewise to enable the army, which adopts them, either to make a partial attack, or a gradual retreat. The attack may be formed from the centre, or from either of the wings reinforced. If successful, the divisions move up into line to improve the advantage: if repulsed, they are in a good situation to protect the retreat. In advancing, the several bodies move independent, act freely, and are ready to assist: in retiring, they fall gradually back on each other, and thereby give mutual aid and support. Echellon movements, in fact, comprise within themselves all the essential principles of extension and compression, which are found in close or open column, with the additional advantage of being better adapted to throw a considerable line into an oblique position, of presenting a narrow front, with the means of increasing it at pleasure, unexposed to the enemy’s fire and of diminishing it with the same facility and safety.
Echellon Movements on an oblique line, are best calculated to outwing an enemy, or to preserve the points of appui of a wing; possessing this advantage, that such movement may not be perceptible to the enemy, as they are short and independent lines, and when seen at a distance, appear as if a full line.
Echellon movements by half battalions or less, are made by their directing flank, which is always the one advanced from, or wheeled to. Echellon movements by whole battalions, are governed by their advanced serjeants. Echellon movements by several battalions are made in line, each by its own centre, and the whole by the directing flank.
Movements that are made in face of an enemy. (Mouvemens devant l’ennemi Fr.) There is no operation in war which requires so much nicety, precision, and judgement, as that of retreating in the presence of an enemy. Every movement from the direct line of battle is more or less critical; but when a regiment is obliged to retire under the eye, and perhaps the fire of a pursuing foe, the utmost presence of mind is required in the officers who command, and the greatest steadiness in the men. In a situation of this sort it becomes the peculiar duty of the field officers, to see that every change of manœuvre, and every movement, be made with promptitude and accuracy. For although they be subordinate to others, and must of course, follow superior directions, yet so much of the executive duty rests with them that their character and abilities, as officers, will be more conspicuous on these occasions than in any other. The movements of a corps which retreats, consist in retrograde marches, in line, by alternate companies, in column, by wings, or in square.
Eventail or Fan Movement. This movement is performed on the march, and must be begun at a distance behind the line, proportionate to the body which is to oblique and form. It may be applied to one battalion, but hardly to a more considerable body, which would find great difficulty in the execution. It gives a gradual increase of front during a progressive movement. With justness it can be made on a front division only, not on a central or rear one: in proportion as the leading platoon shortens its step, will the one behind it, and successively each other come up into line with it. As soon as the colors of the battalion come up, they become the leading point. Although it is an operation of more difficulty, yet if the leading division continues the ordinary, and the obliquing ones take the quick step, till they successively are up with it, a battalion column which is placed behind the flank of a line, may, in this manner, during the march, and when near to the enemy, gradually lengthen out that line.
Vourff or quick Movement. This movement is frequently resorted to when the head of a considerable open column in march arrives at, or near the point from which it is to take an oblique position facing to its then rear, and at which points its third, fourth, or any other named battalion, is to be placed.
The justness of the movement depends on the points in the new direction being taken up quickly, and with precision. On the previous determination that a certain battalion, or division of a battalion, shall pass or halt at the point of intersection; and that every part of the column which is behind that battalion, shall throw itself into open column on the new line behind the point of intersection, ready to prolong or to form the line whenever it comes to its turn.
This movement will often take place in the change of position of a second line, and is performed by all those that are behind the division, which is to stop at the point where the old and new lines intersect. And at all times when the open column changes into a direction on which it is to form, and that the division which is to be placed at the point of entry can be determined, it much facilitates the operation to make every thing behind that division gain the new line as quick as possible, without waiting till the head of the column halts.
MOUFLE, Fr. a sort of stuffed glove. It is common among the French to say, Il ne faut pas y aller sans moufles; figuratively meaning, that no dangerous enterprise ought to be undertaken without sufficient force to carry it into execution.
MOUILLAGE, Fr. Anchorage.
MOUILLER, Fr. To anchor. To let go the anchor.
MOULDS, for casting shot for guns, musquets, rifles, and pistols: the first are of iron, used by the founders, and the others by the artillery in the field, and in garrison.
Laboratory Moulds, are made of wood, for filling and driving all sorts of rockets, and cartridges, &c.
MOULDINGS, of a gun or mortar, are all the eminent parts, as squares or rounds, which serve for ornaments: such as the breech-mouldings. The rings, &c. are also called mouldings.
MOULE. Fr. See [Mould].
Moule de fusée volante, Fr. a piece of round wood used in fireworks.
MOULIN, Fr. a mill.
Moulin à bras portatif, Fr. a species of hand-mill, which was invented in France by le Sieur de Lavault, and which has been found extremely useful to troops on service. Ten of these mills may be conveniently placed on one waggon.
MOUND, in old military books, is a term used for a bunk or rampart, or other defence, particularly that of earth.
MOUNTEE, an alarm to mount or go upon some warlike expedition.
Half or small MOUNTING. The shirt, shoes, stock, and hose, or stockings which were formerly furnished by the colonels or commandants of corps every year. This mode of distribution, which engendered a multiplicity of abuses, has been abolished in the British service: in lieu of which, a regulation has taken place, that (if honestly attended to) must be highly beneficial to the soldier.
In lieu of the small articles of clothing, which were annually given, by the colonels of regiments, to non-commissioned officers and private soldiers, and were called small or half mounting, two pairs of good shoes, of the value of five shillings and sixpence each, have been substituted. These shoes are to be provided in conformity to a pattern lodged at the office of the comptrollers of the accompts of the army; and patterns of the shoes are to be approved and sealed by the general officers of the clothing board, at the same time, and in like manner, as for the clothing: one pair is to be delivered out at the annual period of clothing, and the other pair at the end of six months from that time; and in order to prevent the injury that the shoes might sustain, from remaining a long time in store in the East and West Indies, they are to be forwarded to corps on those stations at two different periods, instead of sending the whole quantity with the clothing.
Should the price of good shoes at any time exceed five shillings and sixpence per pair, the difference, which shall be declared by the clothing board at their first meeting on, or after the 25th of April in each year, is to be charged to the respective accompts of the non-commissioned officers and soldiers receiving them, but with respect to the 5th battalion of the 60th regiment, the difference is to be taken between four shillings and sixpence paid by the colonel, and the actual price declared as above mentioned.
The allowances, directed to be given by the colonels, in lieu of the former small articles, called half mounting, are to be regularly credited to the men, and to be expended for their use, in such articles as are suitable to the respective climates in which they are serving.
Non-commissioned officers and soldiers of infantry, dying or discharged before the completion of a full year, from the usual day of delivering the annual clothing of their regiments, have no demand whatever on account thereof.
A recruit, who comes into the regiment after the proper time of the delivery of the clothing, is entitled to a pair of shoes at the next delivery of that article.
| The compensation money to be given to each servant in the infantry in lieu of half-mounting is | 0 | 14 | 0 |
| To each corporal, drummer, and private, | 0 | 11 | 0 |
To MOUNT, is a word variously made use of in military matters, as
To MOUNT Cannon. To place any piece of ordnance on its frame, for the more easy carriage and management of it in firing. Hence to dismount is to take cannon from any serviceable position.
To MOUNT a breach, to run up in a quick, and determined manner to any breach made in a wall, &c.
To MOUNT guard, to do duty in a town of garrison, in a camp, or at out quarters.
To MOUNT, to place on horseback, to furnish with horses; as, twelve thousand men have been well mounted, without any considerable expence to the country. A cavalry regiment may be said to be well or ill mounted; in either of which cases, the commanding officer is generally blameable or praise-worthy.
To mount likewise signifies the act of getting on horseback, according to prescribed military rules: as, to prepare to mount, is when the left hand files move their horses forward in the manner described under [unlink your horses]. The dragoons put their firelocks into the buckets, and buckle them on, doubling the strap twice round the barrel, come to the front of the horses, fasten the links, throw them over the horses’ heads with the left hand round the horses’ heads, take their swords, and buckle them tight into the belt, take the bit reins up, then take a lock of the mane, and put it into the left hand, the left foot into the stirrup, and the right hand on the cantle of the saddle, waiting for the word mount; when they spring smartly up, and look to the right of the rear. At the next signal, they must throw the leg well over the valise and place themselves well in the saddle, with the right hand leaning on the off holster. The men must be careful not to check the horses with the bits in mounting. In mounting and dismounting, the files that move forward must take care to keep their horses straight, and at the prescribed distances from each other; and when mounting, as soon as the gloves are on, belts right, &c. the left files must dress well to the right, putting the horses straight, and leaving distance enough for the right files to come in.
To MOUNT a gun, is either to put the unit to its carriage, or else when in the carriage, to raise the mouth higher.
MOUNTAINS, called Great and Little St. Bernard. A part of the Alps, situated in the Glacieres of Switzerland, which has been rendered famous in modern history by the passage of the French army under Bonaparte. The following account is extracted from a French publication, and cannot fail of being interesting to the military reader, as it is told in the plain and simple language of a soldier, who was present during the whole of this astonishing campaign. On the 16th of May, 1800, the vanguard, commanded by general Lannes, climbed up the mountain: the Austrians, although greatly inferior in number, defended themselves step by step, and never disappeared till they perceived another corps of the French army descending the mountain of the Little St. Bernard, menacing their rear, and absolutely interrupting their retreat.
The first division of the army, under general Watrin, followed the movement of the vanguard.
Until this period of time, neither artillery nor ammunition had crossed either eminence; the whole was collected at St. Peter, (a small village at the foot of the mountain) where the park of artillery was established. It appeared at first impossible to transport this heavy and embarrassing ordnance across the mountain; however it was natural to consider the question, what is an army in the present day without artillery? Its necessity in this respect was manifest and imperious.
The artillery corps immediately set about dismounting the cannons, caissons, forges, &c. piecemeal. Gassendi, inspector of ordnance, gave directions for hollowing a number of the trunks of trees in the same manner that wood is hollowed for troughs. The pieces of cannon were deposited in these machines, and after having been drawn up these almost inaccessible heights, by five or six hundred men, according to the weight of metal, were left to slide down the steep declivities. The wheels were carried up on poles; and sledges made expressly for the purpose at Auxonne, conveyed the axle trees, and the empty caissons, and lastly, mules were loaded with ammunition in boxes made of fir.
The exertion of a whole battalion was requisite for the conveyance of one field piece with its proportion of ammunition: one half of the regiment could only draw the load, while the other half was obliged to carry the knapsacks, firelocks, cartridge boxes, canteens, kettles, and more especially five days provisions, in bread, meat, salt, and biscuit.
Such was the commencement of the march of the French army across the Alps.
Mounting and DISMOUNTING, when the horses are to be led away. It frequently happens, especially in retreating or advancing, that it may be necessary to cover the defiling of a regiment by dismounting a squadron, or part of one, to flank the mouth of a defile. This is generally effected by lining the hedges, &c. and keeping up a hot fire upon the enemy. It follows, of course, that the horses cannot be linked together, but they must be led away (in a retreat) to the most convenient spot in the defile for the men to mount again. In advancing they must be led to a spot where they will not impede the defiling of the regiment, but where they will be at hand for the dismounted parties to mount.
Guard MOUNTING. The hour at which any guard is mounted obtains this appellation, viz. The officers will assemble at guard mounting.
MOURIR, Fr. To die.
Mourir d’un bel epée, Fr. A French phrase, which signifies to fall under the hands of an enemy of great skill and reputation.
MOURNE, that part of a lance or halbert to which the steel or blade is fixed.
MOUSER. An ironical term, which is sometimes used in military sport to distinguish battalion men from the flank companies. It is indeed generally applied to them by the grenadiers and light bobs, meaning that while the latter are detached, the former remain in quarters, like cats to watch the mice, &c.
MOUSQUET, Fr. Musquet. This word, which signifies an old weapon of offence that was formerly fired by means of a lighted match, has been variously used among the French, viz. gros mousquet, a heavy musquet; un petit mousquet, a short musquet; un mousquet leger, a light musquet.
Recevoir un coup de Mousquet, Fr. To receive a musquet shot.
Porter le Mousquet dans une compagnie d’infanterie, Fr. To stand in the ranks as a foot soldier.
MOUSQUETADE, Fr. a musquet shot. Il fut tué d’une mousquetade; he was killed by a musquet shot. This term is generally used to express a smart discharge of musquetry: On a entendu une vive Mousquetade; they have heard a brisk discharge of musquetry.
MOUSQUETAIRES, Musqueteers, Fr. A body of men so called during the old government of France. It consisted of two companies, selected from the young men of noble extraction. The first company was formed in 1622, by Louis XIII. out of another company, called his Majesty’s Carabineers. The king was captain, so that the person who commanded had only the rank of captain lieutenant. The company remained upon this footing until 1640, when it was reduced at the instigation of cardinal Mazarine, who from personal motives, had taken a decided aversion to it. But Louis XIV. restored it in 1657, by the same appellation, and increased the establishment to 150 musqueteers. They were commanded by one captain-lieutenant, one sub-lieutenant, two ensigns, and two quarter-masters.
The second company, when first created, was attached to cardinal Mazarine as his personal guard; but the officers received their commissions from the king. An alteration took place in the management of this company in 1660, the men being incorporated with the rest of the troops that were destined for the immediate protection of his majesty’s person. In consequence of this change they did duty on foot, but were again mounted, in order to accompany the expedition against Marsal, which took place that year.
Louis XIV. named himself captain of this company, as well as of the first; and from that period both companies became subject to the same regulations, with no other difference, than that of precedency as first and second company. From the year 1663, the establishment of each company was 300, exclusive of the officers. They were subsequently reduced to a lower establishment. Having originally been raised to serve on foot or horseback, the mousquetaires were allowed drums and fifes when they acted as infantry troops; and trumpets when they acted as cavalry. In 1603 hautboys were substituted for fifes and trumpets. It is supposed that mounted drummers were first used among the mousquetaires du Roi. Previous to the revolution, each of these companies consisted of one captain-lieutenant, two sub-lieutenants, two ensigns, two cornets, two aid-majors, eight quarter-masters, four brigadiers, sixteen sub-brigadiers, six standard-bearers, one ensign or color-bearer, one hundred and eighty musqueteers, six drummers, four hautboys, one commissary, one chaplain, one quarter-master serjeant, one surgeon, one apothecary, one blacksmith, one saddler, and three treasurers.
This corps was raised, not only for the purpose of attending his majesty on foot or horseback, and of going on service, as circumstances might require, but it was further intended to be a sort of military school for the French nobility. Several princes, almost all the general officers, and old marshals of France, were indebted to this establishment for the first elements of military science.
The officers, belonging to these companies, clothed, armed, and mounted themselves, without putting government to the expence of one shilling. Their uniform was a scarlet coat faced with the same, and a scarlet waistcoat. Those attached to the first company had gold buttons and button-holes, and their coats were edged with gold. Those attached to the second company, had the same ornaments in silver; their hats, in which they wore a white feather, were laced according to the same distinction, as were likewise their horse cloths and holsters. Instead of the musquet, which they formerly carried, they were latterly armed with a carbine, two pistols in the saddle-bow, and a sword calculated for infantry or cavalry duty. The brigadiers and sub-brigadiers were armed in the same manner. The quarter-masters, when mounted, had only a sword and two pistols, but on foot they each carried a halbert or pike, which they used as the sergeants belonging to infantry regiments were directed to do.
The cloaks and great coats of the mousquetaires were made of blue cloth laced with silver. The quarter-masters, brigadiers, and sub-brigadiers, wore the same, with more or less lace according to the rank they held. These cloaks, &c. were distinguished from those worn by the rest of the army; having white crosses sewed before and behind with red streaks running into the corners or rentrant angles. The first company was marked with red, and the second with yellow streaks. The uniform of the superior officers, (who were generally called officiers a hausse-col, or officers wearing gorgets or breast plates) was embroidered in gold or silver, according to the company which they commanded. The troop horses of the first company, were of a white or dapple-grey color; those of the second company were black. Each company had a flag and two standards: so that when the mousquetaires served on foot, the flag or color was unfurled, and the standards were cased; and when they were mounted, the standards were displayed, and the colors cased. The standards belonging to the first company represented a bomb falling upon a besieged town, with this motto: Quo ruit et lethum: those of the second company bore a bunch of arrows, with these words underneath: Alterius Jovis altera tela. The mousquetaires received their colors from the king’s hands.
The mousquetaires never served on horseback, except when the king travelled: on those occasions they stood next to the light horse. Their duty when on foot, was the same as that of the royal regiment of guards.
When they did duty on foot at the palace, they were provided with a handsome table at the expence of the civil list. The two companies always mounted guard without being mixed with any other troops; whereas the rest of the household did duty by detachment.
The mousquetaires did not take rank in the army, but they enjoyed the same privileges that were attached to the body guards, gensdarmes, and light horse. They were frequently called mousquetaires gris, and mousquetaires noirs, from the color of their horses.
MOUSSE, Fr. Moss.
Mousse, garcon de bord, Fr. a cabin boy. The Powder Monkey, on board ships of war, corresponds with the term Mousse. According to a French writer, these boys were so hardly used in the old French navy, that, whether they deserved punishment or not, some captains of ships directed them to be chastised regularly once a week.
MOUSTACHE, Fr. This word was originally derived from the Greek, adopted by the Italians, subsequently by the French, and then used generally. It literally means the hair which is allowed to grow upon the upper lip of a man; and which is better known amongst us by the familiar term whiskers. The French use it in a figurative sense, viz.
Enlever sur la moustache, jusque sur la moustache de quelqu’un, Fr. To seize or take possession of any thing under the very nose, or in the presence of a person. Les ennemis sont venus pour défendre cette place, on la leur a enlevée sur la moustache. The enemy drew near to defend the town, but it was taken under their very whiskers.
Donner sur la Moustache, Fr. To give a slap on the face.
MOUTARDE, Fr. means literally mustard. The word, however, is frequently used by the French in a figurative sense, viz. S’amuser à la moutarde. To be uselessly employed, or busy about nothing. It is likewise used to express impatience: La moutarde lui monte au nez, Fr. The mustard rises in his nose, that is, he grows restless and impatient.
C’est de la Moutarde après diner, Fr. This expression is in general use among the French, and signifies, that assistance, &c. is brought when there is no longer need of it. When commissaries, &c. make up a lame account for monies received, it is common to say. Et le reste en moutarde.
MOUTH. See [Muzzle].
MOUTH of FIRE. The entrance into the garrison of Gibraltar by the grand battery and the old Mole, is so called by the Spaniards, on account of the formidable appearance of the ordnance from the lines.
MOUTONNIER, Fr. Sheep-like; gregarious.
MOUVEMENS de Tête, Fr. Motions of the head. For the English explanation of these motions, see [eyes]. The French express them in the following manner: Tête à droite, right dress.—Tête à gauche, left dress.—Fixe, front dress.
Mouvemens des troupes sous les armes, Fr. By these are understood the different changes of position, and the various facings which soldiers go through under arms.
Mouvemens de pied ferme, Fr. That exercise, consisting of the manual and facings, which a soldier performs, without quitting his original ground. The left foot on this occasion becomes a standing pivot.
Mouvemens ouverts, Fr. Movements, or evolutions, which are made at open order.
Mouvemens serrés, Fr. Movements, or evolutions, which are made at close order.
Mouvemens opposés, Fr. Opposite movements, or evolutions.
Mouvement, Fr. See [Movement].
Mouvement, Fr. See [Motion] for its general acceptation.
Mouvemens, Fr. Commotions, broils.
MOYENNE, Fr. A piece of ordnance formerly so called. See [Minion].
MOYEN. The bastions which are constructed on the angles are called royal bastions. Some engineers have distinguished those bastions by the name of moyens royaux, or medium royals, whose flanks contain from ninety to one hundred toises.
Moyenne Ville, Fr. A term given by the French to any town in which the garrison is equal to the third of the inhabitants, and which is not deemed sufficiently important to bear the expence of a citadel; more especially so, because it is not in the power of the inhabitants to form seditious meetings without the knowlege of the soldiers who are quartered on them.
MOYENS côtés, Fr. In fortification, are those sides which contain from eighty to one hundred and twenty toises in extent: these are always fortified with bastions on their angles. The moyens côtés, are generally found along the extent of irregular places; and each one of these is individually subdivided into small, mean, and great sides.
MUD-WALLS. The ancient fortifications consisted chiefly of mud or clay, thrown up in any convenient form for defence against sudden inroads.
MUET, Fr. See Mute.
To MUFFLE. To wrap any thing up so as to deaden the sound, which might otherwise issue from the contact of two hard substances. When the French effected their passage over the march Albaredo, on their route to the plain of Marengo, they were so much exposed to the Austrians, that, in order to get their artillery and ammunition over, without being betrayed by the noise of the carriage wheels, and the clattering of the horses’ shoes, both were muffled with bands of hay and straw, and dung was spread over the ground. In this manner they crossed that stupendous rock. Thirty men were put to the drag ropes of each piece, and as many were employed to draw up the caissons.
Muffled. Drums are muffled at military funerals or burials, and at military executions, particularly when a soldier is shot for some capital crime.
MUGS. An Indian nation, living on the borders of Bengal and Arracan.
MUHLAGIS, Fr. Turkish cavalry which is mounted by expert horsemen, who generally attend the beglierbeys. They are not numerous.
MULATTOS, (Mulâtre, Fr.) In the Indies, denotes one begotten by a negro man on an Indian woman, or by an Indian man on a negro woman. Those begotten of a Spanish woman and Indian man are called metis, and those begotten of a savage by a metis, are called jambis. They also differ very much in color, and in their hair.
Generally speaking, especially in Europe, and in the West Indies, a Mulatto is one begotten by a white man on a negro woman, or by a negro man on a white woman. The word is Spanish, mulata, and formed of mula, a mule, being begotten as it were of two different species.
Mulattoes abound in the West Indies; so much so, that on the dangerous symptoms of insurrection, which appeared among the blacks after the success of Toussaint in St. Domingo, a proposal was made to the British government by a rich planter, to raise a mulatto corps, as an intermediate check upon the blacks. After six months suspence, the memorial was rejected by the war-minister.
MULCT. A soldier is said to be mulct of his pay when put under fine or stoppages for necessaries, or to make good some dilapidations committed by him on the property of the people or government.
MULTANGULAR, is said of a figure, or body which has many angles.
MULTILATERAL, having many sides.
MULTIPLE, one number containing another several times: as 9 is the multiple of 3, 16 that of 4, and so on.
MUNIMELL, a strong hold, fortification, &c.
MUNITION, Fr. This word is used among the French to express not only victuals and provisions, but also military stores and ammunition.
Munitions de bouche, Fr. Victuals or provisions, (such as bread, salt, meat, vegetables, butter, wine, beer, brandy, &c. which may be procured for soldiers) are so called by the French. Corn, oats, hay, straw, and green forage, for cavalry, bear the same appellation. See [Subsistence].
Munitions de guerre, Fr. Military stores, such as gunpowder, shot, balls, bullets, matches, &c. See [Stores].
MUNITIONNAIRE ou entrepreneur des vivres, Fr. Military purveyor, or commissary of stores. Amaury Bourguignon, from Niort, a town of Poitou, was the first munitionnaire and entrepréneur général, or purveyor-general, among the French. He was appointed in the reign of Henry III. in 1574. See [Purveyor].
Munitionnaire pour la marine, Fr. The head of the victualling office was so called among the French. There was a person on board every ship of war, called commis, or clerk, who acted under his orders. The appointment of the latter was somewhat similar to that of a purser in the British navy.
MUNSUBDAR, Ind. A title which gives the person invested with it, a right to have the command of ten thousand horse, with the permission of bearing amongst his ensigns that of the fish; neither of which distinctions is ever granted, excepting to persons of the first note in the empire. The office is called a Munsub, and it is generally supported by a district named, on which the corps is quartered.
MUR, Fr. a wall.
MUR CRENELE, Fr. A wall which has small intervals or spaces at the top, that serve more for ornament or ostentation than for real defence. This method of building prevailed very much in former times.
Mur de face, Fr. Outside wall of any building.
Mur de face de devant, Fr. Front outside wall; it is likewise called mur anterieur.
Mur de face de derriére, Fr. The wall which forms the backside of a building is so called: it is likewise named mur postérieur.
Murs lateraux, Fr. The side walls of a building.
Gros Murs, Fr. All front and partition walls are so called.
Mur de pierres sèches, Fr. A wall that is built of stone, without mortar or cement. Walls or this construction are seen in several counties in England, particularly in the west country.
Mur en l’air, Fr. Every wall is so called that does not rise uniformly from a parallel foundation. Walls built upon arches are of this description.
Mur mitoyen, Fr. Partition wall.
Mur d’appui, Fr. Wall of support. Any wall that is built to support a quay, terrace, or balcony, or to secure the sides of a bridge, is so called. Mur de parapet, or parapet wall, may be considered as a wall of support.
MURAGE. Money appropriated to the repair of military works, was anciently so called.
MURAILLE de revêtement, Fr. the wall which surrounds a fortified place is so called.
Charger en Muraille, Fr. To charge or attack an enemy, in a firm, compact, and steady line.
MURAL-Crown. See [Crown].
Couronne MURALE, Fr. See [Mural-Crown].
MURDRESSES, in ancient fortification, a sort of battlement with interstices, raised on the tops of towers to fire through.
Ville MUREE, Fr. A walled town.
MURRION. See [Morion].
MURTHERERS, or murthering pieces, small pieces of ordnance, having chambers, and made to load at the breech. They were mostly used at sea, in order to clear the decks when an enemy boarded a vessel.
MUSCULUS. Kennett in his Roman Antiquities, page 237, says, “the Musculus is conceived to have been much of the same nature as the [testudines]; but it seems to have been of a smaller size, and composed of stronger materials, being exposed a much longer time to the force of the enemy; for in these musculi, the pioneers were sent to the very walls, where they were to continue, while with their dolabræ or pick-axes, and other instruments, they endeavored to undermine the foundations.” Cæsar has described the muscalus at large in his second book of the civil wars.
MUSIC, a general term for the musicians of a regimental band.
MUSICIANS. It has been often asked, why the dress of musicians, drummers and fifers, should be of so varied and motley a composition, making them appear more like harlequins and mountebanks, than military appendages? The following anecdote will explain the reason, as far at least as it regards the British service:—The musicians belonging to the English guards formerly wore plain blue coats, so that the instant they came off duty, and frequently in the intervals between, they visited alehouses, &c. without changing their uniform, and thus added considerably to its wear and tear. It will be here remarked, that the clothing of the musicians then fell wholly upon the colonels of regiments; no allowance being specifically made for that article by the public. It is probable, that some general officer undertook to prevent this abuse by obtaining permission to clothe the musicians, &c. in so fantastical a manner that they would be ashamed to exhibit themselves at public-houses, &c.
PHRYGIAN MUSIC. A martial sort of ancient music, which excited men to rage and battle: by this mode Timotheus stirred up Alexander to arms.
Modes of Music. There were three modes among the ancients, which took their names from particular countries, namely, the Lydian, the Phrygian, and the Doric.
| MUSKET, | - | |
| MUSQUET, |
the most serviceable and commodious fire-arm used by an army. It carries a ball of 18 to 1 pound. Its length is 3 feet 6 inches from the muzzle to the pan. The Spaniards were the first who armed part of their foot with musquets. At first they were made very heavy, and could not be fired without a rest: they had match locks, and did execution at a great distance. These kinds of musquets and rests were used in England so late as the beginning of the civil wars.
Musquets were first used at the siege of Rhege, in the year 1521.
MUSQUET BASKETS. These are about a foot, or a foot and an half high, eight or ten inches diameter at bottom, and a foot at the top; so that, being filled with earth, there is room to lay a musquet between them at bottom, being set on low breast-works, or parapets, or upon such as are beaten down.
MUSQUETEERS, soldiers armed with musquets; who, on a march, carried only their rests and ammunition, and had boys to bear their musquets after them. They were very slow in loading, not only by reason of the unwieldiness of the pieces, and because they carried the powder and ball separate, but from the time required to prepare and adjust the match: so that their fire was not so brisk as ours is now. Afterwards a lighter kind of matchlock musquet came in use; and they carried their ammunition in bandeliers, to which were hung several little cases of wood, covered with leather, each containing a charge of powder; the balls they carried loose in a pouch, and a priming-horn, hanging by their side. These arms were about the beginning of this century, universally laid aside in Europe, and the troops were armed with flint firelocks.
MUSQUETOONS, a kind of short thick musquet, whose bore is the 38th part of its length: it carries five ounces of iron, or 7¹⁄₂ of lead, with an equal quantity of powder. This is the shortest sort of blunderbusses.
MUSRAL. The noseband of a horse’s bridle.
MUSSUK, Ind. A skin in which water is carried.
MUSTACHES. Whiskers, worn by the Asiatics, Germans, Russians, and other foreign troops.
MUSTER, in a military sense, a review of troops under arms, to see if they be complete, and in good order; to take an account of their numbers, the condition they are in, viewing their arms, and accoutrements, &c.
Muster. This word is derived from the French mustrer, to shew. At a muster every man must be properly clothed and accoutred, &c. and answer to his name. The French call it appel nominatif. We call it an Inspection.
Musters. By sect. 4th of the British Articles of War, it is enacted, that musters shall be taken of the regiments of life guards, horse guards, and foot guards, twice at least in every year, at such times as shall have been or may be appointed, and agreeably to the forms heretofore used therein.
The musters of every other regiment, troop, or company, in the service, are to be taken at such times, and in such manner, as is directed by the late regulations touching regimental and district paymasters, and the mode of mustering, paying, and settling the accompts of the army.
All commanding officers, and others concerned in the mustering, as well of the regiments of life guards, horse guards, and foot guards, as of the other forces, are enjoined to give the utmost care and attention to the making up of the muster rolls with strict exactness and accuracy.
Every officer who shall be convicted before a general court-martial of having signed a false certificate, relating to the absence of either officer, non-commissioned officer, or private soldier, will be cashiered.
Every officer who shall knowingly make a false muster of man or horse, and every officer and commissary, or muster-master, who shall wittingly sign, direct, or allow the signing of the muster rolls, wherein such false muster is contained, shall, upon proof made thereof, by two witnesses before a general court-martial, be cashiered, and suffer such other penalty as he is liable to by the act for punishing mutiny and desertion.
Any commissary or muster-master, who shall be convicted before a general court-martial, of having taken money, by way of gratification, on the mustering any regiment, troop, or company, or on the signing the muster-rolls, shall be displaced from his office, and suffer such other penalty as he is liable to by the said act.
Every colonel, or other field officer, commanding a regiment, troop, or company, and actually residing with it, may give furloughs to non-commissioned officers and soldiers, in such numbers, and for so long a time, as he shall judge to be most consistent with the good of our service; but no non-commissioned officer or soldier, shall, by leave of his captain, or inferior officer, commanding the troop or company, (his field officer not being present) be absent above twenty days in six months; nor shall more than two private men be absent at the same time from their troop or company, unless some extraordinary occasion shall require it; of which occasion the field officer present with and commanding the regiment is to be the judge.
It is strictly forbidden to muster any person as a soldier who does not actually do his duty as a soldier, &c. See Livery.
Muster-master-general, Commissary-general of the Musters, one who takes account of every regiment, their number, horses, arms, &c. reviews them, sees that the horses are well mounted, and all the men well armed and accoutred, &c.
MUSTER-ROLL, (état nominatif, Fr.) a specific list of the officers and men in every regiment, troop, or company, which is delivered to the muster-master, regimental or district paymaster, (as the case may be) whereby they are paid, and their condition is known. The names of the officers are inscribed according to rank, those of the men in alphabetical succession. Adjutants of regiments make out a muster roll, and when the list is called over, every individual must answer to his name. Every muster-roll must be signed by the colonel or commanding officer, the paymaster and adjutant of each regiment, troop, or company: it must likewise be sworn to by the muster-master or paymaster, (as the case may be) before a justice of the peace, previous to its being transmitted to government.
MUSTI. One born of a mulatto father or mother, and a white father or mother.
MUTILATED. In a military sense, signifies wounded in such a manner as to lose the use of a limb. A battalion is said to be mutilated, when its divisions, &c. stand unequal.
MUTINE, or MUTINEER, a soldier guilty of mutiny.
MUTINY, in a military sense, to rise against authority. Any officer or soldier who shall presume to use traitorous or disrespectful words against the president of the United States, against the vice president, against the congress of the United States, or against the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States, in which he may be quartered, is guilty of mutiny.
Any officer or soldier who shall behave himself with contempt or disrespect towards his commanding officer, or shall speak words tending to his hurt or dishonor, is guilty of mutiny.
Any officer or soldier who shall begin, excite, cause, or join in any mutiny or sedition, in the troop, company, or regiment, to which he belongs, or in any other troop, or company, in the service of the United States, or on any party, post, detachment, or guard, on any pretence whatsoever, is guilty of mutiny.
Any officer or soldier who, being present at any mutiny or sedition, does not use his utmost endeavors to suppress the same, or coming to the knowlege of any mutiny, or intended mutiny, does not, without delay, give information to his commanding officer, is guilty of mutiny.
Any officer or soldier, who shall strike his superior officer, or draw, or offer to draw, or shall lift up any weapon, or offer any violence against him, being in the execution of his office, on any pretence whatsoever, or shall disobey any lawful command of his superior officer, is guilty of mutiny. See [War].
Mutiny-Act, an act which passes every year in the British house of commons, to answer some specific military purposes; and by which the army is continued on a peace or war establishment.
MUZZLE of a gun or mortar, the extremity at which the powder and ball are put in.
MUZZLE-RING of a gun, that which encompasses and strengthens the muzzle, or mouth of a cannon.
MYRIAD, denotes the number ten thousand.
MYRIARCH. The captain, or commander of ten thousand men.
MYRMIDONS. In antiquity, a people of Thessaly, of whom it is fabled, that they arose from ants, upon a prayer put up to Jupiter, by Æacus, after his kingdom had been depopulated by a pestilence. In Homer, and in Virgil, the Myrmidons are Achilles’s soldiers. The term Myrmidon is used in modern times to express any rude ruffian, or hireling assassin; the same as [Hessian].
MYRMILLONES. A sort of combatants among the Romans, who had on the top of their cask or helmet, the representation of a fish; and in their engagements with the Retiarii, if they were caught and wrapped in the net, it was not possible for them to escape.
MYSORE. An extensive country in the East Indies, which borders on the Carnatic to the S. W. bounded on the East by the south part of the Carnatic, and the district of Tritchinopoly. It extends west within 30 miles of the sea coast of Malabar. Seringapatam was the capital. It was wantonly attacked, taken, and partitioned twice, and at last completely occupied and incorporated with the British conquests.