CREMATION, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

It is not my intention to describe the funeral rites of the ancient Greeks and Romans &c.,[176] because the practices of some Eastern nations at the present day somewhat resemble them, and it will consequently be sufficient to refer to some of these. Moreover, descriptions of cremation in classic times may be met with in every encyclopædia. Full details of these ancient forms of sepulture will also be found in numerous antiquarian works.[177]

For a similar reason I will not describe the burning of the bodies of Williams and Shelley.[178] The ceremony was moreover somewhat harrowing owing to the impossibility of obtaining proper materials for the purpose. It will be more interesting to the reader to furnish him with a description of a still later instance of cremation; I allude to the burning of the body of the Rajah of Kellapore at Florence in 1873, and I quote here the description of the affair as given by Dr. Pini in the Gazetta di Milano.

At the hour of midnight the mortal remains of the Indian prince were carried to the banks of the river. The funereal pile consisted of a heap of wood, about five feet square, firmly fixed and secured to the ground by seven bars of iron. A second heap of wood was thrown loosely around. After certain religious ceremonies, the pile was powdered with camphor and other aromatic substances, and the dead rajah was laid upon it. The body was anointed with pure naphtha, the features covered by a mask of some greasy substance, and all the limbs covered with resinous matter, betel-leaves, perfumes, and powdered sandal-wood. The corpse was then covered with more layers of wood, alternated with inflammable substances, and the next of kin to the prince set fire to the pile. Although the flame was fanned by a strong wind, the body was barely consumed at seven o'clock the next morning. At ten, when the fire had almost entirely burned out, nothing remained but a heap of ashes. An Indian priest collected a small quantity from the centre of the heap; the remainder was thrown to the wind, in the direction of the current of the Arno.[179]

Let us now see how cremation is performed at the present day among the poor in India.[180] The Madras correspondent of the 'Medical Times and Gazette' thus describes the mode practised in Madras:—

The actual process of burning here is simple and effective, and well suited for people amongst whom fuel is one of the dearest of the necessaries of life, besides being subject to a tax, which has been greatly mitigated by the present governor. A bed is prepared; it is said in the old books that it should be as long as a man with his arm extended above his head, a fathom wide, and a space deep; it is also said that it ought to be on rising ground, so that the water poured on the ashes may easily run off. On this bed is laid a layer of wood and 'bratties'—that is, cakes of dried cow-dung, which in this country is the most frequent form of fuel. The body, which is brought on an open bier, is laid on this, and covered with fresh layers of wood and bratties. Fire is set to the heap, which is then covered with a thinnish layer of earth. The process, which lasts altogether twelve hours or more, is divisible into two portions:—First, the fire is allowed to char and smoulder, out of the free access of air, till all the heap becomes a glowing red-hot mass, just as in charcoal-burning or ballast-burning at home. But after the fire has penetrated the whole heap it is poked up, the air admitted, and there is a thorough blazing fire, which goes on burning till all the fuel is turned into ashes, amongst which are discernible some of the hardest bones—as the malar, temporal, and shafts of the long bones—semi-vitrefied.

The above describes a funeral of the poorer kind, but in a late number of the 'Bombay Times' appears an interesting account of the burning of the body of Mr. Veneyekras Juggonath Sunkersett, an eminent citizen of that city.

The funeral procession from the house of the deceased was sufficiently large to demand a special report. Not less than a thousand persons figured therein, 'every family in the caste having furnished one or two of its male members to swell the melancholy cortège.' Bareheaded, and dressed in white garments, the procession marched slowly on. First came an array of link-bearers; then, also surrounded by lighted torches, and borne aloft on the shoulders of six men, the corpse was carried, preceded by Brahmin priests chanting a monotonous dirge. Arrived at the burning-ground—a spot to which admittance is made difficult—the body, lying on a bier, was deposited on the ground, the torch-bearers forming a circle around. The bier consisted simply of split bamboo sides and arms, with a rush bottom, and was subsequently broken to pieces and burnt. The object of depositing the bier on the ground was to allow all present to take a last look at the features of their friend and leader. Many simply salaamed, others knelt and appeared to pray, while others indulged in tumultuous ululation.

During the time occupied in these last farewells, the men attached to the burning-ground had been busily employed in erecting the funeral-pyre; and the corpse was at length lifted off the bier, and placed on the pile. Officiating Brahmins then anointed the body with a mixture of which the principal constituent was ghee. Hard by was piled a heap of fragrant sandal-wood, split into thin faggots, and these the relatives of the deceased laid one by one upon the body, the priests all the while reciting prayers for the dead.[181] This ended, the servitors of the dead-ground built up the pyre to its proper height with common firewood. All being ready for the final ceremony, the Brahmins lit a small fire of sandal-wood, and, having consecrated it, gave a flaming brand to each of the kinsmen present, whose duty it was to light the pyre. Then the flames shot up into the air, a canopy of smoke overhung the spot, and all was over. The mourners dispersed, and by midnight nothing remained of our well-known citizen but a handful of white ashes and a few calcined bones.

During the past year the remains of the Hon. Narayan Wassadeo, a member of the Legislative Council of Bombay, were solemnly burnt on the burning-ground at Sonapore, and the ceremony is thus described in the 'Times of India,' Aug. 6, 1874:—

The body was placed, after it was recovered from under the ruins, on the floor of a large apartment at the rear of one of the wings of the house; and the female members of the family, seating themselves around it, gave themselves up to uncontrollable grief. The unhappy widow was overwhelmed by the dreadful calamity which had befallen her. A great number of the leading members of the European and various native communities called and took a last look at the remains as they lay covered with a white robe, the lower part of the face being alone exposed.

The procession started at about 7 P.M. The bier, composed of two long pieces of bamboo, with a couple of cross-pieces, and covered with a rich white shawl, was upheld by the deceased's eldest brother and three of his most intimate friends and relatives. The sacred fire, which had been kindled with due ceremonies at the house, was carried in front in a brazen vessel by the deceased's son. The funeral was largely attended, not only by members of his own caste, but by those of other castes and denominations. When the procession reached Sonapore the bier was placed on the ground while the pyre was being constructed. Men with short crowbars made six holes in the earth, and in each of these was placed a rough piece of timber about four or five feet high. The posts, ranged two and two, were about a yard distant from each other. Three logs about six feet long each were placed on pieces of wood between each pair of uprights, so as to allow a free draught under the whole. A number of smaller logs were placed on these large ones, and were covered with sandal-wood, which made a sort of bed for the reception of the body. While this was being done, a number of torches of sandal-wood were being carefully ignited by the deceased's son at the sacred fire, which he had brought with him for the purpose. Prayers were said while the ignition was in progress. All being ready, the bier was brought to the side of the pyre, and the body was divested of all covering, except a cloth around the loins. It was then lifted on to the pyre, which was by this time between three and four feet high. The upright posts confined the body on either side, and prevented the possibility of its rolling off. Small blocks of sandal-wood, of various lengths—from six inches to two feet—were placed lightly on the body. The deceased's son then took a brazen vessel full of water, and carefully sprinkled a circle on the earth around the funeral pile. He next seized a brand from the sacred fire, and applied it to some dried leaves, or similar combustibles, placed under the pyre. That did not set fire to the pyre, however, and was not intended to be more than a compliance with the ceremonial; the brand was red, but not blazing, and a spark or two only fell from it. The relatives were then, as is usual in such cases, led away from the pyre by the friends around, so as to spare their feelings as much as possible. When they were taken a few yards off, and their backs turned to the pyre, large logs, similar to those at the base, were placed over the body, which now became completely concealed—all but the feet, which were left exposed either by accident or design. The friends applied matches to the sandal-wood brands, and, when they blazed up, set fire to the combustibles. Owing doubtless to the dampness of the ground, and occasional drops of rain, it was a matter of some difficulty to get the mass to burn. Cocoanut oil was thrown on the wood, and screens were held by men so as to regulate the draught; and, after a long interval, the pyre blazed up fiercely. In three hours only a handful of ashes remained of him who was but that morning the influential leader of the Hindoo community, full of life and hope.

The above two cremations may be regarded as sumptuous ones, and far above the means of the common people. With the latter an incomplete burning was often performed with revolting results. Descriptions of these failures have frequently been given by travellers of more or less veracity. The matter was lately taken into consideration by the English authorities, and this has led to the suppression of such imperfect cremations.

By the order of Sir Cecil Beadon a cinerator was erected at Calcutta for the burning of human bodies; and various regulations were issued with the view of abolishing the ancient system of imperfect cremation. The funeral pyre was not absolutely prohibited within the limits of the city; but the disgusting custom of throwing partially-consumed bodies into the river was at once put down. Sir Cecil Beadon also forcibly suggested that all bodies should be taken outside of the city, to be burned in some suitable place set apart and enclosed for the purpose. Against this excellent proposition a fearful outcry was raised, and the municipality was induced to confine the suggested improvement to building the cinerator on the site of the old burning-ghât, on the banks of the Hooghly. At first the Hindoos objected to use the cinerator; but, on finding that it involved no interference with their religious rites or feelings, they partially acquiesced in its use. The cinerator built at Calcutta was not quite a success; but the bodies were consumed to ashes, and the fumes carried away through a tall chimney or stack.[182]

I am informed by the Sanitary Commissioner of Madras, that the Cinerator[183] erected by the authorities is scarcely ever used, but he is of opinion that if the Siemens principle of a furnace were exhibited before the educated Hindoos they would very probably adopt it.

Here is another extract explanatory of the reform just alluded to.

From the Health Officer's Report to the Bombay Municipality we find that the cost of fuel for cremation is exceedingly heavy; and that a body cannot be consumed under four hours. 'On more than one occasion bodies have not been totally consumed, the relations having brought too scanty a supply of firewood.' In this document we also find a recommendation 'that a cinerator be erected at the burning-ghât, which would be at the disposal of the poor on the payment of a small fee. By this means the Hindoo community would get accustomed to it, and would see its advantage. A body would be put in at one end of a closed vessel, which in its transit through the cinerator would be exposed to intense heat, and after a certain time drawn out and opened. The ashes of the deceased would alone remain, which could be carried away and kept.'

As it may prove interesting to some reader, I will now give a description of a cremation ceremony of the very highest class, as performed in Siam, in which country, as has been stated elsewhere, only those dead are buried whose survivors cannot pay the fees of the priests. It is said to be from the pen of a lady[184] who was a resident for several years in that country, and is an extract from a paper of hers which appeared in a late number of 'Lippincott's Magazine.'

Burning is now, and has been for centuries, the universal custom in Siam—preferred, it is supposed, because of the facility it affords for removing the precious dust of the loved and lost. In old, aristocratic houses I have seen arranged in the family receptacle massive golden urns, containing the ashes of eight, ten, or twelve generations of ancestors; and these are cherished as precious heirlooms, to descend through the eldest male branch.

The time, expense, and character of a burning depend mainly on the rank and wealth of the parties, though the ceremony is always performed by the priests, and always within the precincts of a temple. The only exception is in seasons of epidemics or when the land is laid waste by famine. Among the better classes the dead body is laid unmutilated, save by the removal of the intestines, in a coffin, and it is more or less carefully embalmed, according to the time it is to be kept. If the deceased belonged to a private family of moderate means, the burning takes place from four to six days after death; if he was wealthy, but not high-born, the body may be kept a month, but never longer, while the remains of a noble lie in state from two to six months, according to his rank; and for members of the royal family a still longer period intervenes between the death and the burning. But, whatever the interval, the body must lie in state, and the relatives make daily prostrations, prayers, and offerings during the whole time, beseeching the departed spirit to return to its disconsolate friends.

When the time for the funeral has arrived, the body is laid in a receptacle on the summit of a stately pyramid, the form and material of which indicate the wealth and position of the deceased. It is thickly gilded, and the receptacle lined with plates of solid gold when the body has belonged to one of royal lineage and well-filled coffers. The last is quite as essential as the first to a gorgeous Oriental funeral, since for rank without money an East Indian has ever the most profound contempt.

Both requisites were fortunately united in the person of the queen-mother of King Pra-Nang-Klau. At the funeral of this aged queen there was such a display of Oriental magnificence as rarely falls to the lot of Western eyes to witness. The embalmed body lay in state under a golden canopy for eight months; the myrrh, frankincense, and aromatic oils used in its preparation cost upwards of one thousand pounds, and the golden pyre above twenty thousand. The hangings were of the richest silks and velvets, trimmed with bullion fringe and costly lace, and the wrappings of the body of pure white silk, embroidered with pearls and precious stones. Incredible quantities of massive jewellery decked the shrunken corpse, and a diadem of glittering gems cast its prismatic radiance over the withered features. Tiny golden lamps, fed with perfumed oil, burned day and night around the pyre, while every portion of the vast saloon was decorated with rare and beautiful flowers, arranged in all the various forms of crowns, sceptres, temples, angels, birds, lanterns, wreaths, and arches, till Flora herself might have wondered at the boundless resources of her domain. Day and night musical instruments were played, dirges wailed forth, and prostrations perpetually performed; while twice every day the king, attended by his whole court, made offerings to the departed spirit, beat his breast, tore his hair, and declared life 'utterly unendurable without the beloved one.'

All this was kept up for eight months, and then the scene changed for one of festivity. For thirty days, during most of which time I was present, there was a succession of levées, concerts, and theatricals, with feats of jugglery, operas, and fireworks; and then the embalmed body, surrounded by perfumes and tiny faggots of sandal-wood, was consumed by fire, and the ashes collected by the high-priest or his deputy in a golden urn, and deposited, with other relics of royalty, in the king's palace.

How very different from the above is a cremation amongst the North American Indians (the Cocopa tribe), on the Colorado river! Here is an account of one published in a late New York paper by an eyewitness, Professor Le Conte.

A short distance from the collection of thatched huts which composed the village, a shallow ditch had been dug in the desert, in which were laid logs of the mezquite (Prosopis and Strombocarpus), hard and dense wood, which makes, as all Western campaigners know, a very hot fire with little flame or smoke. After a short time the body was brought from the village, surrounded by the family and other inhabitants, and laid on the logs in the trench. The relatives, as is usual with Indians, had their faces disfigured with black paint, and the females, as is the custom with other savages, made very loud exclamations of grief, mingled with what might be supposed to be funeral songs. Some smaller faggots were then placed on top, a few personal effects of the dead man added, and fire applied. After a time a dense mass of dark-coloured smoke arose, and the burning of the body, which was much emaciated, proceeded rapidly. I began to be rather tired of the spectacle, and was about to go away, when one of the Indians, in a few words of Spanish, told me to remain, as there was something yet to be seen. An old man then advanced from the assemblage, with a long pointed stick in his hand. Going near to the burning body, he removed the eyes, holding them successively in the direction of the sun, with his face turned towards that luminary, repeating at the same time some words which I understood from our guide were a prayer for the happiness of the soul of the deceased. After this, more faggots were heaped on the fire, which was kept up for perhaps three or four hours longer. I did not remain, as there was nothing more of interest, but I learned on inquiry that after the fire was burned out it was the custom to collect the fragments of bone which remained, and put them in a terra-cotta vase, which was kept under the care of the family.

From these old-world practices—for they are old-world practices, although performed at the present day—we will now turn aside to examine into the modern and improved systems of cremation. The extracts which I shall make will be mostly from the work of Dr. De Pietra Santa.[185] First of all come the experiments made by Dr. Polli at the gas works in Milan.

In a cylindrical retort of refracting clay, used for the distillation of coal-gas, was placed the body of an unfortunate poodle dog, drowned for contravention of the muzzle laws promulgated by the police. The dog weighed twenty-two and a half pounds. The apparatus was heated by a crown of flames issuing from a perforated circular tube. In order to render combustion as active as possible, the coal-gas was mixed with a certain quantity of pure air. Our readers will recollect this addition of atmospheric air is the principle of the Bunsen burner, which ensures perfect combustion of coal-gas, and produces a maximum of heat with a minimum of light. The cremation lasted several hours, producing a thick smoke, &c. After carbonisation, the skilful chemist succeeded in obtaining complete incineration, that is to say, the calcination of all the solid parts of the body, which weighed one pound fourteen-and-a-half ounces.

Satisfied with the result of this experiment, which proved the possibility of reducing the carcase of an animal to ashes by ordinary coal-gas, Dr. Polli proceeded with a second and more complete experiment. One improvement was the disposition of a vertical retort in such manner as to consume the gaseous products of combustion. This is easily effected by placing at the upper orifice of the retort a second ring of gas jets. On this occasion better arrangements were made for carrying out the principle of the Bunsen burner, with the result of producing the complete incineration of a dog weighing forty-two and three-quarter pounds in the space of a couple of hours. On this occasion the solid residue weighed only two pounds and some ounces.

Few have given more time and study to practical cremation than Professor Brunetti. This gentleman sent a case of apparatus to the Vienna Exhibition, and records his conviction—arrived at after five experiments upon human bodies—that the total incineration of a corpse and the complete calcination of the bones by fire is, under ordinary conditions, impossible. He has tried various combustibles, gas retorts, closed vessels, and the open air, and has arrived at the conclusion that special apparatus is indispensable to the success of any attempt at perfect cremation. His apparatus consists of an oblong furnace built of ordinary, or, still better, of refracting brick, and furnished with ten side openings, in order to give the power of regulating at will the draught, and consequently the intensity of the fire. In the upper part is a cornice of tiles, destined to support an iron framework, above which is the dome-shaped roof, furnished with cast-iron shutters, which may be opened or closed by means of regulators, to shut in the flame and concentrate the heat. The body to be incinerated is placed upon a thin metallic plate, suspended by stout iron wire. The operation may be divided into three sections. Firstly, the kindling of the body; secondly, its combustion; thirdly, the incineration of the soft parts, and the calcination of the bones. Wood having been piled up in the furnace and lighted, the body catches fire at the end of half an hour. A considerable quantity of gas is now evolved, and the moveable shutters come into operation. The body then burns freely, and, if the pile of wood have been deftly arranged, complete carbonisation ensues at the end of a couple of hours. The shutters are then opened, another sheet of metal is lowered over the carbonised mass to concentrate the heat still more, and the wood is renewed. By means of this apparatus, and at the cost of 160 or 180 lbs. of wood, complete cremation is achieved in two hours more. When the furnace is cold, the residue is collected and placed in a funereal urn. The last experiment of Dr. Brunetti was made upon the body of a man who died, at the age of fifty, of chronic bronchitis.

A description of a Siemens apparatus as constructed for use in Germany is given by Professor Reclam in an article entitled 'Die Feuerbestattung' in the 'Gartenlaube.' A sketch of it in action, partly copied from this article, is given in Plate I.

It consists of (1) a gasometer for the manufacture of the gas necessary to heat the furnace; (2) the furnace itself, with a regulator and a space for burning; (3) a chimney to take away the smoke &c. We may conceive a large, beautiful dead-house built for the purposes of cremation. In the midst, but invisible to those present, is a furnace. The funeral procession arrives at the house, and enters it the same as the churchyard is now entered. When the coffin has been placed on the tressel, and the usual ceremony ended, it is let down into the grave and disappears. In a short time after it is let down the covering of the furnace is removed, and replaced when it has received the coffin.

The process of cremation is effected by means of heated air. The gasometer is put in action by the consumption of coal, charcoal, peat, or wood. The gas thus produced is conducted through a pipe provided with a regulating-valve, where, meeting with a stream of air, also under regulation, it is converted into a flame. This flame extends through the room which has the regulator, so that the brick material which is piled up there is heated to white heat, and kept to this. The flame still continuing, supplies heat till the furnace or place for the reception of the body is heated to a weak red heat, when the flame escapes through a pipe into the chimney.

As soon as the furnace is in the condition thus described, the process of cremation goes on. The covering of the furnace is removed by the man who superintends the burning of the bodies. It is put back again, and the body subjected to the action of the red heat for a longer or a shorter time, according to its physical condition. After this is done the gas-valve is closed, and the air in consequence goes through the regulator into the place for burning. It is here heated in the regulator nearly to red heat, in which condition it comes to the bodies already, in some measure, dried, so that decomposition soon follows. The bones are decomposed by the action of the heat, while the carbonate dissolves, and the lime remains as dust. To collect this dust an instrument is provided, that it may be placed in a jar, or any other vessel, and preserved by the relatives of the deceased.[186]

The most perfect apparatus, however, yet devised for the reduction of a body to ashes is that adopted by Sir Henry Thompson. From his work upon cremation I take the following description, which will be always studied with interest. This extract will fitly conclude these quotations.

A powerful reverberating-furnace will reduce a body of more than average size and weight, leaving only a few white and fragile portions of earthy material, in less than one hour. I have myself personally superintended the burning of two entire bodies, one small and emaciated, of 47 lbs. weight, and one of 144 lbs. weight, not emaciated, and possess the products—in the former case weighing 1¾ lb.; in the latter, weighing about 4 lbs. The former was completed in twenty-five minutes, the latter in fifty. No trace of odour was perceived—indeed, such a thing is impossible—and not the slightest difficulty presented itself. The remains already described were not withdrawn till the process was complete; and nothing can be more pure, tested by sight or smell, than they are; and nothing less suggestive of decay or decomposition. It is a refined sublimate, and not a portion of refuse, which I have before me. The experiment took place in the presence of several persons. Among the witnesses of the second experiment was Dr. George Buchanan, the well-known medical officer of the Local Government Board, who can testify to the completeness of the process.

In the proceeding above described, the gases which leave the furnace-chimney during the first three or four minutes of combustion are noxious; after that they cease to be so, and no smoke would be seen. But these noxious gases are not to be permitted to escape by any chimney, and will pass through a flue into a second furnace, where they are entirely consumed; and the chimney of the latter is smokeless—no organic products whatever can issue by it. A complete combustion is thus attained. Not even a tall chimney is necessary, which might be pointed at as that which marked the site where cremation is performed. A small jet of steam, quickening the draught of a low chimney, is all that is requisite. If the process is required on a large scale, the second furnace could be utilised for cremation also, and its product passed through another, and so on without limit.

This plan, however, has been thrown into the shade by subsequent experiments:—

By means of one of the furnaces invented by Dr. Wm. Siemens, I have obtained even a more rapid and more complete combustion than before. The body employed was a severe test of its powers, for it weighed no less than 227 lbs., and was not emaciated. It was placed in a cylindrical vessel about 7 feet long, by 5 or 6 feet in diameter, the interior of which was already heated to about 2,000° Fahr. The inner surface of the cylinder is smooth, almost polished, and no solid matter but that of the body is introduced into it. The product, therefore, can be nothing more than the ashes of the body. No foreign dust can be introduced, no coal or other solid combustible being near it: nothing but heated hydrocarbon in a gaseous form, and heated air. Nothing is visible in the cylinder before using it—a pure, almost white, interior—the lining having acquired a temperature of white heat. In this case the gases, given off from the body so abundantly at first, passed through a highly-heated chamber, among thousands of interstices made by intersecting firebricks, laid throughout the entire chamber, lattice-fashion, in order to minutely divide and delay the current, and expose it to an immense area of heated surface. By this means they were rapidly oxidised, and not a particle of smoke issued by the chimney; no second furnace, therefore, is necessary by this method to consume any noxious matters, since none escape. The process was completed in fifty-five minutes; and the ashes, which weighed about 5 lbs., were removed with ease.

After such brilliant results—results at once expeditious, cleanly, and economical—well might Sir Henry Thompson challenge Mr. Holland[187] 'to produce so fair a result from all the costly and carefully managed cemeteries in the kingdom,' and safely might he even offer him twenty years 'in order to elaborate the process.'

An ordinary Siemens' regenerative furnace for cremation makes use of only hot blast, it being considered that the organic substance to be consumed would supply sufficient hydrogen and carbon, and that only hot air is required to produce excellent results. But a perfect apparatus would be constructed upon the principle exhibited in Plate II., which represents the cremation apparatus devised by Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., of Westminster.

The body to be reduced to its elements is placed in the chamber A (fig. 1), which is iron-cased and lined inside with a substance able to resist the highest temperature. Figs. 1 and 2 represent the consuming arrangement, which may form a portion of the chapel itself. Figs. 3 and 4 show the gas-producer, where the gaseous fuel is produced, and this may be situated at some distance from the building where the cremation is performed. These gas-producers are not only separate from the cinerator, where the heat is required, but may be multiplied or extended, so as to supply any number of cinerators, and so separately reduce a plurality of bodies. At the back of the heating chamber A are placed four firebrick-celled regenerative chambers for gas and air, seen in section at fig. 2, and these work in pairs. The gas carried from the gas-producer is directed into the gas regenerator, and the entering air into the air regenerator, and in these regenerators both gas and air are heated, attaining a temperature equal to a white heat before they reach the chamber A in which the body is laid. The heated air, after passing upwards through the regenerator, enters the consuming chamber at B, and the heated gas enters it at C. They thus enter the chamber separately, and with a sufficient velocity to impinge against the door of the chamber; but when they meet at the point D in the chamber, the gas and air mingle and add to the carried heat that due to the mutual chemical action. The result is a devouring flame. One pair of regenerators are always employed in conducting the heated air and gas into the chamber A, whilst the other pair are employed in carrying away the combined gases or expended fuel to the chimney. This expended fuel is nevertheless an immensely hot flame, and on its way to the chimney it proceeds downwards through one pair of the regenerators, the upper portion of which it heats intensely. Nearly the whole of the heat of the expended fuel is left in the regenerators, and the smokeless gases which enter the chimney to be cast into the air rarely exceed 300° Fahr. By means of valves the regenerators and air-ways which were carrying off the expended fuel, can be instantly used for carrying air and gas into the reducing chamber, and the heat left in them consequently utilised. Not only is a saving of 50 per cent. in fuel thus effected, but the noxious gases from the body would be entirely consumed in their passage down through the regenerators.

The gas-producer itself (figs. 3 and 4) works in the following manner:—The coal is supplied to the charging-box E every three hours or so, and slides down an inclined plane, the upper portion of which is solid and covered with firebricks. Upon this sloping bed the fuel is heated, and its volatile constituents are liberated, just as in a gas retort, leaving about 60 per cent. of carbonaceous matter, the complete combustion of which is brought about by the air which enters through the open part of the grate at the foot of the sloping bed. More carbonic acid gas is now evolved, and this non-combustible gas passes through the red-hot fuel, taking up in its passage another equivalent of carbon, and so becoming an inflammable gas, or what is called carbonic oxide. Should it be considered advisable to make use of steam, each cubic foot of which yields as much inflammable gas as five cubic feet of air, a pipe of water is allowed to run at the foot of the grate, and is there converted into steam by the radiant heat. The combustible gases now pass into the main gas flue, and inasmuch as this gas flue must contain an excess of pressure above the exterior air, so as to prevent the inroad of atmospheric air into the gas flue, and consequent partial combustion, the gas is allowed to rise—which it will do by its initial heat—some score of feet above the producers, and is carried horizontally through the wrought iron tube F into and then down into the furnace. The flat-lying tube being exposed to the air causes the gas in its passage through it to lose about 200° Fahr. of temperature, which increases its density, adds weight to the descending column of gas, and presses it on to the furnace. One estimable feature in this system of gas-producing is that the production can be arrested for half a day without deranging the producer, the fuel and brickwork being sufficiently bulky to maintain a dull red heat for that period. Air cannot enter the grate unless the gases given off in the producer are withdrawn to the furnace; and when the gas valve of the furnace is reopened, the production of the gases is once more continued.[188]

It has been urged against cremation by sentimentalists, that if the burning could be observed in even an improved apparatus, the process would prove a harrowing one, recall in fact to mind the horrors described by the Comte de Beauvoir in his Indian reminiscences.[189] But no such thing would result, for whilst being consumed the body would remain of itself perfectly motionless and without visible contraction or convulsion. Several late human cremations which have taken place in the Siemens Works in Dresden, have been purposely witnessed by eminent scientific men and others, through the glass panel of the door which is always provided for the use of the manufacturing operator, and the utter absence of anything which could prove in the least distressing to the mind, the eye, or the imagination, is vouched for by all. The current of combined air and gas simply plays upon the body with a transparent flame, until the whole becomes incandescent. There is not even the least effluvium. In a late experiment, when nearly a quarter of a ton of animal matter underwent cinerary treatment at Dresden, the gases between the flue and the chimney proper were intercepted by an aspirator, and found perfectly inodorous.[190] Once incandescent, the body soon assumes a hue of translucent white, and then speedily crumbles into ashes.

The quantity of ashes left from a body of average weight has been foretold by Sir Henry Thompson almost to the fraction of a pound. There is no doubt whatever also that the time named by him as sufficient for entire reduction will be borne out in practice. As regards the cost of cremation, Sir Henry is most assuredly correct in lauding its economy over interment. The cost of the fuel expended during the last three cremations in Germany did not exceed 3s., plus of course the percentage to be charged for attendance, and for the use of the apparatus, which latter would be trifling were it in constant use. When the clerical fees and all the costs of conveyance, &c., are added thereto, the whole sum would not necessarily exceed that of a seventh-class funeral in London.[191]

Place WeightWeight ofCostTime
ofDateSexAgeofashes ofofofAuthority
cremation body,bodyfuelcremation
about
lbs.lbs.s dmin.
PaduaMar. 10,F351166·00——Brunetti
1869
" Jan. 20,M45993·06——"
1870
"[192]May 15,"50904·062 485"
1870
Breslau[193]Sep. 22,Faged703·003 070'Tageblatt'
1874
Dresden[194]Oct. 9,"26—3·75—75F. Siemens
1874
SameNov. 6,"23—6 lbs.—78"
apparatus[195]1874" (with
wood coffin)

The above Table represents the details of six recent human cremations.[196]

The body to be burnt would, in the first instance, soon after death[197] be placed, perhaps, in a coffin of some light material, and taken in due time to the mortuary,[198] ready for conveyance to the 'cinerator.' And, as it is very desirable that the ashes of the body should be kept separate from those of any coffin, a shroud of some imperishable material will be carefully sought after by inventors. The ancient Greeks made use of sheets of asbestos, which is a fibrous form of hornblende;[199] and those of the Egyptians who performed cremation enclosed the body in a receptacle of amianth, which is a similar incombustible mineral substance.[200] Whether these materials will resist the intense heat of the Siemens apparatus remains to be seen; for I have had no opportunities of making experiments. Wood, at all events, is likely to be rejected, on account of the residue of carbon, &c. (charcoal), which might not be easily separated from the more precious relics. Lead would be equally objectionable, for, although easily fusible, it possesses certain disadvantages easily to be imagined. In all probability the most suitable material for the inner coffin, which alone is to be submitted to the impingement of the hot blast, will be zinc. This metal would entirely disappear in the fierce heat, the reason being that it is volatile, and would distil off—its boiling-point being 800° Cent.,[201] or 500° Fahr. below the minimum temperature which will reign in the chamber of the apparatus.

The English and the German machinery for the reduction of the body to ashes vary in a few particulars, but the general construction is the same, as will have been perceived. In one Dresden arrangement the body is lowered into a receiver below, and the idea of interment is thus in a manner preserved.[202] In the English arrangement this is otherwise, and the coffin is made to gradually slide into the receiver, like a ship launched into water. The anguish induced by the moment of departure is in this way somewhat ameliorated, as there is no noise of lowering-machinery to grate upon the ear. At certain appointed words in our beautiful funeral service—for instance, 'ashes to ashes'—a curtain might be partially withdrawn, and the body, encased in a suitable shell, would gravitate slowly into the chamber of the apparatus, which would then immediately close noiselessly; to be opened only after the due reduction of the body. The utmost privacy would be insured, and no strange eyes could gaze upon it[203] during the period of incineration. The funeral service could also be made to occupy the whole of the time necessary for sublimation if it were so desired, or a eulogy or other reference to the departed might form the subject of a discourse. The ashes could afterwards be collected, and reverentially placed in an urn,[204] or other suitable receptacle, and conveyed to their last resting-place. Plate III. represents a view of a mortuary chapel, such as would probably be required in a Christian cemetery; and the scene there represented will serve to show how completely decorous the procedure would be.[205] And one may here remark that the great advances made by science can nowhere better be evidenced than by a comparison between the modern and ancient systems of cremation. However well disguised in beautiful language—as, for instance, by Bulwer in the 'Last Days of Pompeii'—the barbarity of the method practised in classical times will be sensibly felt in the background.

It is likely enough that whenever cremation is again practised, urns will form the chosen receptacles of the ashes. Vases or urns have always been associated with sepulture in classical times. The finest vases which have come down to us from antiquity were not originally intended for sepultural purposes, but for the adornment of the mansion. Frequently, however, these were deposited in the tombs along with the unburnt body,[206] as being the objects most valued by the deceased when living. The survivors doubtless held it as sacrilegious to make use of these favourite objects, for they are found unmolested even now.

It is worthy of remark that amongst the Ojibois Indians of the present day the canoe, gun, and blanket, which are laid upon the grave of each one of the tribe, although newly purchased, are never made use of again, nor ever stolen.[207] Many other Indian tribes observe the same custom;[208] and the Moldavians and the Caubees as well.[209]

The custom of depositing the painted vases in tombs ceased about the time when Italy and Sicily fell completely under Roman dominion. The Romans, who burnt their dead, deposited their ashes in urns, as we have seen. No ashes, it may be said generally, have been found in the Greek tombs of Italy, but the Romans made use of the vases found in tombs made by the Greeks there, as cinerary urns for their dead; and this appropriation was not uncommon. In the case of a member of the Roman family of Claudia an ancient Egyptian vase, now in the Louvre, was utilised in this manner.

The ancient painted vases are now divided into six classes, embracing forty-nine various shapes.[210] The styles are also divided into Early or Egyptian, Archaic Greek, Severe or Transitional, Beautiful or Greek, Florid, and into those of the Decadence period. Should cremation be extensively adopted nowadays, it is not unlikely that all these forms and styles will be laid under contribution. A friend[211] has kindly drawn for the present work a dozen urns, adapted for the reception of human ashes (see Plate IV.). Fig. 1 is Archaic in shape; fig. 3 belongs to the Perfect or Beautiful forms; and fig. 2 represents a shape often used during the Florid era. The others are original designs based upon classic lines, but not referable to any one period. Some very elegant forms of the ancient vases, copied from gems and other archæological resources, are to be found embodied in the monuments of the churchyards and cemeteries of the present day.[212]

Had the practice of cremation followed uninterruptedly down to our times, the receptacles for the ashes would doubtless have been shaped according to the prevailing taste of each period of architecture. For instance, the genius of the Semicircular style, which prevailed from the sixth to the twelfth centuries, and embraced the Anglo-Saxon and Norman periods, would have left its own peculiar mark, just as it has done upon the fonts which were sculptured during its sway. The Early Pointed, the Geometrical, and the Decorated and Late or Perpendicular Gothic periods would, in a similar manner, have influenced the symmetry of the vases produced between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, and contributed their own quota of beautiful shapes. And, speaking generally, ecclesiastical taste, which presided over every detail of church construction down even to the piercing of the keys, would have been as easily recognisable in the vases which contained the ashes of the dead.

It is impossible to prophesy in what direction the taste of the future may wander as regards the shape of cinerary vessels, but there can be no doubt whatever that in many instances they will assume a distinctly ecclesiastical character. The classic patterns of vases and urns would be in excellent keeping with the architecture of churches built after Greek and Roman models; whilst they might appear otherwise if exposed to view in the niches of the walls of a Gothic fane. But it may fairly be predicted that the architectural style of the church will have to bow to the varying tastes of the worshippers, and just as we see in Westminster Abbey—that beautiful example of the Early Pointed style—the utmost diversity of taste in the monuments which cluster upon its walls, so the walls and vaults of our churches must necessarily accommodate every type of fancy whenever cremation resumes its sway. Cinerary vessels, in accordance with revived mediæval taste, will probably predominate. Some, it may be, will even assume the shapes of ancient reliquaries.[213] There is no reason why these vessels should not vary, in material and design, with the taste or means of the relatives. Glass, precious metals, and even gems, might with propriety be introduced. Urns of gold and silver were not uncommon in ancient times, and are even yet used in Siam.

With reference to the material of which cinerary urns were formerly made, pottery was chiefly chosen on account of the facility of manufacture, but they were frequently constructed of marble, alabaster, and glass. Perhaps the most beautiful cinerary urn in the world was the Barberini or Portland vase, now in the British Museum, and which contained the ashes of the Emperor Alexander Severus. It was made of blue glass upon which a coating of white glass was overlaid, and the latter cut cameo fashion into a number of emblematical figures. Glass was frequently adopted in Italy for cinerary urns, and will probably be the favourite material once more.

Besides the placing of the ashes of the dead in urns, use was frequently made of small stone sarcophagi, and these latter are found in several of the ancient Greek burial-grounds in Anatolia. This will possibly be the form adopted in the future, should an interment of the ashes be chosen in preference to their ennichement. But this is not to say that urns are not equally suitable for laying in the earth if constructed with that view. Probably both forms of containing vessels will be patronised, just as was the case in olden times. In ancient Dardanus stone sarcophagi are commonly found, whilst at Batak, nearer the supposed site of Troy, urns only were discoverable; and yet the ornaments upon the smaller articles of pottery, found in both sarcophagi and urns, were identical in pattern, as far as I can recollect.[214]

The cinerary urns of the Romans were for the most part at one time placed in underground vaults, the walls of which were pierced with arched recesses for their reception, and, from the resemblance of the numerous niches to a collection of pigeon-holes, the place was called a columbarium. Two fine columbaria can be seen at Rome, one in the Vigna Codini and another in the Villa Doria. Should this system of storing away the cinerary urns be adopted in our churches, the crypts would for the most part resemble the sketch given in Plate VI., which is an enlargement and rearrangement of the columbarium given in Westropp's 'Handbook of Archæology.' There can be no doubt that this will prove the most popular method of disposing of the urns in modern cities where cremation is about to be practised. The catacombs in our cemeteries, or what pass as such, will also admirably enshrine the urns. It is not at all unlikely that in some instances the walls of the churches themselves will in future be constructed so as to receive the remains, and bear some sort of resemblance to the famous church at Cologne where the osteological relics are placed around the fane.[215] But in the case of urn sepulture the appearance would be far more æsthetical. In all probability the wall spaces would be apportioned out into family receptacles, and the orifices closed with suitable metal gratings ornamentally treated. I have furnished an imaginary view of this kind of treatment at the upper part of Plate VI.

My task is now completed; but before I lay down the pen I would say to those who are desirous of promoting the cause of cremation, Do so, within due bounds, fearlessly. Do not believe that the practice is in any way opposed to religion, for such a belief has no anchorage in truth. And in order to practically bring nearer to us the time when our much-enduring mother earth shall no longer be systematically poisoned, all those who are favourable to the institution of cremation should forthwith put into writing their desire that their remains shall not be buried, but shall be consumed according to the method of cremation best attainable.

If every individual promoter, male or female, of fifteen years old and upwards—without reference to the possession of property in any way—would, in view of the uncertainty of life, place such a request in his or her writing-desk, cremation would speedily prevail. The change from burial will otherwise be a protracted one, since few persons have enough strength of mind to run counter to the general custom, fearing the indignation of other relatives of the deceased. The weakest persons, however, have still a greater repugnance to doing anything contrary to the expressed wishes of the dead. If, therefore, such a wish can be exhibited, it will not only, as a rule, be religiously complied with, but all friends, whatever their own opinions, will be amply satisfied.[216]

[BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CREMATION.]

Sir Thomas Browne—Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial. 1658.

Dr. J. Jamieson—Origin of Cremation. Proc. R. S. of Ed., 1817.

Grimm—Ueber das Verbrennen der Leichen. Berlin Acad. Sc., 1849.

Dr. J. P. Trusen—Die Leichenverbrennung. Breslau, 1855.

Hermann Richter—Article in the Gartenlaube, No. 49. 1856.

Member of the Royal College of Surgeons (C. Cobbe)—Burning the Dead, or Urn-sepulture Religiously, Socially, and Generally considered. 1857.

Col. T. Martin—Specification of a Cinerator, for use of Brahmins and other Hindoo Castes, &c. Poonah, 1864.

Professor Coletti—Memoria sulla Incinerazione dei Cadaveri. 'Memoria letta all' Accademia di Scienze e Lettere di Padova,' January 11, 1857. Reproduced in the Gazetta Medica Prov. Venete, 1866.

Dr. J. P. Trusen—Denkschrift zur Leichenverbrennung. Namslau, 1860.

Dr. Giro—'Sull' Incinerazione dei Cadaveri.' Padova: Gazetta Medica Prov. Venete. 1866.

The Rev. A. K. H. B.—Recreations of a Country Parson. 2nd Series. 'Essay concerning Churchyards.' London, 1866.

Dr. Du Jardin—'Studii e Proposte sulla Cremazione.' La Salute. Genoa, 1867.

Lieball—Der Welt Verderben durch Leichenbeerdigung und das neue Paradies durch Leichenverbrennung. München, 1868.

Professor Castiglioni—Sulla Cremazione dei Cadaveri. Firenze, 1870.

Dr. Du Jardin—'La Guerra e le sue Vittime; l'Incinerazione ed il Seppellimento dei Cadaveri.' La Salute. 1870.

H. W. Hemsworth—'Incremation by State Regulation.' Rectangular Review. October, 1870.

J. Lefort—'Remarques sur l'Altération des Eaux de Puits par le Voisinage des Cimetières.' Bull. de l'Académie de Médecine, t. 36. 1871.

Professor Golfarelli—Discorso sullo stesso Argomento. Firenze, April 1871.

Professor Gorini—I Vulcani sperimentali. 1872.

Professor Polli—Sulla Incinerazione dei Cadaveri. Letta al Reale Instituto Lombardo. Reproduced in French by Dr. Janssens, in the Presse Médicale Belge.

Dr. G. Pini—'La-Cremazione dei Cadaveri.' Gazetta di Milano of September 26 and 27, and December 29, 1872; also of November 17 and 23, 1873; also separate publication: same title. Milano, 1873.

Dr. Rota—L'Incinerazione dei Cadaveri è ammissibile? Chiari, 1872.

Dr. G. B. Ayr—'La Cremazione e l'Igiene.' Annali di Chemica di Milano. December 1872 and January 1873.

Dr. A. Moretti—'Nota Poetica.' Annali di Chemica. Milan, December 1872.

Dr. O. Grandesso-Silvestri—'Sull' Incinerazione dei Cadaveri umani.' Annali di Medicina Pubblica, No. 29, 1872; and Gazetta Medica Prov. Venete. October 1872.

Dr. F. Valerani—Articles in the Opinione di Firenze, December 1872, and in the Emporio Pittoresco di Milano, No. 442. 1873. Reproduced in the Schweiz Grenzpost, January 18, 1873.

Professor Polizzi—Carme dedicato alla Signora Emilia Salsi. Girgente, 1873.

P. Fornari—'Humatio vel crematio,' in the Journal La Guida del Maestro elementare Italiano. Torino, March 1873.

Dr. J. E. Neild—On the Advantages of Burning the Dead. Melbourne, 1873.

Professor E. A. Parkes—Practical Hygiene, Articles on Disposal of the Dead, &c. London, 1873.

Dr. C. Musatti—'Intorno alla Incinerazione dei Cadaveri.' Giornale Veneto di Scienze Mediche. Venezia, February 1873. Also Gaz. Med. Prov. Ven. Padova, 1874.

Dr. F. Anelli—'La Cremazione dei Cadaveri.' Ann. di Chim. Milano, April 1873.

Dr. O. Giacchi—'La Cremazione dei Cadaveri.' Gazetta Medica-Lombardia. Milano, 1873.

Professor Brunetti—La Cremazione dei Cadaveri. Padova, 1873. Also in L'Opinione. March 11, 1874.

An Article, entitled 'Brûlez les Corps et ne les ensevelissez pas,' in the Gazette de Bruxelles. March 30, 1873.

Dr. De Pietra Santa—'La Crémation des Morts en Italie.' Union Médicale, September 1873. Afterwards published separately.

Professor Amato Amati—'Sulla Cremazione dei Cadaveri.' Annali di Chimica. Milano, October 1873.

Dr. Caffe—Numerous Articles in his Journal des Connaissances Médicales. Paris, 1873 &c.

Articles on 'Beerdigung und Verbrennung der Leichen,' in the Volksblatt des Bezirkes. Zürich, October 25, 28, and 30, 1873.

Professor Zinno—'Sulla Inumazione, Imbalsamazione e Cremazione dei Cadaveri,' in Piria: Giornale di Chimica. June 30, July 13 and 15, and August 15, 1873. 'Ancora sulla Cremazione dei Cadaveri,' in Piria. Palermo, October 1873.

Professor Gorini—La Conservazione della Salma di Mazzini, p. 45. Genova, 1873.

Article in L'Osservatore Cattolico Milano. 1873.

Sir Henry Thompson—'Our Treatment of the Dead.' Contemporary Review. January 1874. 'Cremation,' March 1874. Republished together under the title of Cremation: the Treatment of the Body after Death. 2nd ed. King and Co., London, 1874.

Cajo Peyrani—Article in Il Presente. Parma, 1874.

Dr. Carlo Foldi—'La Cremazione,' in Il Sole. Milano, 1874.

Article on 'La Cremazione dei Cadaveri,' in Il Popolo Cattolico. Milano, 1874.

Vegmann-Ercolani—Bericht über die offentlichen Versammlungen zur Besprechung der Leichenverbrennungsfrage in Zürich. Zürich, 1874. Also Ueber Leichenverbrennung als rationellste Bestattungsart. 4th ed. Zürich, 1874.

M. A. Prins—Conference at Brussels; reported in an Article, 'La Crémation des Morts,' in L'Indépendance Belge. April 12, 1874.

Professor Reclam—Articles in the Allg. Augsburger Zeitung. March 6, 1874. 'Die Feuerbestattung,' in the Gartenlaube, No. 19. 1874. With drawing of furnace. The latter Article was reproduced, with the plate, in the Saturday Journal, September 1874.

Dr. F. Küchenmeister—Ueber Leichenverbrennung. Erlangen, 1874.

Professor Unger—Article in the Göttinger Anthropologischen Vereins, Part I. 1874.

Three Articles, 'Begraben oder Verbrennen,' in the Siesta. Frankfort, May 1874.

Articles on 'Cremation' in Iron. January 3 and June 13, 1874.

Professor P. Frazer.—'The Merits of Cremation.' Penn Monthly, June 1874; Transatlantic, August 1874. Since printed separately.

A work entitled Brúlons nos Morts. La Crémation. Paris, 1874. Reviewed by M. F. Sarcey in the XIX. Siècle, June 5, 1874.

The Bishop of Lincoln—Sermon delivered at Westminster Abbey, July 5, 1874, and since published.

Feuilleton in L'Abeille Médicale, 'De la Crémation des Cadavres.' July 13, 1874.

Dr. A. Baginsky—Die Leichenverbrennung vom Standpunkt der Hygieine.

Dr. S. Bernstein—Ueber Pietät gegen die Todten. These two latter Papers were delivered before the Cremation Society of Berlin. Berlin, 1874.

Bernardino Biondelli—La Cremazione dei Cadaveri umani esaminata. Milano, 1874.

Dr. Felice dell' Acqua—La Cremazione dei Cadaveri. Milano, April 1874.

Dr. D. Pietra Santa—La Crémation des Morts en France et à l'Étranger.

Dr. Mantegazza—'Cremazione dei Cadaveri,' in the Nuova Antologia. Firenze, September 1874.

Rev. H. R. Haweis—Ashes to Ashes. A Cremation Prelude. London, 1874.

[INDEX.]

Apparatus, cost of best modern, [113]
— inoffensiveness of the modern, [106], [112], [114]
Ashes, depositing in churches, [16], [124]
— — in urns, [119]
— interment of, [16], [36], [123]
— time necessary for reduction to, [115]
— weight of, [115]
Burials, crowded, [41], [67]
— dangers of, [6], [18], [53]
— depths of, [46]
— in caves, [5], [29]
— in vaults, [47], [59]
— near habitations, [44], [54]
Burial-grounds, inundations of, [48], [63], [65]
— — draining of, [48]
— — old, [50]
Burial laws, [41]
Cattle, burial of, [63]
Cemeteries, [43], [47]
— conveyance to distant, [80]
Churchyards, closing of, [50], [80]
Churchyard vapours, [54], [58], [60]
Coffins, [52]
Columbaria, [16], [75], [124]
Common graves during epidemics, [6]
Cost of modern system of cremation, [114]
— — old systems, [91], [100]
Cremation and burial practised together, [5], [9], [11], [70]
— — medical science, [23]
— amongst ancient peoples, [4], [11], [19], [35]
— during epidemics, [6]
— half-and-half schemes of, [40], [64], [76]
— in America, [83]
— in Austria, [79]
— in battlefields, [18]
— in Belgium, [78]
— in England, [85]
— in France, [75]
— in Germany, [82]
— in India, [11], [35], [36], [91]
— in Italy, [68]
— in modern times, [19], [36], [38], [82], [84]
— in North America, [37], [101]
— in Siam, [98]
— in Switzerland, [73]
— judicious promotion of, [125]
— late experiments on, [82], [90], [97], [102], [106], [113], [115]
— modern approved processes, [109], [117]
— not opposed to the doctrine of the resurrection, [8], [12], [74]
— objections to old systems of, [90], [97]
— of condemned food, &c., [22]
— of diseased human dead, [68]
Cremation of diseased, cattle, [21]
— of offensive matters, [22]
— societies, [73], [81], [82], [83], [86]
— time occupied by, [115]
Dangers of burial, [6], [18], [53]
— — opening up old burial-grounds, [6]
Dead, burial in caves, [29]
— — in solid materials, [27]
— — in the earth, [11], [30]
— drying up of the, [29], [34]
— embalming of the, [31], [36], [37], [76], [100], [116]
— exposure of the, [24]
— petrifaction of the, [27]
Diseases caused by churchyards, &c., [56]
Family graves, [45]
Family receptacles for ashes, [16], [99]
Graveyards, draining of, [48]
— old, [50]
Interment of the ashes, [16], [36], [123]
Injudicious promoters of cremation, [2]
Judicious promotion of cremation, [125]
Laws relating to burial, [41]
Mortuary chapel for cremation, [105]-118
Objections to cremation, [5], [13], [15]
Parkes, Dr., quoted, [53], [59]
Poetry upon cremation, [14]
Poisoning of the living, [56]
— — water supplies, [51]
Sanitary origin of cremation, [8]
Siemens' cremation apparatus, [105], [109]
Sir Henry Thompson on cremation, [23], [77], [85], [106], [114]
Time occupied by cremation, [115]
Urns, &c., [119]
Vaults, burial in, [47], [59]
Water-supply, poisoning of, [51]
Weight of ashes, [115]
Works upon burial, [42], [89]
— — cremation, [127]

LONDON: PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET

PLATE I.
Photo-Lithographed by Robt J Cook & Hammond Charing Cross & Westminster

VIEW OF A SIEMENS' APPARATUS (GERMAN)

PLATE II.
Lithographed by Robt J Cook & Hammond Charing Cross & Westminster

SIEMENS' APPARATUS (ENGLISH PATTERN)

PLATE III.
Photo-Lithographed by Rob^t J Cook & Hammond Charing Cross & Westminster E. F. C. Clarke Del.

SKETCH OF MORTUARY CHAPEL

PLATE IV.
Photo-Lithographed by Rob^t J Cook & Hammond Charing Cross & Westminster J. E. Newton, Del.

URNS

PLATE V.
Photo-Lithographed by Rob^t J Cook & Hammond Charing Cross & Westminster E. F. C. Clarke Del.

SKETCH OF FAMILY COLUMBARIUM
OR NICHE IN PRIVATE CHAPEL

PLATE VI.
Photo-Lithographed by Rob^t J Cook & Hammond Charing Cross & Westminster E. F. C. Prontis Del.

URNS IN THE CHURCH AND CRYPT.