W.

WAD, bourrelet, a quantity of old rope-yarns rolled firmly together into the form of a ball, and used to confine the shot or shell, together with its charge of powder, in the breech of a piece of artillery.

M. Le Blond observes, in his Elements of war, that the wad is necessary to retain the charge closely in the chamber of the cannon, so that it may not, when fired, be dilated around the sides of the ball, by its windage as it passes through the chace; a circumstance which would considerably diminish the effort of the powder. But as the wad cannot be fastened to the sides of the bore, it is carried away in the same instant when the charge is inflamed, and that with so little resistance, that it cannot in any degree retard the explosion, or give time for the entire inflammation of the powder.

This reasoning may with equal propriety be applied to the wad that covers the bullet; which, nevertheless, is absolutely requisite, to prevent it from rolling out when the piece is fired horizontally or pointed downwards. Both are therefore peculiarly necessary in naval engagements, because, without being thus retained in its chamber, the shot would instantly roll out of the chace by the agitation of the vessel.

WAFT, berne, a signal displayed from the stern of a ship for some particular purpose, by hoisting the ensign, furled up together into a long roll, to the head of its staff. It is particularly used to summon the boats off from the shore to the ship whereto they belong; or as a signal for a pilot to repair aboard. See Signal.

WAIST, that part of a ship which is contained between the quarter-deck and fore-castle, being usually a hollow space, with an ascent of several steps to either of those places.

When the waist of a merchant-ship is only one or two steps of descent from the quarter-deck and fore-castle, she is said to be galley-built; but when it is considerably deeper, as with six or seven steps, she is called frigate-built. See the articles Deck, Deep-waisted, and Frigate.

WAKE, houaiche, the print or track impressed by the course of a ship on the surface of the water. It is formed by the re-union of the body of water, which was separated by the ship’s bottom whilst moving through it and may be seen to a considerable distance behind the stern, as smoother than the rest of the sea. Hence it is usually observed by the compass, to discover the angle of Lee-way.

A ship is said to be in the wake, dans l’eau, of another, when she follows her on the same track, or on a line supposed to be formed on the continuation of her keel. Thus the ships a b, fig. 11. and a b, fig. 7. plate [V]. are all in the wake of the foremost b. See the article Line.

Two distant objects observed at sea are called in the wake of each other, when the view of the farthest is intercepted by the nearest; so that the observer’s eye and the two objects are all placed upon the same right line.

WALE-KNOT, or WALL-KNOT, a particular sort of large knot raised upon the end of a rope, by untwisting the strands, and interweaving them amongst each other. See the article Knot.

WALE-REARED, an obsolete phrase, implying wall-sided, which see.

WALES, preceintes, an assemblage of strong planks extending along a ship’s side, throughout her whole length, at different heights, and serving to reinforce the decks, and form the curves by which the vessel appears light and graceful on the water.

As the wales are framed of planks broader and thicker than the rest, they resemble ranges of hoops encircling the sides and bows. They are usually distinguished into the main-wale and the channel-wale; the breadth and thickness of which are expressed by Q and R in the Midship-frame, plate [VII]. and their length is exhibited in the Elevation, plate [I]. where L Q Z is the main-wale, and D R X the channel-wale, parallel to the former.

The situation of the wales, being ascertained by no invariable rule, is generally submitted to the fancy and judgment of the builder. The position of the gun-ports and scuppers ought, however, to be particularly considered on this occasion, that the wales may not be wounded by too many breaches.

WALL-SIDED, the figure of a ship’s side, when, instead of being incurvated so as to become gradually narrower towards the upper part, it is nearly perpendicular to the surface of the water, like a wall; and hence the derivation of the phrase.

WALT, an obsolete or spurious term signifying crank. See that article.

WARP, a small rope employed occasionally to remove a ship from one place to another, in a port, road, or river. And hence,

To Warp, remorquer, is to change the situation of a ship, by pulling her from one part of a harbour, &c. to some other, by means of warps, which are attached to buoys; to anchors sunk in the bottom; or to certain stations upon the shore, as posts, rings, trees, &c. The ship is accordingly drawn forwards to those stations, either by pulling on the warps by hand, or by the application of some purchase, as a tackle, windlass, or capstern, upon her deck. See those articles.

When this operation is performed by the ship’s lesser anchors, these machines, together with their warps, are carried out in the boats alternately towards the place where the ship is endeavouring to arrive: so that when she is drawn up close to one anchor, the other is carried out to a competent distance before her, and being sunk, serves to fix the other warp by which she is farther advanced.

Warping is generally used when the sails are unbent, or when they cannot be successfully employed, which may either arise from the unfavourable state of the wind, the opposition of the tide, or the narrow limits of the channel.

WASH. See the article Oar.

Wash-board, a broad thin plank fixed occasionally on the top of a boat’s side, so as to continue the height thereof, and be removed at pleasure. It is used to prevent the sea from breaking into the vessel, particularly when the surface is rough, as in tempestuous weather.

WATCH, quart, the space of time wherein one division of a ship’s crew remains upon deck, to perform the necessary services, whilst the rest are relieved from duty, either when the vessel is under sail, or at anchor.

The length of the sea-watch is not equal in the shipping of different nations. It is always kept four hours by our British seamen, if we except the dog-watch between four and eight in the evening, that contains two reliefs, each of which are only two hours on deck. The intent of this is to change the period of the night-watch every twenty-four hours; so that the party watching from eight till twelve in one night, shall watch from midnight till four in the morning on the succeeding one. In France the duration of the watch is extremely different, being in some places six hours, and in others seven or eight; and in Turky and Barbary it is usually five or six hours.

A ship’s company is usually classed into two parties; one of which is called the starboard and the other the larboard watch. It is, however, occasionally separated into three divisions, as in a road or in particular voyages.

In a ship of war the watch is generally commanded by a lieutenant, and in merchant-ships by one of the mates; so that if there are four mates in the latter, there are two in each watch; the first and third being in the larboard, and the second and fourth in the starboard watch: but in the navy the officers who command the watch usually divide themselves into three parts, in order to lighten their duty.

Watch-glasses, horloge, a name given to the glasses employed to measure the period of the watch, or to divide it into any number of equal parts, as hours, half-hours, &c. so that the several stations therein may be regularly kept and relieved; as at the helm, pump, look-out. &c.

To set the Watch, is to appoint one division of the crew to enter upon the duty of the watch; as at eight o’clock in the evening. Hence it is equivalent to mounting the guard in the army. See the French term Bordée.

WATER-BORNE, the state of a ship, with regard to the water surrounding her bottom, when there is barely a sufficient depth of it to float her off from the ground; particularly when she had for some time rested thereon.

For Dead-Water, Foul Water, and High-Water, see Dead, Foul, and High.

Water-lines, lignes d’eau, certain horizontal lines supposed to be drawn about the outside of a ship’s bottom, close to the surface of the water in which she floats. They are accordingly higher or lower upon the bottom, in proportion to the depth of the column of water required to float her. See a particular account of these in the article Naval Architecture.

In order to conceive a clearer idea of the curves of those lines when represented on a plane, let us suppose a ship laid upright on a level ground; so that the keel shall lie in the same position, with respect to the horizon, as when she is laden. We may then describe several black horizontal lines about her bottom, which may be whitened for that purpose.

If a spectator is supposed to be placed, at a competent depth, under the middle of her bottom, in a line perpendicular to the plane of the ground; he will then, viewing the bottom upwards, discover the horizontal curves of all the water-lines.

These curves are all delineated on a plane, supposed to be formed by an horizontal section of the bottom, at the height of the load-water-line, ligne d’eau du vaisseau chargé.

Water-logged, the state of a ship when, by receiving a great quantity of water into her hold, by leaking, &c. she has become heavy and inactive upon the sea, so as to yield without resistance to the efforts of every wave rushing over her decks. As, in this dangerous situation, the center of gravity is no longer fixed, but fluctuating from place to place, the stability of the ship is utterly lost: she is therefore almost totally deprived of the use of her sails, which would operate to overset her, or press the head under water. Hence there is no resource for the crew, except to free her by the pumps, or to abandon her by the boats as soon as possible.

Water-sail, a small sail spread occasionally under the lower studding-sail, or driver-boom, in a fair wind, and smooth sea.

Water-shot. See the article Mooring.

Water-spout, an extraordinary and dangerous meteor, consisting of a large mass of water, collected into a sort of column by the force of a whirlwind, and moved with rapidity along the surface of the sea.

A variety of authors have written on the cause and effects of these meteors, with different degrees of accuracy and probability. As it would be superfluous to enter minutely into their various conjectures, which are frequently grounded on erroneous principles, we shall content ourselves with selecting a few of the latest remarks; and which are apparently supported by philosophical reasoning.

Dr. Franklin, in his physical and meteorological observations, supposes a water-spout and a whirlwind to proceed from the same cause, their only difference being, that the latter passes over the land, and the former over the water. This opinion is corroborated by M. de la Pryme, in the Philosophical Transactions; where he describes two spouts observed at different times in Yorkshire, whose appearances in the air were exactly like those of the spouts at sea; and their effects the same as those of real whirlwinds.

Whirlwinds have generally a progressive as well as a circular motion; so had what is called the spout at Topsham, described in the Transactions; and this also by its effects appears to have been a real whirlwind. Water-spouts have also a progressive motion, which is more or less rapid; being in some violent, and in others barely perceptible.

Whirlwinds generally rise after calms and great heats: the same is observed of water-spouts, which are therefore most frequent in the warm latitudes.

The wind blows every way from a large surrounding space to a whirlwind. Three vessels employed in the whale-fishery, happening to be becalmed, lay in sight of each other, at about a league distance, and in the form of a triangle. After some time a water-spout appeared near the middle of the triangle; when a brisk gale arose, and every vessel made sail. It then appeared to them all by the trimming of their sails, and the course of each vessel, that the spout was to leeward of every one of them; and this observation was farther confirmed by the comparing of accounts, when the different observers afterwards conferred about the subject. Hence whirlwinds and water-spouts agree in this particular likewise.

But if the same meteor which appears a water-spout at sea, should, in its progressive motion, encounter and pass over land, and there produce all the phenomena and effects of a whirlwind, it would afford a stronger conviction that a whirlwind and a water-spout are the same thing. An ingenious correspondent of Dr. Franklin gives one instance of this that fell within his own observation[[57]].

A fluid moving from all points horizontally towards a center, must, at that center, either mount or descend. If a hole be opened in the middle of the bottom of a tub filled with water, the water will flow from all sides to the center, and there descend in a whirl. But air flowing on or near the surface of land or water, from all sides towards a center, must at that center ascend; because the land or water will hinder its descent.

If these concentring currents of air be in the upper region, they may indeed descend in the spout or whirlwind; but then, when the united current reached the earth or water, it would spread, and probably blow every way from the center. There may be whirlwinds of both kinds; but from the effects commonly observed, Dr. Franklin suspects the rising one to be most frequent: when the upper air descends, it is perhaps in a greater body extending wider, as in thunder-gusts, and without much whirling; and when air descends in a spout or whirlwind, he conceives that it would rather press the roof of a house inwards, or force in the tiles, shingles, or thatch, and force a boat down into the water, or a piece of timber into the earth, than snatch them upwards, and carry them away.

The whirlwinds and spouts are not always, though most frequently, in the day-time. The terrible whirlwind which damaged a great part of Rome, June 11. 1749. happened in the night; and was supposed to have been previously a water-spout, it being asserted as an undoubted fact, that it gathered in the neighbouring sea, because it could be traced from Ostia to Rome.

The whirlwind is said to have appeared as a very black, long, and lofty cloud, discoverable, notwithstanding the darkness of the night, by its continually lightening, or emitting flashes on all sides, pushing along with a surprising swiftness, and within three or four feet of the ground. Its general effects on houses were, stripping off the roofs, blowing away chimnies, breaking doors and windows, forcing up the floors, and unpaving the rooms, (some of these effects seem to agree well with a supposed vacuum in the center of the whirlwind) and the very rafters of the houses were broke and dispersed, and even hurled against houses at a considerable distance, &c.

The Doctor, in proceeding to explain his conceptions, begs to be allowed two or three positions, as a foundation for his hypothesis. 1. That the lower region of air is often more heated, and so more rarified, than the upper; and by consequence specifically lighter. The coldness of the upper region is manifested by the hail, which sometimes falls from it in warm weather. 2. That heated air may be very moist, and yet the moisture so equally diffused and rarified as not to be visible till colder air mixes with it, at which time it condenses and becomes visible. Thus our breath, although invisible in summer, becomes visible in winter.

These circumstances being granted, he presupposes a tract of land or sea, of about sixty miles in extent, unsheltered by clouds and unrefreshed by the wind, during a summer’s day, or perhaps for several days without intermission, till it becomes violently heated, together with the lower region of the air in contact with it, so that the latter becomes specifically lighter than the superincumbent higher region of the atmosphere, wherein the clouds are usually floated: he supposes also that the air surrounding this tract has not been so much heated during those days, and therefore remains heavier. The consequence of this, he conceives, should be, that the heated lighter air should ascend, and the heavier descend; and as this rising cannot operate throughout the whole tract at once, because that would leave too extensive a vacuum, the rising will begin precisely in that column which happens to be lighted, or most rarified; and the warm air will flow horizontally from all parts to this column, where the several currents meeting, and joining to rise, a whirl is naturally formed, in the same manner as a whirl is formed in a tub of water, by the descending fluid receding from all sides of the tub towards the hole in the center.

And as the several currents arrive at this central rising column, with a considerable degree of horizontal motion, they cannot suddenly change it to a vertical motion; therefore, as they gradually, in approaching the whirl, decline from right to curve or circular lines, so, having joined the whirl, they ascend by a spiral motion; in the same manner as the water descends spirally through the hole in the tub before mentioned.

Lastly, as the lower air nearest the surface is more rarified by the heat of the sun, it is more impressed by the current of the surrounding cold and heavy air which is to assume its place, and consequently its motion towards the whirl is swiftest, and so the force of the lower part of the whirl strongest, and the centrifugal force of its particles greatest. Hence the vacuum which encloses the axis of the whirl should be greatest near the earth or sea, and diminish gradually as it approaches the region of the clouds, till it ends in a point.

This circle is of various diameters, sometimes very large.

If the vacuum passes over water, the water may rise in a body or column therein to the height of about thirty-two feet. This whirl of air may be as invisible as the air itself, though reaching in reality from the water to the region of cool air, in which our low summer thunder-clouds commonly float; but it will soon become visible at its extremities. The agitation of the water under the whirling of the circle, and the swelling and rising of the water in the commencement of the vacuum, renders it visible below. It is perceived above by the warm air being brought up to the cooler region, where its moisture begins to be condensed by the cold into thick vapour; and is then first discovered at the highest part; which being now cooled, condenses what rises behind it, and this latter acts in the same manner on the succeeding body; where, by the contact of the vapours, the cold operates faster in a right line downwards, than the vapours themselves can climb in a spiral line upwards; they climb, however, and as by continual addition they grow denser, and by consequence increase their centrifugal force, and being risen above the concentrating currents that compose the whirl, they fly off, and form a cloud.

It seems easy to conceive, how, by this successive condensation from above, the spout appears to drop or descend from the cloud, although the materials of which it is composed are all the while ascending. The condensation of the moisture contained in so great a quantity of warm air as may be supposed to rise in a short time in this prodigiously rapid whirl, is perhaps sufficient to form a great extent of cloud: and the friction of the whirling air on the sides of the column may detach great quantities of its water, disperse them into drops, and carry them up in the spiral whirl mixed with the air. The heavier drops may indeed fly off, and fall into a shower about the spout; but much of it will be broken into vapour, and yet remain visible.

As the whirl weakens, the tube may apparently separate in the middle; the column of water subsiding, the superior condensed part drawing up to the cloud. The tube or whirl of air may nevertheless remain entire, the middle only becoming invisible, as not containing any visible matter.

Dr. Stuart, in the Philosophical Transactions, says, “It was observable of all the spouts he saw, but more perceptible of a large one, that towards the end it began to appear like a hollow canal, only black in the borders, but white in the middle; and though it was at first altogether black and opaque, yet the sea-water could very soon after be perceived to fly up along the middle of this canal like smoke in a chimney.”

When Dr. Stuart’s spouts were full charged, that is, when the whirling pipe of air was filled with quantities of drops and vapour torn off from the column, the whole was rendered so dark that it could not be seen through, nor the spiral ascending motion discovered; but when the quantity ascending lessened, the pipe became more transparent, and the ascending motion visible. The spiral motion of the vapours, whose lines intersect each other on the nearest and farthest side of this transparent part, appeared therefore to Stuart like smoke ascending in a chimney; for the quantity being still too great in the line of sight through the sides of the tube, the motion could not be discovered there, and so they represented the solid sides of the chimney.

Dr. Franklin concludes by supposing a whirlwind or spout to be stationary, when the concurring winds are equal but if unequal, the whirl acquires a progressive motion in the direction of the strongest pressure. When the wind that communicates this progression becomes stronger above than below, or below than above, the spout will be bent or inclined. Hence the horizontal process and obliquity of water-spouts are derived.

Water-way, gouttiere, a long piece of timber serving to connect the sides of a ship to her decks, and form a sort of channel to carry off the water from the latter by means of scuppers. See that article.

The convexity of the decks, represented by N, M, N, in the Midship-frame, plate [VII]. necessarily carries the water towards the sides, where this piece is fixed, which is principally designed to prevent the water from lodging in the seams, so as to rot the wood and oakum contained therein. The water-ways N N are therefore hollowed in the middle lengthways, so as to form a kind of gutter or channel, one side of which lies almost horizontally, making part of the deck, whilst the other rises upwards, and corresponds with the side, of which it likewise makes a part. They are scored down about an inch and a half, or two inches, upon the beams, and rest upon lodging-knees or carlings. They are secured by bolts driven from without through the planks, timbers, and water-ways, and clinched upon rings on the inside of the latter.

The scuppers, which are holes by which the water escapes from off the deck, are accordingly cut through the water-ways.

WAVE, a volume of water elevated by the action of the wind upon its surface, into a state of fluctuation.

Mr. Boyle has proved, by a variety of experiments, that the utmost force of the wind never penetrates deeper than six feet into the water; and it should seem a natural consequence of this, that the water put in motion by it can only be elevated to the same height of six feet from the level of the surface in a calm. This six feet of elevation being then added to the six of excavation, in the part whence that water was raised, should give twelve feet for the greatest elevation of a wave, when the height of it is not increased by whirlwinds, or the interruption of rocks or shoals, which always gives an additional elevation to the natural swell of the waves.

We are not to suppose, from this calculation, that no wave of the sea can rise more than six feet above its natural level in open and deep water; for some immensely higher than these are formed in violent tempests, in the great seas. These, however, are not to be accounted waves in their natural state; but they are single waves composed of many others: for in these wide plains of water, when one wave is raised by the wind, and would elevate itself up to the exact height of six feet, and no more, the motion of the water is so great, and the succession of the waves so quick, that during the time wherein this rises, it receives into it several other waves, each of which would have been of the same height with itself. These accordingly run into the first wave, one after another as it rises: by this means its rise is continued much longer than it would naturally have been, and it becomes accumulated to an enormous size. A number of these complicated waves arising together, and being continued in a long succession by the duration of the storm, make the waves so dangerous to shipping, which the sailors, in their phrase, call mountains high.

WAY of a ship, the course or progress which she makes on the water under sail. Thus, when she begins her motion, she is said to be under way; and when that motion increases, she is said to have fresh way through the water. Hence also she is said to have head-way or stern-way. See those articles.

WEARING. See the article Veering.

WEATHER is known to be the particular state of the air with regard to the degree of the wind, to heat or cold, or to driness and moisture.

Weather is also used as an adjective, applied by mariners to every thing lying to-windward of a particular situation. Thus a ship is said to have the weather-gage of another, when she is farther to-windward. Thus also, when, a ship under sail presents either of her sides to the wind, it is then called the weather-side; and all the rigging and furniture situated thereon are distinguished by the same epithet; as, the weather-shrouds, the weather-lifts, the weather-braces, &c. See the article Lee.

To Weather, is to sail to-windward of some ship, bank, or head-land.

Weather-bit, a turn of the cable of a ship about the end of the windlass, without the knight-heads. It is used to check the cable, in order to slacken it gradually out of the ship, in tempestuous weather, or when the ship rides in a strong current. See also Ring-rope.

Weather-shore, a name given by seamen to the shore lying to the windward.

To WEIGH, denotes in general to heave up the anchor of a ship from the ground, in order to prepare her for sailing. See also Aweigh.

WELL, an apartment formed in the middle of a ship’s hold to inclose the pumps, from the bottom to the lower deck. It is used as a barrier to preserve those machines from being damaged by the friction or compression of the materials contained in the hold, and particularly to prevent the entrance of ballast, &c. by which the tubes would presently be choaked, and the pumps rendered incapable of service. By means of this inclosure, the artificers may likewise more readily descend into the hold, in order to examine the state of the pumps, and repair them, as occasion requires.

Well of a fishing-vessel, an apartment in the middle of the hold, which is entirely detached from the rest, being lined with lead on every side, and having the bottom thereof penetrated with a competent number of small holes, passing also through the ship’s floor, so that the salt-water running into the well is always kept as fresh as that in the sea, and yet prevented from communicating itself to the other parts of the hold.

Well-room of a boat, the place in the bottom where the water lies, between the ceiling and the platform of the stern-sheets, from whence it is thrown out into the sea with a scoop.

WHARF, a perpendicular building of wood or stone raised on the shore of a road or harbour, for the convenience of lading or discharging a vessel by means of cranes, tackles, capsterns, &c.

A wharf is built stronger or slighter, in proportion to the effort of the tide or sea which it is to resist, and to the weight which it is intended to support.

WHARFINGER, the person who has the charge of a wharf, and takes account of all the articles landed thereon, or removed from it, into any vessel lying alongside thereof; for which he receives a certain fee called wharfage, which becomes due to the proprietor for the use of his machines and furniture.

WHEEL of the helm. See Helm.

WHELPS. See the article Capstern.

WHIP, a sort of small tackle, either formed by the communication of a rope with a single immoveable block, as fig. 3. plate [XI]. or with two blocks, one of which is fixed, and the other moveable, as fig. 5. It is generally used to hoist up light bodies, as empty casks, &c. out of a ship’s hold, which is accordingly called whipping them up. See Tackle.

To Whip, is also to tie a piece of packthread, spun-yarn, &c. about the end of a rope, to prevent it from being untwisted and loosened.

Boatswain’s WHISTLE. See Call.

WHOODING. See the article Rabbit.

WINCH, a cylindrical piece of timber, furnished with an axis, whose extremities rest in two channels placed horizontally or perpendicularly. It is turned about by means of an handle resembling that of a draw-well, grind-stone, &c. and is generally employed as a purchase, by which a rope may be more conveniently or more powerfully applied to any object, than when used singly, or without the assistance of mechanical powers.

WIND, vent, a stream or current of air which may be felt; and usually blows from one part of the horizon to its opposite part.

The horizon, besides being divided into 360 degrees, like all other circles, is by mariners supposed to be divided into four quadrants, called the north-east, north-west, south-east, and south-west quarters. Each of these quarters they divided into eight equal parts, called points, and each point into four equal parts, called quarter-points. So that the horizon is divided into 32 points, which are called rhumbs or winds; to each wind is assigned a name, which shews from what point of the horizon the wind blows. The points of north, south, east, and west, are called cardinal points and are at the distance of 90 degrees, or eight points from one another.

Winds are either constant or variable, general or particular. Constant winds are such as blow the same way, at least for one or more days; and variable winds are such as frequently shift within a day. A general or reigning wind is that which blows the same way, over a large tract of the earth, almost the whole year. A particular wind is what blows, in any place, sometimes one way, and sometimes another, indifferently. If the wind blows gently, it is called a breeze; if it blows harder, it is called a gale, or a stiff gale; and if it blows with violence, it is called a storm or hard gale[[58]].

The following observations on the wind have been made by skilful seamen: and particularly the great Dr. Halley.

1st. Between the limits of 60 degrees, namely, from 30° of north latitude to 30° of south latitude, there is a constant east wind throughout the year, blowing on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; and this is called the trade-wind.

For as the sun, in moving from east to west, heats the air more immediately under him, and thereby expands it; the air to the eastward is constantly rushing towards the west to restore the equilibrium, or natural state of the atmosphere; and this occasions a perpetual east wind in those limits.

2d. The trade-winds near their northern limits blow between the north and east, and near the southern limits they blow between the south and east.

For as the air is expanded by the heat of the sun near the equator; therefore the air from the northward and southward will both tend towards the equator to restore the equilibrium. Now these motions from the north and south, joined with the foregoing easterly motion, will produce the motions observed near the said limits between the north and east, and between the south and west.

3d. These general motions of the wind are disturbed on the continents, and near their coasts.

For the nature of the soil may either cause the air to be heated or cooled; and hence will arise motions that may be contrary to the foregoing general one.

4th. In some parts of the Indian ocean there are periodical winds, which are called Monsoons; that is, such as blow half the year one way, and the other half-year the contrary way.

For air that is cool and dense, will force the warm and rarefied air in a continual stream upwards, where it must spread itself to preserve the equilibrium: so that the upper course or current of the air shall be contrary to the under current; for the upper air must move from those parts where the greatest heat is; and so, by a kind of circulation, the N. E. trade-wind below will be attended with a S. W. above; and a S. E. below with a N. W. above: And this is confirmed by the experience of seamen, who, as soon as they get out of the trade-winds, generally find a wind blowing from the opposite quarter.

5th. In the Atlantic ocean, near the coasts of Africa, at about 100 leagues from shore between the latitudes of 28° and 10° north, seamen constantly meet with a fresh gale of wind blowing from the N. E.

6th. Those bound to the Caribbee islands, across the Atlantic ocean, find, as they approach the American side, that the said N. E. wind becomes easterly; or seldom blows more than a point from the east, either to the northward or southward.

These trade-winds, on the American side, are extended to 30, 31, or even to 32° of N. latitude; which is about 4° farther than what they extend to on the African side: Also, to the southward of the equator, the trade-winds extend three or four degrees farther towards the coast of Brasil on the American side, than they do near the Cape of Good Hope on the African side.

7th. Between the latitudes of 4° and 4° south, the wind always blows between south and east. On the African side the winds are nearest the south; and on the American side nearest the east. In these seas Dr. Halley observed, that when the wind was eastward, the weather was gloomy, dark, and rainy, with hard gales of wind; but when the wind veered to the southward, the weather generally became serene, with gentle breezes next to a calm.

These winds are somewhat changed by the seasons of the year; for when the sun is far northward, the Brasil S. E. wind gets to the south, and the N. E. wind to the east; and when the sun is far south, the S. E. wind gets to the east, and the N. E. winds on this side of the equator veer more to the north.

8th. Along the coast of Guinea, from Sierra Leone to the island of St. Thomas, (under the equator) which is above 500 leagues, the southerly and south-west winds blow perpetually: for the S. E. trade-wind having passed the equator, and approaching the Guinea coast within 80 or 100 leagues, inclines towards the shore, and becomes south, then S. E. and by degrees, as it approaches the land, it veers about to south, S. S. W. and when very near the land it is S. W. and sometimes W. S. W. This tract is troubled with frequent calms, violent sudden gusts of wind, called tornadoes, blowing from all points of the horizon.

The reason of the wind setting in west on the coast of Guinea, is in all probability owing to the nature of the coast, which being greatly heated by the sun, rarefies the air exceedingly, and consequently the cool air from off the sea will keep rushing in to restore the equilibrium.

9th. Between the 4th and 10th degrees of north latitude, and between the longitude of Cape Verd, and the eastermost of the Cape Verd isles, there is a track of sea which seems to be condemned to perpetual calms, attended with terrible thunder and lightnings, and such frequent rains, that this part of the sea is called the rains. In sailing through these six degrees, ships are said to have been sometimes detained whole months.

The cause of this is apparently, that the westerly winds setting in on this coast, and meeting the general easterly wind in this track, balance each other, and so produce the calms; and the vapours carried thither by each wind meeting and condensing, occasion the almost constant rains.

The last three observations shew the reason of two things which mariners experience in sailing from Europe to India, and in the Guinea trade.

And first. The difficulty which ships in going to the southward, especially in the months of July and August, find in passing between the coast of Guinea and Brasil, notwithstanding the width of this sea is more than 500 leagues. This happens, because the S. E. winds at that time of the year commonly extend some degrees beyond the ordinary limits of 4° N. latitude; and besides coming so much southerly, as to be sometimes south, sometimes a point or two to the west; it then only remains to ply to windward: And if, on the one side, they steer W. S. W. they get a wind more and more easterly; but then there is danger of falling in with the Brasilian coast, or shoals: and if they steer E. S. E. they fall into the neighbourhood of the coast of Guinea, from whence they cannot depart without running easterly as far as the island of St. Thomas; and this is the constant practice of all the Guinea ships.

Secondly. All ships departing from Guinea for Europe, their direct course is northward; but on this course they cannot proceed, because the coast bending nearly east and west, the land is to the northward. Therefore, as the winds on this coast are generally between the S. and W. S. W. they are obliged to steer S. S. E. or south, and with these courses they run off the shore; but in so doing they always find the winds more and more contrary; so that when near the shore, they can lie south; but at a greater distance they can make no better than S. E. and afterwards E. S. E.; with which courses they commonly fetch the island of St. Thomas and Cape Lopez, where finding the winds to the eastward of the south, they sail westerly with it, till coming to the latitude of four degrees south, where they find the S. E. wind blowing perpetually.

On account of these general winds, all those that use the West India trade, and even those bound to Virginia, reckon it their best course to get as soon as they can to the southward, that so they may be certain of a fair and fresh gale to run before it to the westward: And for the same reason those homeward-bound from America endeavour to gain the latitude of 30 degrees, where they first find the winds begin to be variable; though the most ordinary winds in the north Atlantic ocean come from between the south and west.

10th. Between the southern latitudes of 10 and 30 degrees in the Indian ocean, the general trade-wind about the S. E. by S. is found to blow all the year long in the same manner as in the like latitudes in the Ethiopic ocean: and during the six months from May to December, these winds reach to within two degrees of the equator; but during the other six months, from November to June, a N. W. wind blows in the tract lying between the 3d and 10th degrees of southern latitude, in the meridian of the north-end of Madagascar; and between the 2d and 12th degree of south latitude, near the longitude of Sumatra and Java.

11th. In the tract between Sumatra and the African coast, and from three degrees of south latitude quite northward to the Asiatic coasts, including the Arabian sea and the Gulf of Bengal, the Monsoons blow from September to April on the N. E.; and from March to October on the S. W. In the former half-year the wind is more steddy and gentle, and the weather clearer, than in the latter six months: and the wind is more strong and steddy in the Arabian sea than in the Gulf of Bengal.

12th. Between the island of Madagascar and the coast of Africa, and thence northward as far as the equator, there is a tract, wherein from April to October there is a constant fresh S. S. W. wind; which to the northward changes into the W. S. W. wind, blowing at times in the Arabian sea.

13th. To the eastward of Sumatra and Malacca on the north of the equator, and along the coasts of Cambodia and China, quite through the Philippines as far as Japan, the Monsoons blow northerly and southerly; the northern one setting in about October or November, and the southern about May. The winds are not quite so certain as those in the Arabian seas.

14th. Between Sumatra and Java to the west, and New Guinea to the east, the same northerly and southerly winds are observed; but the first half year Monsoon inclines to the N. W. and the latter to the S. E. These winds begin a month or six weeks after those in the Chinese seas set in, and are quite as variable.

15th. These contrary winds do not shift from one point to its opposite all at once; and in some places the time of the change is attended with calms, in others by variable winds: and it often happens on the shores of Coromandel and China, towards the end of the Monsoons, that there are most violent storms, greatly resembling the hurricanes in the West Indies; wherein the wind is so excessively strong, that hardly any thing can resist its force.

All navigation in the Indian ocean must necessarily be regulated by these winds; for if mariners should delay their voyages till the contrary Monsoon begins, they must either sail back, or go into harbour, and wait for the return of the trade-wind.

The relative force of the wind upon a ship’s sails, and the epithets by which it is distinguished, as fair, large, &c. according to the angle which it makes with her course, are explained in the article Sailing.

Reigning Wind. See Reigning Wind.

To Wind a ship or boat, is to change her position, by bringing the stern to lie in the situation of the head; or directly opposite to its former situation.

To Windward, towards that part of the horizon from whence the wind bloweth.

WINDAGE, the difference between the diameter of a piece of artillery, and the diameter of the shot or shell corresponding thereto. See Cannon and Mortar.

WINDING a Call, the act of blowing or piping upon a boatswain’s whistle, so as to communicate the necessary orders of hoisting, heaving, belaying, slackening, &c. See the article Call.

Winding-Tackle, a name usually given to a tackle formed of three fixed and two or three moveable sheaves. It is principally employed to hoist up any weighty materials into or out of a ship, in the exercises of lading and delivering. See Tackle.

WINDLASS, vindas, a machine used in merchant-ships to heave up the anchors from the bottom, &c.

The windlass is a large cylindrical piece of timber, fig. 15. plate [XII]. formed on the principles of the axis in peritrochio. It is supported at the two ends by two frames of wood, a, b, placed on the opposite sides of the deck near the fore-mast, called knight-heads, and is turned about in this position as upon an axis, by levers called handspecs, which are for this purpose thrust into holes bored through the body of the machine. See the article Heaving.

The lower part of the windlass is usually about a foot above the deck. It is, like the capstern, furnished with strong pauls, c, d, to prevent it from turning backwards by the effort of the cable, when charged with the weight of the anchor, or strained by the violent jerking of the ship in a tempestuous sea. The pauls, which are formed of wood or iron, fall into notches, cut in the surface of the windlass, and lined with plates of iron. Each of the pauls being accordingly hung over a particular part of the windlass, falls eight times into the notches at every revolution of the machine, because there are eight notches placed on its circumference under the pauls. So if the windlass is twenty inches in diameter, and purchases five feet of the cable at every revolution, it will be prevented from turning back, or losing any part thereof, at every seven inches nearly, which is heaved in upon its surface.

As this machine is heaved about in a vertical direction, it is evident that the effort of an equal number of men acting upon it will be much more powerful than on the capstern; because their whole weight and strength are applied more readily to the end of the lever employed to turn it about. Whereas, in the horizontal movement of the capstern, the exertion of their force is considerably diminished. It requires, however, some dexterity and address to manage the handspec to the greatest advantage; and to perform this the sailors must all rise at once upon the windlass, and, fixing their bars therein, give a sudden jerk at the same instant, in which movement they are regulated by a sort of song or howl pronounced by one of their number.

The most dextrous managers of the handspec in heaving at the windlass are generally supposed the colliers of Northumberland: and of all European mariners, the Dutch are certainly the most aukward and sluggish in this manœuvre.

WINDSAIL, a sort of wide tube or funnel of canvas, employed to convey a stream of fresh air downward into the lower apartments of a ship.

This machine is usually extended by large hoops situated in different parts of its height. It is let down perpendicularly through the hatches, being expanded at the lower end like the base of a cone; and having its upper part open on the side which is placed to windward, so as to receive the full current of the wind; which, entering the cavity, fills the tube, and rushes downwards into the lower regions of the ship. There are generally three or four of these in our capital ships of war, which, together with the ventilators, contribute greatly to preserve the health of the crew.

WINGS, a name given to those parts of a ship’s hold which are nearest to the sides, or farthest removed from the middle of her breadth.

This term is particularly used in the stowage of the several materials contained in the hold; as, Stow the large casks amidships, and the smaller barrels in the wings. See Trim and Stowage.

Wings are also the skirts or extremities of a fleet when it is ranged into a line a-breast, or when bearing away upon two sides of an angle. Thus the ships a, b. fig. 10. & 11. plate [V]. are in the wings of their fleet or squadron.

It is usual to extend the wings of a fleet in the day-time, in order to discover any enemy which may fall into their track. To prevent separation, however, they are commonly summoned to draw nearer to the center of the squadron before night, by a signal from the commander in chief, which is afterwards repeated by ships in the intervals.

WOOLDING, surlier, (woelen, Dut.) the act of winding a piece of rope about a mast or yard, to support it in a place where it may have been fished or scarfed; or when it is composed of several pieces united into one solid. See Mast.

Woolding is also the rope employed in this service. Those which are fixed on the lower masts, are represented in a, fig. 1, 2, & 3. plate [VI].

To WORK, manœuvrer, to direct the movements of a ship, by adapting the sails to the force and direction of the wind.

A ship is also said to work, when she strains and labours heavily in a tempestuous sea, so as to loosen her joints or timbers. See Pitching and Rolling.

WORKING to windward, the operation by which a ship endeavours to make a progress against the wind. See Beating, Plying, Turning, and Tacking.

WORMING, emieller, the act of winding a rope spirally about a cable, so as to lie close along the interval between every two strands. It is generally designed to support and strengthen the cable, that it may be enabled to sustain a greater effort when the ship rides at anchor; and also to preserve the surface of the cable, where it lies flat upon the ground, near the station of the anchor: particularly in moderate weather.

WRECK, the ruins of a ship which has been stranded or dashed to pieces on a shelf, rock, or lee-shore, by tempestuous weather.

Conclusion of the article Pump.

As we wish to pay all possible attention in this work to every improvement in the marine, we have exhibited in plate [VIII]. a section of this machine at large, as fixed in a frigate of war, fig. 2. wherein A is the keel, and V the floor timbers, and X the kelson, a a a the several links of the chain, b b the valves, C the upper wheels, D the lower wheels, c c the cavities upon the surface of the wheels to receive the valves as they pass round thereon, d d the bolts fixed across the surface of the wheels, to fall in the interval between every two links, to prevent the chain from sliding back.

The links of the chain, which are no other than two long plates of iron with a hole at each end, and fixed together by two bolts serving as axles, are represented on a larger scale as a a. The valves are two circular plates of iron with a piece of leather between them: these are also exhibited at large by b b.

Upon a trial of this machine with the old chain-pump aboard the seaford frigate, it appears, in a report signed by rear admiral Sir John Moore, 12 captains, and 11 lieutenants of his majesty’s navy, that its effects, when compared with the latter, were as follow.

New Pump.Old Pump.
Number of Men.Tuns of Water.Seconds of Time.Number of Men.Tuns of Water.Seconds of Time.
4143½7176
21554181

The subscribers further certify, that the chain of the new pump was dropped into the well, and afterwards taken up and repaired and set at work again in two minutes and a half; and that they have seen the lower wheel of the said pump taken up to show how readily it might be cleared and refitted for action, after being choaked with sand or gravel; which they are of opinion may be performed in four or five minutes.