PART I.
AFRICA.
THIS and the subsequent events are so ably narrated by Mr. Gibbon[17], that it would be presumptuous to enter the same ground. It is sufficient to observe that the Arabs, alternately advancing and repulsed, were not complete masters of Africa, or rather that portion of this vast continent which extends along the Mediterranean Sea, till about the year 709 of our æra. They had not only been opposed by the Greeks, but by the Berbers, or natives of the West. These Berbers were, according to Cardonne, an ancient Arabian colony, which had migrated into Africa, and retained its native speech. They were divided into five tribes, which now amount to about six hundred lineages, partly dwelling under tents, and partly in towns and villages.
Mûsa ben Nasr had effectuated the conquest of Africa before he proceeded to that of Spain. Till this period Africa had remained an appendage to the government of Egypt, which was in quiet submission to the Chalîfs, successors of Mohammed. But Abd-el-aziz, governor of Egypt, having been guilty of great extortions from Hassan the general in Africa, the Chalîf, Walid I. had assigned to Mûsa an independent authority.
Mohammed-ben-Yezîd succeeded Mûsa in the government of Africa.
A.D. 721. Nechrên Seffran was appointed governor of Africa by the Chalîf Yezîd, and died in 727, after having made some incursions into the interior of that continent.
The natives soon after revolted against the Arabs, whom they defeated with great slaughter.
A.D. 741. Hantele-ben-Seffran, governor of Egypt, was sent against them by the Chalîf Hakim. He succeeded in his enterprise; subdued the insurgents with great slaughter, and regained possession of Cairoan, the Arabian capital of Africa, founded by Akbal, about A.D. 670, fifty miles to the south of Tunis.
The revolt reviving, Hantelé again conquered the rebels, whose vast army was conducted by Abd-el-wahhad. The exaggeration of the Arabian authors computes the insurgents slain at an hundred and sixty thousand; and Hantelé, in giving an account of his operations to the Chalîf Hakim, reported that a more sanguinary contest had never been fought.
A.D. 749. The sceptre of the Chalîfs passing from the Ommiades to the Abbassides, Abd-el-rachmân, governor of Africa, refused tribute, assembled the people in the mosque of Cairoan, tore his robe, and abjured the authority of the new Chalîf.
Abd-el-rachmân being slain by his brothers, a civil war arose.
A.D. 772. The Chalîf Abu-Mansûr Djafar sends Yezîd with a strong army to regain Africa. He succeeds, re-establishes tranquillity, and attracts arts and manufactures to Cairoan the capital.
A.D. 786. On the death of Yezîd, the Chalif names Dawûd, son of that leader, to be his successor. Dawûd conquers the insurgent Berbers, and accepts the government of Egypt; his uncle, Ruhh-ben Chatem, succeeding him in that of Africa.
SECT. I.
Dynasty of the Aglabites.
A.D. 800. It was under the reign of the famous Harôn-el-Rashîd, that Ibrahim ben-el-Aghleb, governor of Africa, finally threw off the yoke of the Chalîf of Damascus. Ibrahim secured his authority by maintaining a regular body of troops; and died in 811, being succeeded by his son Abu-’l-abbâs.
Ziadet-Ullah, his successor, subdued Sicily.
837. Abu Akkal ascended the throne of Africa.
840. The next prince, Abu-’l-abbâs, reigned thirty-four years; humane, liberal, and a lover of justice. He was however too much addicted to the pleasures of the table; and it is related, that one day being in a state of intoxication in the town of Sût, he embarked for the isle of Kûssa, and when the fumes of the wine had evaporated, was not a little surprised to find himself in the open sea.
874. Abu-’l-Abbâs had obtained of his brother Ishak an open renunciation, in the chief mosque of Cairoan, of all claim to the crown; yet that prince seized it on his death, to the prejudice of the former’s son. Ishak built a new town, called Rifadé.
A.D. 877. Ishak sends a fleet against Sicily. Syracuse is besieged for nine months, taken, sacked, and all the inhabitants put to the sword. The booty of that commercial city was immense.
The Egyptians invaded Africa, and besieged Tripoli, but were forced to retire on the approach of Ishak, with his regular negro troops.
878. A dreadful famine in Africa; corn at eight pieces of gold the bushel.
Ishak was a most cruel prince. It is reported that he put to death, in one day, sixteen of his own natural daughters by various concubines. His mother presenting him with two beautiful female slaves, he sent her in return a platter covered with a napkin; on lifting it up, instead of jewels as she expected, she beheld the heads of the two slaves. He was succeeded by his son Abu-’l-Abbâs-Abd-ullah, murdered by his brother Ziadet-Ullah, who seized the sceptre of Africa.
908. A revolt arising, the timid Ziadet-Ullah abandoned his dominions, and retired to Egypt, then governed by Basi-el-Nûchîsi, in the name of Mûktadir-b’illah, eighteenth Chalîf of the dynasty of the Abbassides. With Ziadet-Ullah expired the dynasty of the Aglabites, which had ruled Africa for an hundred and eight years[18].
SECT. II.
Dynasty of the Fatimites, or Ismaëlians.
Obeid-ullah, who had seized the authority, resigned it soon after to his son Abu-’l-Cassim. Though the new family was of Egyptian extract, it pretended to deduce its origin from Fâtmé, daughter of Mohammed, through Ismael the sixth Imâm of the posterity of Ali.
Abu-’l-Cassim assuming the style of Mahadi, or real successor of Ali, displayed talents that sanctioned his usurpation. In the first year of his reign he subdued the Edrîssites of the West, and united all the Mohammedan part of Africa.
A.D. 912. Abu-’l-Cassim pours three armies into Egypt, intending to add that rich province to his other domains. The Chalîf Mûktadir, then reigning at Bagdad, had foreseen this design, which was frustrated by the defeat of the armies of Mahadi, though he took Alexandria. He built a city called Mehedié, now Mahdié, on the African shore, which he destined for the seat of his empire. He died in the sixty-third year of his age and twenty-sixth of his reign.
A.D. 933. His son Achmed was less fortunate. He died while his capital Mehedié was besieged by insurgents.
A.D. 945. Ismaîl his son defeated the rebels, and built Mansûriéh in Africa.
952. Abu-Tammim succeeded Ismaîl his father. In 968, he sent Jeuhar, a Greek, at the head of a strong army to seize Egypt, and succeeded. The capital, then styled Misr, or Fostat, opened its gates. Jeuhar built a new capital, which he named Kahira, or the Victorious. Abu-Tammim, surnamed Moaz, in the twentieth year of his reign embarked for Sardinia, then subject to Africa, till Jeuhar should complete the new metropolis.
972. Abu-Tammim lands at Alexandria, where he is met by Jeuhar: advancing to Kahira he was welcomed by the acclamations of his new subjects. To this city he removed all his treasures, and even the bodies of his ancestors.
Jeuhar, the founder, had desired the building to be begun under the horoscope or ascendant of the planet Mars, called Kahir, or conqueror, by the Arabs; and hence it was styled Kahira.
The dynasty of the Fatimites, now transplanted to Egypt, ruled there till the year 1171, (Hejira 566,) when it was supplanted by Salah-el-dîn, the famous Saladin of the Christian authors.
SECT. III.
Dynasty of the Zeirites.
To return to Africa. Abu-Tammim, before he proceeded to Egypt, had resigned the sovereignty of Africa, on condition of homage, to Yussuf-ben-Zeiri, of a family sprung from Arabia Felix.
The people of the province of Muggrib having rebelled, Yussuf defeated them; and Tremesen shewing a disposition to join the Muggrebins, it was razed, and the inhabitants transplanted to Aschir. Another revolt was equally unsuccessful: the chiefs were led in triumph through the streets of Cairoan, and then put to death.
979. Yussuf seized Fez and Sejelmas; and the Chalîfs of Spain lost all their African possessions, except Ceuta.
983. Abu-’l-Cassim Mansûr succeeded his father. He built a palace in the city of Cairoan, which cost eight hundred thousand pieces of gold. His cruelty was shewn in the murder of Abd-ullah his minister, and even in the punishment of the ungrateful rebel Abu-’l-Fahm, whose heart this prince is said to have torn from his body and devoured.
996. His son Abu-Menad received the homage of his nobles in Sardinia, long subject to Africa. The Fatimite Chalîf of Egypt sent him the dress and sabre, the accustomed mark of their superiority over the African monarchy.
Moaz, his son and successor, displayed his rage against heretics, or those Mohammedans who differed from his own sect, by an universal massacre. A Roman Catholic prince, misled by his priests, could not have shewn more inveterate cruelty. Moaz was however so young, that the blame rests with his ministers.
A.D. 1050. An important war arose between Moaz and Mostansir, Chalîf of Egypt, who wished to revive the absolute dominion of his house over Africa. The Egyptians entered the province of Muggrib, by the town of Zenata. Four years after they seized Tripoli. Mûnis, governor of the province of Cairoan, passed over to the enemy. Moaz lost a pitched battle, and took shelter in Mehedié. The Egyptians seized his capital Cairoan, stopped the springs, turned the course of the river, and destroyed the magnificent palaces and delicious gardens of the monarchs of Africa. Moaz, overwhelmed with his misfortunes, sunk into the grave, and closed a long and fortunate reign in the utmost misery.
1061. Tamîm, his eldest son, succeeded to the sceptre.
1088. The Greeks and Franks, equipping a fleet of four hundred sail, landed at the isle of Kûssa in Africa, which they ravaged. They then seized the town of Zawilé, but retired on receiving a contribution of 200,000 pieces of gold. The conquest of Sicily by the Normans had given a military impulse, which Africa was often to feel.
A.D. 1107. Tamîm died, leaving the reputation of a just and generous prince. Having once purchased a slave, and her master, who was enamoured with her, deeply regretting the loss, Tamîm not only restored her, but sent him magnificent presents.
1108. Yaiah, his son and successor, put to death three alchymists, who had misled him by their vain pretensions.
1115. Yaiah died suddenly. Being addicted to astrology, he imagined a particular day would be fatal to him, and passed it in prayer. In the evening, happy that he had escaped the danger, he ordered a magnificent festival, and died as he sat down to table. His son Ali received the homage of his people at Mehedié.
1116. Ali suppressed the pirates of the isle of Gerbi, and received Tunis on submission. The people of Sebât, who robbed the caravans, were severely punished.
1121. Ali prepared a fleet of ten vessels of the first rank, and thirty of the second, against Sicily. Death prevented his designs.
His son Hassan being only in his fifteenth year, dissentions arose among the great.
1125. A Sicilian fleet ravaged the isle of Gerbi.
1146. The Sicilians seized Tripoli, which they held six months, and then retired.
A dreadful famine in Africa, so that even human carcases were devoured. Many of the inhabitants fled to Sicily.
Roger king of Sicily sent out a fleet of an hundred and fifty sail, loaded with soldiers and ammunition. Having captured an African ship, with some pigeons on board, Georgi the Christian admiral forced the captain to write a letter, importing that the Sicilian fleet had sailed to Constantinople. The pigeon flew back to Mehedié; and the inhabitants were exulting in the intelligence, when the hostile fleet appeared before the city. On landing, the Sicilians found the place totally abandoned, and the pillage lasted ten hours. Sfax and Sus were also taken; and the Sicilians became masters of all the coast from Tripoli to Tunis.
These events, accompanied with intestine commotions, terminated the rule of the Zeirite dynasty. Hassan-ben-Ali was the last prince.
SECT. IV.
Dynasty of the Marabûts, called by the Spanish authors Al-Moravides.
Marabût implies a saint; and this dynasty arose to power from a pretended zeal for religion. It originated in the West of Africa, about the year 1060. Yussuf the second prince, in the year 1069 founded Morocco; he conquered part of Spain, and died in 1106. His son Ali was less fortunate, and the short-lived dynasty of the Marabûts was followed by that of the Elmohâds or Unitarians.
SECT. V.
Dynasty of the Elmohâds.
This dynasty originated in Mount Atlas. Tomrût, its founder, was followed by his celebrated disciple Abd-el-mûmin, originally a doctor of theology, but who displayed such talents in war, that Ali, king of Morocco, after meeting with many defeats, died in despair.
Abd-el-mûmin aspiring to the universal sovereignty of the Mohammedans in Africa, besieged and took Oran and Fez, A.D. 1142. Tasfîn, son of Ali, hardly retained Morocco, which was taken by Abd-el-mûmin from Ishak his successor, the last of the Marabût dynasty.
1150. The Moors of Spain having suffered great losses, sent to Abd-el-mûmin to request his aid against the Christians. That ambitious prince eagerly seized the opportunity, and sent several armies into Spain. The following year he conquered Bugia in Africa.
1159. The Sicilians retaining Tunis, and other places on the coast in the Eastern part of Africa, Abd-el-mûmin equipped a fleet, and left Morocco at the head of one hundred thousand combatants. Tunis was taken by treason. Mehedié, surrounded by the sea, except one part which was strongly fortified, was bravely defended by the Sicilians, and their king sent a fleet to their assistance. It was defeated by that of the Mûslims, and famine forced the garrison to surrender.
Abd-el-mûmin, being acknowleged sovereign of all Mohammedan Africa, resolved on the conquest of Spain; but death unexpectedly seized him at Sallî in 1160. He was succeeded by Abu-Yakûb his son.
1180. Abu-Yakûb carried his arms into Spain, where he received the homage of several Arabian princes. He was constrained to return to Africa, on intelligence arriving that a horde of Turks, who had passed from Egypt, had seized Tripoli, and other places. Sfax had also revolted. These commotions were appeased; and, at Mehedié, Abu-Yakûb renewed the truce with Sicily for ten years.
1184. Abu-Yakûb invades Spain, is defeated, and killed. Yakûb his son succeeded him.
The El-Moravides, who had fled to Spain, endeavoured to regain their power in Africa. They were supported by the Turks of Tripoli; but Yakûb took that city, and razed its walls.
1195. Yakûb defeats Alfonso king of Castille at Rema near Cordova, and besieges Toledo. He makes other campaigns in Spain.
1199. Yakûb dies at Sallî, in his forty-eighth year. The sceptre passes to Mohammed-el-Nasîr his son.
Mohammed lost all that his ancestors had possessed in Spain.
1210. He attempts to recover his Spanish territories at the head of 600,000 men, according to the wonted exaggerations of the Arabs; but is completely defeated at the famous battle called Akal by the Arabs, and Vanos-Tolosa by the Spaniards. Mohammed died of vexation the following year. The Elmohâds had possessed Valencia, Seville, Carmona, &c.
1211. Yussuf, son of Mohammed, proved a voluptuous and feeble prince. He reigned twelve years, and died without posterity.
1223. Abd-el-wahhad, his great uncle, succeeded, or was chosen by the grandees. The same year the royal title was transferred to Abd-ullah his nephew, who was murdered by rebels.
1226. Edrîs-ben-Yakûb, brother of Abd-ullah, became king of Africa, and used great cruelties to establish his authority. After reigning five years, he died of an apoplexy.
1231. His son Abd-el-wahhad succeeded, and was drowned when bathing. Other princes of this dynasty were, Said-Abul, 1242; Umer, 1248; Wasîk-Abul, 1266. In this usurper closed the dynasty of the Elmohâds.
Upon the fall of this powerful dynasty, Africa was divided into those petty royalties which still subsist, with few variations.
The family of the Merinis became masters of Fez and Morocco, and were the most powerful of the successors of the Elmohâds.
The Abi-Hafs seized Tunis; and the Beni Ziân enjoyed Tremesen.
Abu-’l-Hassan, sultan of Morocco, became sovereign by conquest, about A.D. 1347, of all the African states; but this power was only a momentary meteor.
About the year 1500 an ambitious Sherîf, or descendant of Mohammed, seized the sovereignty of Morocco; and his descendants, under the style of Sherîfs, retain the power to this day.
The kingdom of Tremesen, on the East of Fez, contained Algier, Oran, &c. It was seized by the Beni Ziân about A.D. 1249. On the death of the last of that race, A.D. 1560, it was united to the Turkish Deydom of Algier.
The power of the Turks in Africa is very recent. It began in 1514, when the pirate Barbarossa seized Algier; and piracy, as is too well known, has become an appendage of their dominion.
Tunis became subject to the Abi-Hafs about A.D. 1240. Abu-Zekeria, the first prince, is said to have extended his contribution to the country of the negroes. A.D. 1270, St. Louis, attacking Tunis, perished by a pestilence.
In 1533 Barbarossa seized Tunis. The expedition of Charles V. 1535, is well known; but the African marygold is its only permanent product. The race of the Abi-Hafs terminated in 1570, when El-Wahhali, a descendant of Barbarossa, and Dey of Algier, took possession of Tunis. The Mohammedan power, on the North and West of Africa, remains divided between the Sherîfs of Morocco and Fez, and the Turks of Algier and Tunis.