Surface Design Evolution
Rule 11a. The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn.
A designer will be materially helped if he devotes a few moments of thought to his design problem before he applies the pencil to the paper. In the end the time given to thinking out his problem will gain for him both increased excellence of design and rapidity of execution, provided his thinking is systematic. A sequential order of points to be observed is given below. The object of systematic thought is to form a mental picture of the enrichment to be in full accord with the materials and construction and to be sympathetically related to the structural axes and to the contours. The unenriched mass has been designed and we are now ready for the consideration of surface enrichment in the following order.
Summary of Steps in Surface Enrichment
(a) Placing the Zone of Service.
1. Where is the zone of service?
(b) Classification of Form.
1. Is the object flat, shallow and circular, low and cylindrical, high and cylindrical?
(c) Placing the Zone of Enrichment.
1. Is the enrichment to be seen from above or from the side? See [Figure 406a].
2. What point of the structure suggested by the form needs surface enrichment? Is it the primary mass, appendages, terminals, links, or details? Let the area selected become the zone of enrichment.
(d) Amount of Enrichment.
1. Will the enrichment cover the full surface, part surface (center or margin), or accented outline?
(e) Location of Inceptive Axis.
1. Is the zone of enrichment associated with a square, rectangle, hexagon, or irregularly shaped flat plane, circular or cylindrical surface? [Figure 470].
2. How should the inceptive axis be placed in the zone of enrichment to harmonize with the structural forms suggested by 1 (e) and the point from which it is viewed 1 (c)? See the violation of this latter point in [Figure 439]. Presumably this inceptive axis will be a vertical center line, horizontal center line, diagonal, diameter, radius, the element of a cylinder, or a dynamic curve for a free border.
(f) Point of Concentration.
Surface Enrichment
1. Where should the point of concentration be located upon the inceptive axis?
(g) Unison of Enrichment and Materials.
1. What decorative process will be adaptable to service, the material, and the contemplated design?
Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin
Plate 59
Summary of Steps in Surface Enrichment
(h) Type of Units.
1. What design units are suited to the process selected in (g), appropriate to the texture and structural lines of the form to be enriched and to its ultimate service? Choice may be made from nature, geometric pattern, or historic ornament.
The above points may all be thought out. Now, with some assurance, the designer may take his pencil and begin to draw the units in their proper position upon or about the inceptive axis with the point of concentration correctly placed in position in the inceptive axis. Rules and suggestions for this execution have been previously given.
(i) Designing of the Units.
1. How should the units be drawn to be in harmony with the inceptive axis, the contours, and to each other?
The above points of approach to surface enrichment represent a logical reasoning process which supplies a line of sequential and developmental pictures that will reduce to a minimum the element of doubt and fog through which the average designer approaches his problem. The steps will, in time, become practically automatic and may be thought out in a surprisingly short period of time.
Rule 11c. The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses.
Large Masses and Their Treatment
As may be expected from briefly considering the illustrations for this chapter as compared with those for small primary masses, [Chapter XIII], it is seen that the units for base and precious metals are larger and bolder than those used for smaller masses. The more effective designs are those whose appropriateness, simplicity, and correct structural proportions and relations appeal to our sense of fitness and beauty.
Door Plates, Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin
Plate 60
Large Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Precious Metal, Plate 58
[Figures 403], [404], and [406] are composed of projects designed mainly on vertical inceptive axes or center lines. The freely balanced natural units in [Figure 403] have the zone of enrichment in the upper portion of the appendage (handles), and the point of concentration in the upper portion of the zone of enrichment. Formal symmetrical balance controls the placing of enrichment in [Figure 404]. Initial letters, through lack of consideration of design principles, are frequently misplaced on masses with little or no consideration given to their mass relations with the structural contours. As a contrast to this, notice the carefully considered relations between the letter W on the tea strainer in [Figure 404] and its adaptation to the contours of the appendage. The stone enrichment on the handle of the paper cutter in [Figure 404] in no way interferes with its use as a cutter and is therefore appropriate as surface enrichment.
The pierced enrichment of the silver box in [Figure 405] contains vertical and horizontal lines which bring the decorative human figures into harmonious relation with the structural contours. [Figure 406] shows both formal and free balance with center and full surface zones of enrichment. C and D could have been improved by a more strongly marked point of concentration which would have added more character to the designs.
Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Base Metal, Plate 59
In [Chapter VIII], the contour terminal enrichment problem was described at some length. Many illustrations on Plates [58], [59], and [60] are, in a way, similar in their type of surface decoration, which is termed surface terminal enrichment. The "happy ending" mentioned in [Chapter VIII] as a suitable means of terminating the contour of a long primary mass or appendage may be similarly treated by suitable surface enrichment, particularly shown in [Figures 403], [404], [407], [408], [409], and [410]. The terminal is quite common as a zone of enrichment.
Contour Versus Surface Enrichment
It is readily seen that when surface enrichment is the prevailing decorative theme it becomes necessary to subordinate contour enrichment to it, Rule 10b, otherwise the strife for dominance arising between these two forms of enrichment will lead to poor and ornate design, [Figure 417]. Whatever contour enrichment is used must be chosen to accord with the surface enrichment, Rule 10d, as noted in the preceding figures and in [Figure 411]. Here we find the closest connection, as the chased forms of the surface at many points merge into the contour. Thus surface and contour are bound together in unity with the surface enrichment, which maintains its dominance throughout.
Surface Enrichment of Hardware, Plate 60
The simple and dignified treatment of the fire set in [Figure 413] is synonymous with the finest type of enrichment for service and beauty, Rule 11b. The peacock motives of [Figures 414] and [415] are applied to the desk set. The motives as used in this case are generally well adapted to their respective areas and inceptive axes.
Rule 11f. Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment.
[Figure 417] is a typical example of over-ornamentation with the surface and contour enrichment struggling in deadly conflict for prominence. In the combat, the natural structural axis has been totally neglected for irrelevant and disconnected ornament. [Figure 418] illustrates correctly related surface ornament, with a dominance of the latter form, Rule 10b. [Figure 419] represents a type of decoration presumably roughened to meet the needs of service. It proves, however, to be unpleasant to the touch and unnecessary as the plain knob is preferable in every way. The naturalistic snake motive of [Figure 421] is repulsive to many people; this and similar decorative motives should be avoided in preference to the more conventionalized pattern of [Figure 422], Rule 11f.
Rule 11e. Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design.
Historic Ornament Applied to Period Hardware Design Door Plates
It is impossible to close these chapters without reference to the influence of the great schools of architectural history upon contemporary design. There is a growing tendency for manufacturers to use period patterns in house decorations which correspond to the design of the building. A Colonial building frequently calls for Colonial hardware, a Gothic church for corresponding surface enrichment of that period.
As introductory illustrations, [Figure 423] stands as a simple example of accented (beveled) contour while [Figure 424] has been accented with reminiscent moulding appropriate to Colonial architecture. They might, however, be used with many simply designed articles of furniture. From this slight indication or portion of a style, we have a more pronounced beginning in [Figure 425] with its clearly marked Greek egg and dart ornamental border. The acanthus leaf of the Byzantine school, [Figure 426], changes to the geometric arabesques of the Moorish school in [Figure 427]. The Gothic arch, cusps, and quatrefoil of [Figure 428] are changed to the classic acanthus foliage of the French Renaissance period. [Figure 429]. Figures [430] and [431] are later developments of the Renaissance. The heavily enriched Flemish pattern completes our illustrations of the use of past forms of ornamentation applied to modern designs. Only a small number from a rapidly enlarging field of period design are shown.
Shallow Circular Forms, Plate 61
With circular plates and trays, the enrichment normally takes the form of a border (marginal enrichment), with the inceptive axes or center lines of the repeated units radiating from the center of the circle. [Figures 433], [435], [436], [437], [438], and [439]. An elliptical form frequently calls for handles and terminal enrichment as shown by [Figure 434].
Both [Figures 437] and [438] have divided points of concentration and would be materially improved by the omission of the center unit A. The small tree used as a connecting link in the border of [Figure 437] should be reversed, as it now possesses a motion or growth contrary to the larger tree units. The contour enrichment in [Figure 438] could well be omitted or moved around to support the surface enrichment. The pierced enrichment A, [Figure 439], is incorrectly used as it is not designed to be seen from above, the normal viewpoint of the tray. The design should have been based upon the horizontal axis of the project similar to [Figure 439] at B.
Low Cylindrical Forms, Plate 62
Differing from the shallow plate, with the increased height of the low cylindrical forms of [Plate 62], there now develops the possibility of enriching the sides of this class of project: a zone of enrichment not readily accessible in the shallow plate form. In addition to the sides there remain the appendages, quite capable of carrying enrichment to advantage. One should control the zone of enrichment in such a manner that the attention will not be equally drawn to both appendage and primary mass. Two points of enrichment, both calling for equal attention, divide the interest in the problem, and cause a lack of unity or oneness.
Rule 11d. The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminals, links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area.
Plate 61
Plate 62
Plate 63
Enrichment upon the appendages may be found in [Figures 440], [441], [442], [445], and on the upper portion of the straight sides of the primary mass in [Figures 443] and [444]. The decorative units composing the border on these straight sides are designed upon the vertical element of the underlying cylindrical form as the inceptive axis. The enrichment for the appendage is well related to the contour of that member and is commonly based upon the center line of the appendage.
Cylindrical Forms, Plate 63
The principles of enriching these higher cylindrical forms in many ways closely parallel those which govern the lower cylindrical forms. The inceptive axes of the decoration on the two vases of Figures [446] and [447] may be readily analyzed as vertical elements of the cylinder. [Figures 448] and [449] are quite rare exceptions of the accentuation of the vertical lines of the cylinder. Horizontal bands similar to [Figures 444] and [447] are more common interpretations of cylinder enrichment. [Figure 450] marks a successful combination of two dissimilar materials with the shade (appendage) as the dominating enriched member. Rule 10c.
The small chased bosses used as enrichment in [Figure 452] are re-echoed on the several pieces of the set which binds them into collective unity. The top portion of the primary mass seems to need some form of enrichment, as the contour adds little to the beauty of that part. The symbol X could have been better located by being moved to that place. The point of concentration should be placed in the upper portion of a large mass whenever that arrangement is possible.
It is in every way desirable that all designs should be executed full size and in full accord with the requirements of a shop working drawing. In addition the technical rendering suggested in [Chapter XIII] should be carefully used in each drawing.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Plates [68] and [72] show problems suitable for class presentation. The method of development is similar to that presented on [Plate 52].
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(a) Draw a primary mass with reference to its proper grouping as follows:
For flat areas draw square, rectangle, etc.
For shallow circular forms draw a circle.
For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with horizontal proportions.
For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with vertical proportions.
(b) Locate zone of service.
(c) Locate zone of enrichment: appendages, terminals, margins, full surface, etc.
(d) Determine amount of enrichment.
(e) Locate inceptive axes.
(f) Place point of concentration in the inceptive axis where it traverses the zone of enrichment.
(g) Select the decorative process suited to the material and contemplated motive.
(h) Draw leading lines toward the point of concentration.
(i) Draw conventionalized design motives based upon the leading lines, converging toward the point of concentration. Vary the contours to be sympathetically related to these design motives, provided such variation of the original primary mass is necessary to complete unity.
(j) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use.
SUGGESTED PROBLEM
Design a copper nut bowl and spoon. Enrich with a chased border appropriate to the subject. Enrich spoon, using fitting method of enrichment. The bowl and spoon should have a harmonious relation.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Surface Enrichment of Large Primary Masses
Rule 11a. The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn.
Rule 11b. Conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting surfaces.
Rule 11c. The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses.
Rule 11d. The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area.
Rule 11e. Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design.
Rule 11f. Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Contrast the method of enriching large and small areas of base and precious metals. Illustrate. What is the character of surface enrichment for large areas?
2. Name three essentials to good surface design for base and precious metals. Illustrate each.
3. Give nine steps necessary for the complete evolution of surface enrichment.
4. Name method of classifying the structural forms of metal into four groups. How does this compare with the classification of clay forms?
5. Between which two groups does the transition from a horizontal to a vertical primary mass occur?
6. Is there a perceptible change in the surface enrichment paralleling this change in proportions of the primary mass?
7. In which group or groups is the relation between surface and contour enrichment closest?
8. Give the characteristics of surface enrichment designed for flat or semi-flat planes.
9. State the value of the terminal as an enrichment zone.
10. Discuss common errors in the surface enrichment of hardware and their correction.
11. In what manner does historic ornament influence industrial design? Why?
12. Give characteristics of surface enrichment designed for, (a) large, shallow circular forms; (b) large, low cylindrical forms; (c) large, high cylindrical forms.
13. How does the point from which the article is to be seen affect the character of the design?
Chapter XV
COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS
Need of Harmonious Color
In the previous chapters we have developed problems dealing with proportions, contours, and surface enrichment. The use of color, particularly in surface enrichment, is equally important inasmuch as its use is often necessary to bring the project, as for example a piece of furniture, into harmony with the surroundings which furnish its final color environment. The incorrect use of color may seriously mar a project otherwise correctly designed in line and form, and may also weaken its influence in a particular setting.
Use of Color Systems
While there are a number of excellent systems of color notation, it is well to bear in mind that a color system, however excellent, is a good servant but a poor master. It is nevertheless considered as essential to have a definite knowledge of some systematically developed color system in order that we may methodically apply color to the structural form with some degree of certainty.
Color Pigments for Design Rendering
For rendering drawings of problems involving the use of color it is suggested that the beginner use the tempera, or opaque colors now on the market. These colors readily adapt themselves to the average problem, while their rich hues are more successful than those produced from the ordinary water colors. Tubes of cobalt blue, ultramarine, light chrome yellow, vermilion, emerald green, crimson madder, black, and white will serve to solve the problems demanded by this chapter.
Application of Pigment
Rendering of Wood Stains
White is used to lighten and black to darken the pigments, which should be mixed with water to the consistency of cream, and applied to cover well the surface of the paper. One should guard against a thin, transparent wash, as the desired effect is a velvety opaque and evenly tinted surface only possible with the thick application of color. The pigment will dry out about one-quarter lighter than when first applied. The usual school color box of three pigments is useful for rendering wood stains. These pigments may be used in thin flat washes and will exhibit a transparent effect analogous to the effect of a wood stain. The natural color of wood may be first represented and, when dry, followed by a second thin wash of the hue of the wood stain.
Lacking as we are in a definite color nomenclature or standards, it now becomes necessary to describe the processes and define the terms necessary to the designer.
Hue and Hue Rectangles
Hue is the technical name for color; a change of color means a change of hue. For the designer's purposes we will select twelve equally graded colors or hues from the spectrum and term them standard hues. Each hue will have twenty-seven modifications or gradations, which is a sufficient number for our purpose. These gradations are to be graphically recorded by and contained in a diagram to be known as a hue rectangle. There are twelve of these rectangles, one for each of the selected hues, and they are found arranged in sequence in [Figure 454].
Standard Hues
Full Chromatic Intensity
By referring to [Figure 455], it is seen that the twelve selected standard hues are represented at what is termed full chromatic intensity, which, to the designer, means hues of the full strength of his color pigment. This is far short of the true color intensity of the spectrum, but for industrial arts purposes these hues are strong enough to serve as standards for comparison and classification. The hues should be evenly graded from red at the left to red violet at the right without noticeable unevenness in the gradations. Red violet is the link which connects the right end with the left, thus completing the circuit of the twelve hues. The following pigment table gives name and symbol of various hues.
Approximate Related Standard Hues
| HUES | PIGMENTS | VALUES | SYMBOLS |
| Red | Pure crimson madder | High dark | R-HD |
| Orange | Crimson madder and vermilion | Middle | OR-M |
| Orange | Vermilion and light chrome yellow | Low light | O-LL |
| Orange yellow | Vermilion and light chrome yellow | Light | OY-L |
| Yellow | Pure light chrome yellow | High light | Y-HL |
| Yellow green | Light chrome yellow and emerald green | Light | YG-L |
| Green | Pure emerald green | Low light | G-LL |
| Green blue | Emerald green and cobalt blue | Middle | GB-M |
| Blue | Pure cobalt blue | High dark | B-HD |
| Blue violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Dark | BV-D |
| Violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Low dark | V-LD |
| Red violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Dark | RV-D |
Locating Standard Hues
It now becomes imperative to locate each standard hue at its definite place in each rectangle. This invariably occurs at a predetermined point in the left vertical boundary of the rectangle of that hue. From inspection of [Figure 455], it is quickly seen that violet seems to be the darkest hue; yellow the lightest, with the others between these hues. This variation of what is termed their value gives us a guide to their proper placing in the hue rectangle.
Values and Horizontal Value Lines
Value is that quality by which we may distinguish a dark hue from a light one. For design purposes we will imagine the hue rectangle to grade from white at the top to black at the bottom. We will draw horizontal lines or steps across the rectangle, marking nine even value steps from white to black; the top one to be termed White (W), followed by High Light (HL); Light (L); Low Light (LL); Middle (M); High Dark (HD); Dark (D); Low Dark (LD); and Black (B). These value steps may be thought of as a scale of gray or neutral values descending the right boundary of the hue rectangle. They have been roughly indicated in the hue rectangle at the left of [Figure 454].
Relation of the Standard Hue to the Hue Rectangle
Each standard hue may now be located in the left boundary of its hue rectangle and opposite its neutral gray equivalent in the right boundary. If the standard hue is accurately determined by the designer, it will be of exactly the same value as its gray equivalent given in the "value" column of the pigment table. The small arrows leading from [Figure 455] to [454] show where four standard hues are located; the remaining hues are located in the left circle of each successive row in the remaining rectangles, and upon their respective value lines. Standard hues are expressed by the symbols in the right column of the pigment table.
Tints
Each standard pigment or hue may be thinned with opaque white to lighten it, forming what is known as a tint of that hue. Red, in [Figure 454], reaching its full chromatic intensity at the value High Dark, may be lightened four times before it ultimately arrives at white. Each step is to be considered as occurring in the left hand boundary of the rectangle above the standard hue, and is to be recorded by the symbols, R-M: R-LL: R-L: R-HL. Orange yellow has only one possible tint. Strawberry, light lavender, rose, etc., are merely nicknames for various tints.
Shades
Each standard hue may be darkened by the application of black, thus forming shades of that hue. Red is capable of producing two shades, R-D and R-LD, which are placed in the left boundary of the hue rectangle below the standard hue. Browns, russets, and dark tans are shades of different hues.
These modifications of the standard hues into tints and shades give to the designer simple variations of his too brilliant standards. But even these modifications are not sufficiently grayed for staining or painting large wood or wall surfaces. There is a brilliancy and glare about certain tints which require modification. The shades are safer for use on large areas. The remaining space in the interior of the hue rectangle is to be devoted to the last gradation of the standard hue.
Chroma
Chroma is the strength of a color. It is the quality by which we distinguish a strong color from a weak one. The standard hue is approximately full chromatic intensity. Likewise each tint and shade is considered to be of its full chromatic intensity, making the left-hand boundary of the rectangle the area of full chroma.
From this boundary, each tint, standard, and shade fades out or loses chroma until the right boundary of the rectangle is reached. In this boundary each tint, standard, and shade has faded out of its gray equivalent, but without changing its original value; in other words it has traveled along its horizontal value line to a complete grayness. The right-hand boundary of the rectangle may then be represented by a gray value scale of nine steps, including white and black.
Vertical Chroma Lines
It becomes necessary to record at regular intervals, this loss of chroma. For this purpose, we have cut the hue rectangle by three vertical lines. The first vertical line from the left boundary of the rectangle marks the position where the standard with its tints and shades have been grayed to the point where only three-fourths of the original of hue remains. Similarly, the center and right vertical lines mark the points where one-half and one-fourth, respectively, of the color have been retained. These losses of chroma are recorded by similar fractions. With possible modifications of value and chroma each hue now has twenty-seven possible changes.
Full Hue Symbols
The full hue title or symbol may now be written as follows: (1) hue name, (2) amount of chroma, (3) value. Examples: GB¾D-V½HL. We are now in a position to write whatever color we may have in mind and another person will understand it, provided the other person adopts our standard. Through the teachings of Dr. D.W. Ross, Mr. A.H. Munsell, and others, the symbols and standards are now quite generally understood and have, in a slightly modified form been accepted in several standard color industries.
Technical Practice
Warm and Cold Colors
To familiarize oneself with the mixing of the various hues, it is excellent practice to form a vertical gray scale of the three-quarter-inch squares. There should be nine steps from white to black; an enlarged duplication of the right boundary of the hue rectangle. The warm standard hues at their full standard intensities; RV-R-OR-O-OY-Y, may be formed and placed opposite their gray equivalents on the left side of the gray scale, while the remaining or cold colors may be similarly placed with relation to the gray scale but upon the right of it.
Scales of Color
A vertical scale of tints and shades of one of the hues, duplicating the left side of the rectangle gives the character of the tints and shades. One shade and one tint should then be carried along a horizontal value line through three steps of loss of chroma to complete grayness, but without change of the original value. Yellow, by the addition of black becomes a false greenish shade which may be corrected by the addition of a small amount of vermilion.
Wood Stains
A large percentage of natural wood hues are to be found between the hue rectangles, Red-Orange, Yellow and Green, or in the warm portion of the spectrum. As a wood stain must blend harmoniously with the natural wood color, it is reasonable to expect the best results from stains with a predominance of warm hues or warm grays in their composition.
Basic Primary Hues
It is possible to duplicate nearly all the twelve standard hues of [Figure 455] with mixtures of the three so-called primary hues of red, yellow, and blue. It makes a fairly approximate scale which is, however, not sufficiently accurate for standardizing purposes. The scale is formed by mixing red and yellow in varying proportions for the intermediate hues of orange, yellow, and blue for the greens, and blue and red for the violets. This practice of mixing three primary colors together serves as an important step, governing wood stain mixing for beginners.
Three Basic Aniline Wood Dyes
Developing this idea further, we may select aniline brilliant scarlet as approximating red; metanil yellow, approximating yellow; and acid green as a substitute for blue. These stains are shown in the top portion of [Figure 456]. By comparison with [Figure 455], scarlet is found to be orange red; metanil yellow, orange, and acid green to be true standard green. These basic stains have been located in their proper positions with regard to their hue, value, and chroma. Their positions are located by the large circles in the hue diagrams of [Figure 456].
Wood Stain Mixing
These stains are modified and reduced in chroma and value by mixing them with nigrosene black, an aniline dye of blue black appearance, which fills all the needs of an ivory black in water or oil color pigment. With these four stains, almost any commercial stain may be duplicated. Aniline dye for water stains readily dissolves in water while a special aniline for oil staining is first cut with naphtha.
Dark Mahogany Stain
Dark mahogany stain in [Figure 456] is orange red, ¾HD, and is indicated by the circle A in the same figure. To duplicate this stain we have as the nearest base stain, brilliant scarlet, which corresponds to orange red. This is placed at its full intensity in the circle OR on the middle horizontal value line. To duplicate dark mahogany stain it will be necessary to reduce in value a strong solution of brilliant scarlet, slightly more than one horizontal value step, by the addition of nigrosene. We shall then add a small amount of some thinning medium, oil or water, to reduce slightly the stain in chroma.
Flemish Oak Stain
Flemish oak stain is orange ¾D. This calls for a mixture of metanil yellow and brilliant scarlet aniline to form the orange hue. We must then add nigrosene to reduce the value to D, and add a small amount of thinner to produce the necessary reduction in chroma.
Fumed Oak Stain
This is commonly produced by fuming the wood with ammonia. The hue may however be closely duplicated by a mixture of brilliant scarlet, metanil yellow, and nigrosene. It is practically the same as Flemish oak, but possesses one-quarter more color as can be seen on the orange hue rectangle.
Olive Green Stain
The circle D shows this stain to be slightly below yellow green, ¾M, in value and chroma. The hue rectangle containing it is nearer the green than the orange yellow rectangle; hence in mixing the stain we should keep the green hue dominant by adding more of it than of metanil yellow. As in other stains, nigrosene is added to reduce the full chromatic intensities of the aniline to the proper value and chroma of olive green stain.
Light Weathered Oak Stain
Color Changes of the Stain
This stain is practically blue, 1/4M, and is formed by thinning nigrosene to the proper value.
Aniline dyes are apt to fade if exposed to full sunlight. There are, however, certain preventives that are beyond the scope of this book to treat in detail. The natural color of the wood is inclined to make a stain warmer than when originally mixed. This should be allowed for. Wood filler, the wood grain, porosity, qualities, and hue of the wood, all influence the final value of the stain. It frequently becomes darker in value as may be seen by comparing [Figure 456] and [Figures 458] to [461]. It is good policy to test the stain upon different woods to observe the final effect. The tests may be kept for future reference.
It is readily seen from the few examples in [Figure 456] that, with the three basic stains, almost any other stains may be produced, thus affording a broad field for harmonious selection and adaptation to the environment. The [next chapters] will take up the question of color harmony and its application to wood, wall surfaces, clay, and metal.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
See paragraph upon "Technical Practice" in this chapter, [page 198].
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What pigments are best adapted to rendering design problems? What pigments are particularly adapted to the rendering of wood stains? How should each be applied?
2. What are standard hues? Why do we need standards of hue?
3. Define the term values.
4. What are tints and shades?
5. Define fully the term chroma.
6. Bound the hue rectangle and trace the value and chroma changes occurring on its vertical and horizontal lines.
7. Locate in its proper hue rectangle ([Figure 455]) the following hues: OY ¾HD; YG ½LL; RV ¾M; YL.
8. Name the three primary hues. How may an approximate scale of twelve hues be prepared from them?
9. Name the three basic aniline wood dyes and give their relation to the three primary hues. What is the practical use of nigrosene in stain mixing?
10. Give the symbol and explain the method of mixing Flemish oak wood stain. Name and explain the method of mixing two others.
11. How does its application to wood effect the color and value of aniline stain?
Plate 64