EXERCISE THE FORTY-FIFTH.
What is the material of the chick, and how is it formed in the egg?
Since, then, we are of opinion, that for the acquisition of truth, we cannot rely on the theories of others, whether these rest on mere assertions, or even may have been confirmed by plausible arguments, except there be added thereto a diligent course of observation; we propose to show, by clearly-arranged remarks derived from the book of nature, what is the material of the fœtus, and in what manner it thence takes its origin. We have seen that one thing is made out of another (tanquam ex materia) in two ways, and this as well in works of art, as in those of nature, and more particularly in the generation of animals.
One of these ways, viz., when the object is made out of something pre-existing, is exemplified by the formation of a bed out of wood, or a statue from stone; in which case, the whole material of the future piece of work has already been in existence, before it is finished into form, or any part of the work is yet begun; the second method is, when the material is both made and brought into form at the same time. Just then as the works of art are accomplished in two manners, one, in which the workman cuts the material already prepared, divides it, and rejects what is superfluous, till he leaves it in the desired shape (as is the custom of the statuary); the other, as when the potter educes a form out of clay by the addition of parts, or increasing its mass, and giving it a figure, at the same time that he provides the material, which he prepares, adapts, and applies to his work; (and in this point of view, the form may be said rather to have been made than educed;) so exactly is it with regard to the generation of animals.
Some, out of a material previously concocted, and that has already attained its bulk, receive their forms and transfigurations; and all their parts are fashioned simultaneously, each with its distinctive characteristic, by the process called metamorphosis, and in this way a perfect animal is at once born; on the other hand, there are some in which one part is made before another, and then from the same material, afterwards receive at once nutrition, bulk, and form: that is to say, they have some parts made before, some after others, and these are at the same time increased in size and altered in form. The structure of these animals commences from some one part as its nucleus and origin, by the instrumentality of which the rest of the limbs are joined on, and this we say takes place by the method of epigenesis, namely, by degrees, part after part; and this is, in preference to the other mode, generation properly so called.
In the former of the ways mentioned, the generation of insects is effected where by metamorphosis a worm is born from an egg; or out of a putrescent material, the drying of a moist substance or the moistening of a dry one, rudiments are created, from which, as from a caterpillar grown to its full size, or from an aurelia, springs a butterfly or fly already of a proper size, which never attains to any larger growth after it is first born; this is called metamorphosis. But the more perfect animals with red blood are made by epigenesis, or the superaddition of parts. In the former, chance or hazard seems the principal promoter of generation, and there, the form is due to the potency of a preexisting material; and the first cause of generation is ‘matter,’ rather than ‘an external efficient;’ whence it happens too that these animals are less perfect, less preservative of their own races, and less abiding, than the red-blooded terrestrial or aquatic animals, which owe their immortality to one constant source, viz. the perpetuation of the same species; of this circumstance we assign the first cause to nature and the vegetative faculty.
Some animals then are born of their own accord, concocted out of matter spontaneously, or by chance, as Aristotle seems to assert, when he speaks of animals whose matter is capable of receiving an impulse from itself, viz. the same impulse given by hazard, as is attributable to the seed, in the generation of other animals. And the same thing happens in art, as in the generation of animals. Some things, which are the result of art, are so likewise of chance, as good health; others always owe their existence to art; for instance, a house. Bees, wasps, butterflies, and whatever is generated from caterpillars by metamorphosis, are said to have sprung from chance, and therefore to be not preservative of their own race; the contrary is the case with the lion and the cock; they owe their existence as it were to nature or an operative faculty of a divine quality, and require for their propagation an identity of species, rather than any supply of fitting material.
In the generation by metamorphosis forms are created as if by the impression of a seal, or, as if they were adjusted in a mould; in truth the whole material is transformed. But an animal which is created by epigenesis attracts, prepares, elaborates, and makes use of the material, all at the same time; the processes of formation and growth are simultaneous. In the former the plastic force cuts up, and distributes, and reduces into limbs the same homogeneous material; and makes out of a homogeneous material organs which are dissimilar. But in the latter, while it creates in succession parts which are differently and variously distributed, it requires and makes a material which is also various in its nature, and variously distributed, and such as is now adapted to the formation of one part, now of another; on which account we believe the perfect hen’s-egg to be constituted of various parts.
Now it appears clear from my history, that the generation of the chick from the egg is the result of epigenesis, rather than of metamorphosis, and that all its parts are not fashioned simultaneously, but emerge in their due succession and order; it appears, too, that its form proceeds simultaneously with its growth, and its growth with its form; also that the generation of some parts supervenes on others previously existing, from which they become distinct; lastly, that its origin, growth, and consummation are brought about by the method of nutrition; and that at length the fœtus is thus produced. For the formative faculty of the chick rather acquires and prepares its own material for itself than only finds it when prepared, and the chick seems to be formed and to receive its growth from no other than itself. And, as all things receive their growth from the same power by which they are created, so likewise should we believe, that by the same power by which the chick is preserved, and caused to grow from the commencement, (whether that may have been the soul or a faculty of the soul,) by that power, I say, is it also created. For the same efficient and conservative faculty is found in the egg as in the chick; and of the same material of which it constitutes the first particle of the chick, out of the very same does it nourish, increase, and superadd all the other parts. Lastly, in generation by metamorphosis the whole is distributed and separated into parts; but in that by epigenesis the whole is put together out of parts in a certain order, and constituted from them.
Wherefore Fabricius was in error when he looked for the material of the chick, (as a distinct part of the egg, from which its body was formed,) as if the chick were created by metamorphosis, or a transformation of the material in mass; and as if all, or at least the principal parts of the body sprang from the same material, and, to use his own words, were incorporated simultaneously. [He is, therefore, of course opposed to the notion] of the chick being formed by epigenesis, in which a certain order is observed according to the dignity and the use of parts, where at first a small foundation is, as it were, laid, which, in the course of growth, has at one and the same time distinct structures formed and its figure established, and acquires an additional birth of parts afterwards, each in its own order; in the same way, for instance, as the bud bursting from the top of the acorn, in the course of its growth, has its parts separately taking the form of root, wood, pith, bark, boughs, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit, until at length out comes a perfect tree; just so is it with the creation of the chick in the egg: the little cicatrix, or small spot, the foundation of the future structure, grows into the eye and is at the same time separated into the colliquament; in the centre of which the punctum sanguineum pulsans commences its being, together with the ramification of the veins; to these is presently added the nebula, and the first concretion of the future body; this also, in proportion as its bulk increases, is gradually divided and distinguished into parts, which however do not all emerge at the same time, but one after the other, and each in its proper order. To conclude, then: in the generation of those animals which are created by epigenesis, and are formed in parts, (as the chick in the egg,) we need not seek one material for the incorporation of the fœtus, another for its commencing nutrition and growth; for it receives such nutrition and growth from the same material out of which it is made; and, vice versâ, the chick in the egg is constituted out of the materials of its nutrition and growth. And an animal which is capable of nutrition is of the same potency as one which is augmentative, as we shall afterwards show; and they differ only, as Aristotle says, in their distinctness of being; in all other respects they are alike. For, in so far as anything is convertible into a substance, it is nutritious, and under certain conditions it is augmentative: in virtue of its repairing a loss of substance, it is called nutriment, in virtue of its being added, where there is no such loss of substance, it is called increment. Now the material of the chick, in the processes of generation, nutrition, and augmentation is equally to be considered as aliment and increment. We say simply that anything is generated, when no part of it has pre-existed; we speak of its being nourished and growing when it has already existed. The part of the fœtus which is first formed is said to be begotten or born; all substitutions or additions are called adnascent, or aggenerate. In all there is the same transmutation or generation from the same to the same; as concerns a part, this is performed by the process of nutrition and augmentation, but as regards the whole, by simple generation; in other respects the same processes occur equally. For from the same source from which the material first takes its existence, from that source also does it gain nutriment and increase. Moreover, from what we shall presently say, it will be made clear that all the parts of the body are nourished by a common nutritious juice; for, as all plants arise from one and the same common nutriment, (whether it be dew or a moisture from the earth,) altered and concocted in a diversity of manners, by which they are also nourished and grow; so likewise to identical fluids of the egg, namely, the albumen and the yelk, do the whole chick and each of its parts owe their birth and growth.
We will explain, also, what are the animals whose generation takes place by metamorphosis, and of what kind is the pre-existent material of insects which take their origin from a worm or a caterpillar; a material from which, by transmutation alone, all their parts are simultaneously constituted and embodied, and a perfect animal is born; likewise, to what animals any constant order in the successive generation of their parts attaches, as is the case with such as are at first born in an imperfect condition, and afterwards grow to maturity and perfection; and this happens to all those that are born from an egg. As in these the processes of growth and formation are carried on at the same time, and a separation and distinction of parts takes place in a regularly observed order, so in their case is there no immediate pre-existing material present, for the incorporation of the fœtus, (such as the mixture of the semina of the male and female is generally thought to be, or the menstrual blood, or some very small portion of the egg,) but as soon as ever the material is created and prepared, so soon are growth and form commenced; the nutriment is immediately accompanied by the presence of that which it has to feed. And this kind of generation is the result of epigenesis as the man proceeds from the boy; the edifice of the body, to wit, is raised on the punctum saliens as a foundation; as a ship is made from a keel, and as a potter makes a vessel, as the carpenter forms a footstool out of a piece of wood, or a statuary his statue from a block of marble. For out of the same material from which the first part of the chick or its smallest particle springs, from the very same is the whole chick born; whence the first little drop of blood, thence also proceeds its whole mass by means of generation in the egg; nor is there any difference between the elements which constitute and form the limbs or organs of the body, and those out of which all their similar parts, to wit, the skin, the flesh, veins, membranes, nerves, cartilages, and bones, derive their origin. For the part which was at first soft and fleshy, afterwards, in the course of its growth, and without any change in the matter of nutrition, becomes a nerve, a ligament, a tendon; what was a simple membrane becomes an investing tunic; what had been cartilage is afterwards found to be a spinous process of bone, all variously diversified out of the same similar material. For a similar organic body (which the vulgar believe to consist of the elements) is not created out of elements at first existing separately, and then put together, united, and altered; nor is it put together out of constituent parts; but, from a transmutation of it when in a mixed state, another compound is created: to take an instance, from the colliquament the blood is formed, from the blood the structure of the body arises, which appears to be homogeneous in the beginning, and resembles the spermatic jelly; but from this the parts are at first delineated by an obscure division, and afterwards become separate and distinct organs.
Those parts, I say, are not made similar by any successive union of dissimilar and heterogeneous elements, but spring out of a similar material through the process of generation, have their different elements assigned to them by the same process, and are made dissimilar. Just as if the whole chick was created by a command to this effect, of the Divine Architect: “let there be a similar colourless mass, and let it be divided into parts and made to increase, and in the meantime, while it is growing, let there be a separation and delineation of parts; and let this part be harder, and denser, and more glistening, that be softer and more coloured,” and it was so. Now it is in this very manner that the structure of the chick in the egg goes on day by day; all its parts are formed, nourished, and augmented out of the same material. First, from the spine arise the sides, and the bones are distinguishable from the flesh by minute lines of extreme whiteness; in the head three bullæ are perceived, full of crystalline fluid, which correspond to the brain, the cerebellum, and one eye, easily observable by a black speck; the substance which at first appears a milky coagulum, afterwards gradually becomes cartilaginous, has spinous processes attached to it, and ends in being completely osseous; what was at first of a mucous nature and colourless, is converted at length into red flesh and parenchyma; what was at one time limpid and perfectly pure water, presently assumes the form of brain, cerebellum, and eyes. For there is a greater and more divine mystery in the generation of animals, than the simple collecting together, alteration, and composition of a whole out of parts would seem to imply; inasmuch as here the whole has a separate constitution and existence before its parts, the mixture before the elements. But of this more at another time, when we come to specify the causes of these things.
EXERCISE THE FORTY-SIXTH.
Of the efficient cause of the generation of the chick and fœtus.
We have thus far spoken of the matter from which the chick in ovo is generated. We have still with Fabricius to say a few words on the efficient cause of the chick. As this subject is surrounded with difficulties, however; as writers nowhere else dispute more virulently or more wordily, and Aristotle himself in explaining the matter is singularly intricate and perplexed, and as various questions that can by no means be lightly treated do in fact present themselves for consideration, I conceive that I shall be undertaking a task worthy of the toil if, as I have done in the disquisition on the “matter,” I set out here by stating in how many ways anything can be said to be “efficient” or “effective.” We shall thus obtain a clearer idea of what it is which we are to inquire after under the name of “efficient,” and further, what estimate we are to form of the ideas of writers upon this subject; it will at the same time appear from our observations what is truly and properly to be called “an efficient.”
Aristotle[253] defines an efficient cause to be that “whence is derived the first principle of change or quiescence; as a counsel, a father; and simply as doing that which is done; the transmute of the thing transmuted.” In the generation of animals accordingly many and various kinds of cause inducing motion are brought forward; sometimes an accident or quality is assigned; and so animal heat and the formative faculty are called efficient causes. Sometimes it is an external substance, previously existing, in which inheres the plastic force or formative faculty that is designated in the same way; as the cock or his seminal fluid, by the influence of which the chick is procreated from the egg. Occasionally it is some internal substance, self-existent, such as spirit, or innate heat. And again, it is some other substance, such as form, or nature, or soul, or some portion of the vegetative soul, that is regarded as the efficient, such a principle as we have already declared to inhere in the egg.
Besides, since one thing whence motion proceeds is nearer and another more remote, it sometimes happens that the media between the prime efficient and the thing last effected, and instruments are regarded as efficient causes; subordinate conclusions, likewise, or the principles of subsequents, are reckoned among the number of efficient causes; in this way some parts are themselves spoken of as genital parts, such as the heart, whence Aristotle affirms that all the rest of the body is produced; a statement which we have found borne out by our history. The heart, I repeat, or at all events its rudimentary parts, namely, the vesicle and pulsating point, construct the rest of the body as their future dwelling-place; when erected it enters and conceals itself within its habitation, which it vivifies and governs, and applying the ribs and sternum as a defence, it walls itself about. And there it abides, the household divinity, first seat of the soul, prime receptacle of the innate heat, perennial centre of animal action; source and origin of all the faculties; only solace in adversity!
Moreover, since the “efficient” is so styled with reference to the effect, as some parts produced by epigenesis are posterior in order to other parts, and are different from antecedent parts,—as effects differ, so does it seem probable that efficients also vary: from things that produce different operations, different motions likewise proceed. Thus physicians in their physiologies assign certain organs as the agents of chylification, others of sanguification, others of generation, &c.; and anatomists speak of the ossific, carnific, and neurific faculties, which they conceive produce bones, flesh, and nerves.
But in the generation of the chick, of several actions differing not a little from one another, it is certain that the efficient causes must also differ; those that present themselves to us as accidental efficients of generation must nevertheless be necessary, seeing, that unless they are associated or intervene, nothing is effected; those, to wit, are rightly held “efficients” which, whilst they remove external hinderances, either cherish the conception, or stimulate and turn mere potentiality into positive action. Under this head we should arrange incubation, the proper temperature of the air and the place, the spring season, the approach of the sun in the circle of the zodiac; in like manner the preparing causes which lead the vitellus to rise, make the macula to dilate, and the fluids in the egg to liquefy, are all properly held “efficients.”
Further, to the number of efficient causes are to be reckoned the generative and architectonic faculties, styled parts by Fabricius, viz., the immutative, the concoctive, the formative, the augmentative, as also the effective causes of certain accidentals, viz., that which constitutes the pullet male or female, like the father or the mother, taking after the form of the first or last male having connection with the mother; that too whence the offspring is an animal; whether perfect or defective; robust and healthy, or diseased; longer or shorter lived; keeping up the characters of the race or degenerating from them; a monster, an hybrid, &c.
Lastly, when we were discussing the efficient causes of the fœtus, we were not inattentive to its admirable structure, to the functions and uses of all its parts and members; neither did we overlook the foresight, the art, the intelligence, the divine inspiration with which all things were ordained and skilfully continued for the ends of life. It is not enough that we inquire what is the “efficient,” the architect, the adviser, but that we likewise venerate and adore the omnipotent Creator and preserver of a work, which has been well entitled a microcosm. We also ask whence this divine something comes, when it arrives, and where it resides in the egg; this something which is analogous to the essence of the stars, and is near akin to art and intelligence, and the vicar of the Almighty Creator?
From what precedes it will be apparent how difficult it were to enumerate all the efficient causes of the chick; it is indispensable, indeed, in the complete investigation of this subject to refer to a general disquisition; we could not from the single generation of the chick in ovo, and without clearer light derived from investigations extended to other animals, venture on conclusions that should be applicable to the whole animal creation. And this all the more, since Aristotle himself has enumerated such a variety of efficient principles of animals; for he at one time adduces the ‘male’[254] as the principal efficient cause, as that, to wit, in which the reason of the engendered chick resides, according to the axiom;[255] “all things are made by the same ‘univocal:’” at another time he takes ‘the male semen;’[256] or, ‘the nature of the male emitting semen:’[257] sometimes it is ‘that which inheres in the semen,’[258] ‘which causes seeds to be prolific, spirit, to wit, and nature in that spirit corresponding in its qualities to the essence of the stars:’ elsewhere he says it is ‘heat;’[259] ‘moderate heat;’[260] ‘a certain and proportionate degree of heat;’[261] ‘the heat in the blood;’[262] ‘the heat of the ambient air;’ ‘the winds;’[263] ‘the sun;’ ‘the heavens;’ ‘Jupiter;’ ‘the soul;’ and, somewhere, nature is spoken of by him as ‘the principle of motion and rest.’
Aristotle[264] concludes the discussion on the efficient cause by declaring it “extremely doubtful” whether it be “anything extrinsic; or something inherent in the geniture or semen; and whether it be any part of the soul, or the soul itself, or something having a soul?”
To escape from such a labyrinth of “efficient causes,” it were necessary to be furnished with Ariadne’s thread, composed from observations on almost every animal that lives; on this account the subject is deferred till we come to our more general disquisition. Meantime we shall recount the particulars which either manifestly appear in the special history of the chick from the egg, or which differ from the ideas usually entertained, or that seem to demand further inquiry.