CHAPTER III.
Permanent way—Rails—Sleepers—Fastenings—and Permanent way laying.
Rails.—Accustomed as we now are to the substantial character of the permanent way of our railways, we can scarcely realize that in the earlier examples the rails or tram-plates were made of wood. The first lines of which we find any record were those constructed to facilitate the conveyance of coal, iron ore, stone, slate, or other heavy materials to shipping ports or points of distribution. Speed was a matter of little importance, the principal object being to introduce a distinct surface or roadway which would allow a heavier load to be hauled without increasing the hauling power. As a heavily loaded wheelbarrow, difficult to move on an ordinary road, can be readily wheeled along a wooden plank, so it may have been inferred that strong timber, laid in parallel lines and level and even on the upper surface, would form a track, or roadway, presenting far less resistance than the ordinary gravelled or paved roads.
The wooden tramway was the first improvement over the ordinary road. The idea once originated, various types were soon introduced, and the sketch shown in [Fig. 227] illustrates one which appears to have been early suggested and largely adopted. Wooden cross-sleepers, A, A, were placed at convenient spaces, and on the top of these strong timber planks or beams, B, B, were spiked at proper distances to suit the wheels of the waggons or four-wheel trucks, which had flat tyres like ordinary carts. The spaces between the sleepers were filled in with gravel or broken stone to form a roadway or hauling path for the horses. A little later double rails were introduced, by placing a second or upper timber on the top of the lower one, as in [Fig. 228].
This double rail arrangement not only strengthened the framework, but by increasing the height allowed a greater
quantity of suitable material to be placed over the sleepers to protect them from wear by the horses’ feet. It can be easily understood that a wooden tramway could not be very durable. It would be affected by the sun, rain, and snow, and particles of sand and gravel thrown on to the tram beams from the hauling path would hasten the abrading or wearing away of the soft portions of the timber into hollows, leaving the hard knots standing out as projections. The uneven surface would produce a series of blows every time a loaded truck passed along, loosening the pieces and rendering the repairs constant and expensive. To obviate the rapid wear of the tram-timbers continuous narrow bars of wrought-iron were fastened on to the running-surfaces; these in a measure prolonged the life of the timbers, but at the same time added to the number of the pieces and fastenings to be maintained.
Primitive as this description of road appears to be, it was in use for many years in some parts of the United States of America, and even after the introduction of the early locomotives; timber was abundant and cheap, and iron in any form was costly. These long thin strips of iron, placed as in [Fig. 232], had a tendency to become unfastened at the ends, and to curl up in a very alarming manner, which earned for them the soubriquet of snake heads. Although iron was only used to a limited extent in the first instance, it was soon found to be a much more suitable material for a tram-path than the best timber. As a next progressive step we find that the tram-plates were made entirely of iron, of full width for the wheel-tyres, and with a guiding flange to keep the wheels on the proper track. In some cases the guiding flanges were placed inside the wheels, as in [Figs. 229 and 230], and in others outside, as in [Fig. 231]. With the former plan a thicker covering of gravel or broken stones could be laid down to protect the sleepers under the horse-path.
These solid tram-plates were made of cast-iron, that metal being considered the most convenient for manufacture and the least liable to suffer loss from rust and oxidization. Another advantage of the cast-iron was that broken tram-plates could be melted down and recast at a moderate cost.
Long lengths of these cast-iron plate tramways were laid down in this country and abroad, and short portions of some of them remain in existence even to the present day. They
were of immense service for the transportation of heavy materials, and without their adventitious aid many valuable collieries and quarries must long have remained idle and undeveloped. In thus providing a level, smooth, and comparatively durable wheel-track for the waggons, these tramways became the fitting pioneers of the great railway system which was to follow.
Notwithstanding the great superiority of the cast-iron plates as compared with the former timber beams, much inconvenience was still caused by gravel and dirt falling on to the wheel-track and seriously impeding the haulage of the waggons. To overcome this difficulty the next step taken was to remove the guiding flange from the tram-plate and transfer it to the wheel, thus developing and introducing the original flanged wheel. This was a most important step, and paved the way for other improvements. The rails, or edge rails, as they were at first called, were made sufficiently high to allow ample space for the wheel-flanges to clear the ground, and were secured to cast-iron chairs placed on wooden cross-sleepers, or in some cases to stone blocks, as shown in [Figs. 233, 234, and 235]. The narrow top of rail, and its height above the horse-path, effectually prevented the lodgment of gravel or dirt, and the flanges on the wheels ensured a more even course. From the irregular and easily choked-up tram-plate, the system changed to the clean rail and properly defined track. Waggons could be hauled with greater freedom, and with less wear and tear to themselves and to the roadway.
At this time the use of the steam-engine was becoming more general, and a fine field was opened out for its application as a motive-power on the tramways. Stationary engines, or winding engines, as they were called, were first employed to haul the trucks by means of long ropes passed round revolving drums, and supported at intervals by grooved pulleys placed between the rails at suitable distances. In this way fair loads could be conveyed, and at moderate cost; but the system was found to be only suitable for short distances, and it had the great drawback that horses or other motive-power were still necessary for sorting or distributing the trucks before and after their transit by rope haulage.
The next great advance was to place the steam-engine on wheels, to enable it to haul and accompany the trucks. Crude
and imperfect as the primitive locomotives must have been, a very short trial of them served to show that the rails of cast-iron then in use were totally unfitted to form a trackway for the newly invented machines. The short fish-bellied cast-iron rails were made in lengths merely to extend from chair to chair; they possessed little or no continuity, and from the inherent brittleness of the material they were constantly breaking and giving way under the increased weights imposed upon them. It became necessary to adopt a more reliable material, and attention was naturally turned to forged or wrought iron. The suggestion once made was promptly responded to by the iron makers. Special machinery was designed and constructed, and very soon wrought-iron rails were manufactured in large quantities. At first they were made very similar in section to the fish-belly cast-iron rails, but in lengths to extend over three or four sleepers. The increased length gave greater stability to the road, and permitted an increase of speed. The manifest superiority of the wrought-iron rails led to their universal adoption, and a great impetus was thus given to their manufacture. Improvements were made in the machinery for rolling, and more care was bestowed in the working of the iron. Changes were made in the section of the rails; the fish-belly form was discarded, and a double-head type was introduced to give more lateral stiffness. At this period in its history the capabilities of the iron road began to be more fully recognized, and the supporters of the system foresaw a great future success, both for the conveyance of passengers as well as goods. Hitherto the tramroads or railroads had been used for minerals and merchandize only, but it was now claimed that on a carefully constructed line, and with improved locomotives and rolling-stock, it would be possible to convey passengers more conveniently and rapidly than by any other method.
Inventive minds were at work to accomplish so desirable an object, and public enterprise was forthcoming to provide funds for the purpose. The successful working of the first passenger line formed the dawn of a new era in travelling, and similar lines were soon projected for other places. The wrought-iron rails in use at this time were generally of a double head form, and rarely exceeded 12 or 15 feet in length. They were held by wooden pegs in cast-iron chairs, which were secured to
timber cross-sleepers or stone blocks, as shown in [Figs. 234 and 235].
They were light in section, and it is stated that the first rails on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway weighed only 33 lbs. per yard.
The railway system spread rapidly, and the constantly increasing traffic of all kinds soon necessitated heavier rails. Various sections were devised and tried on different lines, one of the main objects in view being to obtain a steady road for the increasing speeds, as well as one of durability. Some of these sections are shown in [Figs. 236 to 258].
Sections [236 to 248] all required chairs to attach them to the sleepers. The flange rails, [249 to 253], and bridge rails, [254 to 256], also rail [257], were designed to rest direct upon the sleepers without the necessity of chairs; and the Barlow rail, [258], with its great width of 11 or 12 inches, was intended to be used without sleepers of any kind, the gauge being secured by means of angle iron tie-bars.
Rails were rolled heavier and longer, and more care was bestowed on the fastenings; but, notwithstanding these improvements, the rail-joints still continued to be the weak point in the road. Even with an extra large joint-chair and stout wooden key, there was much vertical play at the ends of the rails, producing objectionable noise and vibration in the running, and acting detrimentally on all the fastenings. The introduction of fish-plates at the rail-joints, as shown in [Fig. 259], effected an improvement which cannot be overrated, as by their adoption such security, speed, and smoothness became attainable as were not before possible. With a pair of simple rolled wrought-iron fish-plates, or splices, and four bolts—two through the end of each rail—a better, smoother, and more effectual joint was obtained than had ever been produced by the heavy cast-iron joint-chairs. The system of fishing, or splicing, was at once admitted to be the simplest and most direct method of joining the rails; and, although minor detailed improvements have since been made, the arrangement, as a principle, has never been superseded. Many miles of fished rails were laid down with a chair, or support, placed immediately under the joint, forming the method termed the supported fish-joint; but experience proved that this mode of application did not give such a good result as the suspended fish-joint, and the latter plan has now been adopted on almost all railways.
The experience obtained year after year in the wear of rails under heavy traffic, led to continued improvements both in the method of rolling and in the selection of the iron to form the rail-pile; one description of iron was found more suitable for the head, or running surface, and another for the vertical web; but, even with the best machinery and most carefully assorted materials, high-class wrought-iron rails were liable to lamination, and long thin strips of iron became detached from the upper, or wearing, surface. The rail was composed of many layers of iron, and it was not always possible to ensure that they were all thoroughly welded, or incorporated together. As early as 1854 a few experimental solid steel rails were laid down on some of the principal railways, and gave excellent results as to evenness of wear and durability, but their cost of manufacture rendered their extended use almost prohibitory.
Compound rails of steel and wrought-iron, as in [Fig. 260], were also tried on several railways, but the practical results were not such as to lead to a very extended adoption. In preparing the pile for a compound rail, suitable wrought-iron bars were placed to form the lower member or flange, the web, and part of the head, and a slab of steel was placed on the top to form the upper portion of head, or wearing surface of the rail. It was intended that in the process of rolling these distinct layers were to be incorporated together, to form the section shown in [Fig. 260]. Doubtless many good wearing rails were manufactured on this system, but the inherent difference of the two materials, steel and iron, rendered it very difficult to ensure such uniform incorporation as would withstand the constant pounding under heavy, fast traffic. It was not until some years later that the process of the Bessemer Converter was discovered and perfected, by means of which steel can be produced in large quantities far more rapidly and at much less cost than by any other method hitherto adopted. The introduction of this process for making steel caused a complete revolution in the material for rails. Steel which had previously been excluded on account of its cost, could now be supplied at a moderate price, and, from its compact and homogeneous character, promised a very much longer wearing life than the best wrought-iron rails that had ever been rolled. Experience has shown that these promises have been fully verified; wrought-iron rails are things of the past, steel rails have taken their place, and can now be
purchased at a less price per ton than the iron rails of twenty years ago.
It is interesting to note that out of the many varied sections that have been designed, some of which are shown in the sketches described, only two have practically survived—the bullhead rail and the flange rail. The bull-head rail, [Fig. 261], has grown out of the original double-head rail, which had both the top and bottom members made to the same section and weight, with the object that, when the upper table had become so much worn as to be unfit for further use, then the rail could be turned, and the other table, or head, brought into service. Experience, however, proved that turned rails formed a most uneven and unsatisfactory road, the long contact with the cast-iron chairs resulted in serious indentations at the rail-seats, rendering the rails totally unfitted for smooth running. In practice, therefore, it has been found better to restrict the running wear to one head only, and to give increased sectional area to that head, and, at the same time to diminish the sectional area of the lower member to a corresponding extent, but to retain the same width, so as to obtain a full bearing surface on the cast-iron chair. Steel bull-head rails are now adopted on nearly all the principal lines at home, and on several of the leading lines abroad.
The flange rail, [Fig. 265], was designed to give a broad, direct bearing on the sleepers, and thus avoid the necessity of using chairs. Rails of this section have been laid down on many of our lines at home, and are very largely used on the Continent, in the United States of America, and in our colonies generally. This section is, also, nearly always adopted for narrow-gauge railways. Having fewer parts, it makes a cheaper road than the bull-head rail, but is not considered so strong or suitable for heavy and fast traffic. Comparing the two rails shown in [Figs. 261 and 265], each having exactly the same size and sectional area in the head, it will be seen that there is more material in the lower member, or flange, of the one rail than there is in the lower member of the other; the weight per lineal yard being 79 lbs. for the former and 75 lbs. for the latter. But this small excess in the weight and cost of the flange rail falls very short of the cost of the cast-iron chairs and wooden keys necessary for the bull-head rail.
Up to the years 1870-1875, it was the common practice to make the top, or wearing surface of the rail, comparatively
round, as shown on the typical sections, [Figs. 263 and 267]. The effect of this sharp-curved outline was to limit the first wearing, or contact surface to a narrow strip along the head of rail, causing a tendency to groove or form hollows in the treads of the wheel-tyres. As the rail wore down, the upper surface assumed a much flatter curve, more closely assimilated to the section of the wheel-tyre, and giving better results for regular wear under heavy traffic. Profiting by this experience, the rails of the present day are made much flatter on the head than they were formerly, as will be noted from the sections shown on [Figs. 261, 266, and 269], which represent types of rails now actually in use on some of the principal railways.
In designing a rail for any given line, the section and weight of the rail must necessarily be influenced by the weight of the rolling-stock passing over it, and the amount of the traffic it has to sustain.
The engine, being the heaviest vehicle in the train, will give the measure of the greatest weight on one pair of wheels. Engines vary considerably on different lines, ranging from ten tons to eighteen tons or more on one pair of driving-wheels, according to the description of work to be performed.
Very often secondary or branch lines, with comparatively light traffic, have steep gradients, necessitating engines as heavy as on a main trunk line; but the number of trains on the former may not exceed twenty per day, while on the latter they may amount to one hundred and fifty or two hundred. It is evident that the rail which would last for very many years under the small traffic, would have a very short life under the frequent traffic. Hence the reason why it is found expedient to give a large increase of material in the heads of rails carrying the heavy, constant train service of many of our main lines.
[Figs. 261, 262, and 263] are sections of rails in use on lines having heavy engines and fast trains, but with a comparatively small daily train service, and [Figs. 264, 266, 267, and 268] are sections of rails carrying the heavy, fast, and incessant traffic of some of our leading lines.
On lines having small traffic, slow speeds, easy gradients, and comparatively light engines, a reduced section of rail may be adopted; but in doing so it is well to allow for any probable future development of traffic which might cause the introduction of heavier engines.
[Figs. 269 to 272] show sections of rails varying from 72 to 60 lbs. per yard, also a section of a 45-lb. steel flange-rail, much used on 3-foot narrow-gauge railways.
Valuable and interesting statistics have from time to time been recorded, with a view to ascertain the average life of a steel rail, by obtaining the number of million tons of train load which it would sustain before it became worn down to such an extent as to be no longer of service on the line. It will be readily understood that the rate of wear of a steel rail will depend not only on the weight and section of the rail itself, but on the class of rolling-stock, and the description of traffic it has to carry. It will also be largely affected by the circumstances of whether the line is on a level or on an incline.
The writer has had careful measurement taken of the wear of the steel flange-rail ([Fig. 265]), 79 lbs. per yard, and the result shows that with a traffic not exceeding twenty-four goods and passenger trains per day, one-tenth of an inch was worn off the top of the rail in ten years on the comparatively level portions of the line; but that the same amount of one-tenth of an inch was worn off in six years by the same traffic, on the same district of the line, in places where the gradients varied from 1 in 100 to 1 in 70. The heavy pounding of the engines, and the working of the brakes tend very materially to shorten the life of the rails on the inclines.
As now made, the steel rails manufactured under the converter process exhibit great similarity in the analysis of their component parts; at the same time it is well known that a slight preponderance or reduction of one or more of the constituents will result in making the steel hard or soft. The following statement gives the analysis of twelve steel rails, six of which were classed as hard steel, and six as soft steel:—
Hard Steel.—Analysis of Six Steel Rails which broke either in Testing or in Line.
| 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | |
| Carbon | 0·47 | 0·51 | 0·56 | 0·43 | 0·470 | 0·540 |
| Silicon | 0·09 | 0·08 | 0·08 | 0·09 | 0·095 | 0·121 |
| Sulphur | 0·06 | 0·06 | 0·06 | 0·06 | 0·054 | 0·056 |
| Phosphorus | 0·07 | 0·06 | 0·06 | 0·08 | 0·080 | 0·057 |
| Manganese | 1·23 | 1·10 | 0·90 | 1·23 | 1·150 | 1·260 |
| Iron | 98·08 | 98·19 | 98·34 | 98·11 | 98·151 | 97·966 |
| 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 |
| 1. | 2. | 3. | |
| Carbon | 0·47 | 0·51 | 0·56 |
| Silicon | 0·09 | 0·08 | 0·08 |
| Sulphur | 0·06 | 0·06 | 0·06 |
| Phosphorus | 0·07 | 0·06 | 0·06 |
| Manganese | 1·23 | 1·10 | 0·90 |
| Iron | 98·08 | 98·19 | 98·34 |
| 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 |
| 4. | 5. | 6. | |
| Carbon | 0·43 | 0·470 | 0·540 |
| Silicon | 0·09 | 0·095 | 0·121 |
| Sulphur | 0·06 | 0·054 | 0·056 |
| Phosphorus | 0·08 | 0·080 | 0·057 |
| Manganese | 1·23 | 1·150 | 1·260 |
| Iron | 98·11 | 98·151 | 97·966 |
| 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 |
Soft Steel.—Analysis of Six Steel Rails which stood the Test well, and bent freely without showing any Sign of Fracture.
| 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | |
| Carbon | 0·350 | 0·390 | 0·370 | 0·340 | 0·350 | 0·250 |
| Silicon | 0·060 | 0·070 | 0·070 | 0·080 | 0·070 | 0·069 |
| Sulphur | 0·062 | 0·061 | 0·062 | 0·061 | 0·061 | 0·046 |
| Phosphorus | 0·061 | 0·061 | 0·061 | 0·063 | 0·062 | 0·058 |
| Manganese | 0·870 | 0·875 | 0·866 | 0·864 | 0·800 | 0·636 |
| Iron | 98·597 | 98·543 | 98·571 | 98·592 | 98·657 | 98·941 |
| 100·000 | 100·000 | 100·000 | 100·000 | 100·000 | 100·000 |
| 1. | 2. | 3. | |
| Carbon | 0·350 | 0·390 | 0·370 |
| Silicon | 0·060 | 0·070 | 0·070 |
| Sulphur | 0·062 | 0·061 | 0·062 |
| Phosphorus | 0·061 | 0·061 | 0·061 |
| Manganese | 0·870 | 0·875 | 0·866 |
| Iron | 98·597 | 98·543 | 98·571 |
| 100·000 | 100·000 | 100·000 |
| 4. | 5. | 6. | |
| Carbon | 0·340 | 0·350 | 0·250 |
| Silicon | 0·080 | 0·070 | 0·069 |
| Sulphur | 0·061 | 0·061 | 0·046 |
| Phosphorus | 0·063 | 0·062 | 0·058 |
| Manganese | 0·864 | 0·800 | 0·636 |
| Iron | 98·592 | 98·657 | 98·941 |
| 100·000 | 100·000 | 100·000 |
Many rails which have been broken in the line under traffic have been analyzed, and proved to be hard steel; while others, which have been bent into all sorts of shapes, but not broken during accidents or derailments, have also been tested, and proved to be of soft steel.
Some engineers are advocates for a hard steel rail, and claim for it greater durability and longer wear; but even supposing such hard rail should possess a slight superiority over the soft rail, it is well to consider whether such assumed advantage is not obtained at the risk of incurring greater liability to fracture. It must be borne in mind that a rail, once placed in the road, is exposed to all the changes of temperature from heat to frost, and has frequently to sustain increased strains arising from loose sleepers, where the gravel or ballast has been disturbed during heavy rains.
When writing a specification for steel rails, it is usual to state the number of tons per square inch in tensile strain which the steel must be able to sustain without fracture, and also to stipulate that some of the rails will be tested by the falling-weight test. In the latter test a rail is placed, say at 3 feet bearings, and in a similar position to what it would occupy in the road, and a weight of eighteen hundredweight, or one ton or more, according to section of rail, is allowed to fall from a height of 9 or 10 feet, on to the rail, at the centre between the bearings. With three blows from the given height, the rail must not bend or deflect more than a specified amount. The falling-weight test is, perhaps, rather a rough and ready one; but it is always reassuring to prove that the rails will withstand such a severe ordeal, as it must be a very exceptional circumstance in the routine of railway working which will produce a blow or shock
equal in effect to the falling-weight test. The rails form such an important part of the trackway, almost the very basis on which the traffic has to depend for its safety, that, apart from the question of wear, no effort should be spared to ensure their thorough soundness and efficiency.
In modern practice rails are generally used in lengths varying from 25 feet to 30 feet. There is no difficulty in making them longer; but any excess over the above lengths is found to be inconvenient for transport, for handling in the line, and for making the necessary allowance for contraction and expansion at the joints. Steel rails are generally marked on the vertical web with the initials of the railway company, the name of the manufacturer, and the year in which they are rolled. This is done by cutting out the letters in the last pair of rolls through which the rails have to pass before they are completed, so that on the rails themselves the letters stand out in raised characters, thus: G.N.R.I.......C. CAMMELL & Co 1896. In this manner the rails always carry for reference the name of maker and date.
When comparing the relative merits of the flange-rail and bull-head-rail permanent way, the question of strength and durability must be considered, as well as that of economy. The flange-rail road has undoubtedly fewer parts and fastenings, and when the flange is wide, the sleepers sound, and the rail securely held down to the sleepers, the result is a smooth running road. So long as the rail can be maintained in a constant close contact with the wooden sleeper, the running is almost noiseless, the jarring on the rails being absorbed or taken off by the timber; but so soon as a little space or play takes place between the spikes or other fastenings and the upper surface of the flange, the rail obtains a certain amount of rise, or lift, which comes into action upon the passing of every rolling load, producing unsteadiness in the rail and a clattering noise in the running. A flange of 5 inches, on a sleeper 10 inches wide, has a bearing surface of 50 square inches (assuming the sleeper to be square cut, without any wane on the edges), and this area of 50 inches is only about half of the bearing surface on the sleeper of an ordinary modern cast-iron chair.
Main-line locomotives have weights on the driving-wheels varying from 16 to 18 and 20 tons. Taking 18 tons as representing a common practice for a large express engine, would
give 9 tons as the weight imposed on each rail by each driving-wheel Assuming this weight to be distributed over three sleepers would give a dead weight of 3 tons per sleeper, or 134 lbs. on every square inch of the 50 square inches of surface, or rail-bearing area, on each sleeper, without taking into account the effect of the blow or percussion from the rolling load. The presence of a loose sleeper throws additional weight on the adjoining sleepers, and increases the destructive influence on the timber. The constant application of heavy rolling loads on a small bearing area of timber crushes and wears away the timber very rapidly. The small bearing surface of the flange rail expedites the cutting down into the sleeper, and as the rail beds itself further and further into the wood, the fastenings must be driven or screwed down to follow the flange. Spikes may be driven down, but the further they go they have a less thickness of timber for a bed, and therefore a diminished hold. Crab bolts are apt to become rusted or ironbound, so that they cannot be screwed further, and must then be taken out and replaced with new ones. The narrower the flange, the more rapidly does the rail-seat cut down to a thickness inconsistent with safety. The sharp edge of the flange-rail has a tendency to cut a channel in the spike, and it is not at all an unusual occurrence to find strong square shanked dog-spikes, which have been thus cut into to the extent of a third or even half their thickness. The comparative narrow flange places the spikes at great disadvantage in point of leverage for holding down, and this weakness is soon made manifest, particularly on curves, where additional crab bolts or other devices are rendered necessary to counteract the tendency of the rail to rock and tilt over sideways. When the head of the rail cannot be kept in its proper position, the gauge becomes widened, and an irregular sinuous motion takes place in the running of the train. This drawback has been found to be a serious matter where light narrow flange rails have been adopted to carry comparatively heavy, short wheel-base engines. In some cases wrought-iron sole-plates, or even cast-iron bracket-chairs, have been introduced to give more bearing surface on the sleeper and increased support to the rail, but neither of the two methods give the same simple complete hold to the rail that is obtained by the cast-iron chair for the bull-head rail.
On the other hand, the modern cast-iron chair for the bull-head
rail has at least double the bearing surface on the sleeper to that of the flange-rail seat, so that under the same circumstances of rolling load as above described, the weight of 134 lbs. per square inch would be reduced to half, or 67 lbs. The greater length given to the chair effectually prevents any rocking action on the part of the rail, and reduces to a minimum any lifting action on the spike. A good fitting chair—especially when keyed on the inside—provides a most effectual support to the rail both vertically and laterally, and maintains the rail to accurate gauge. By giving proper clearance space at the tops of the chair-jaws, a bull-head rail can be taken out by simply driving out the wooden keys, and a new rail inserted without in any way disturbing the chairs or spikes. To change a flange rail necessitates the slackening and removal of a large number of the spikes and crab bolts.
As the sleepers under the chair road suffer less from the crushing of the timber, they have a much longer life in the line, and remain serviceable until they are incapacitated from decay. This is a very important item in places where timber sleepers are expensive. The steadiness of the chair prolongs the efficiency of the spikes.
As the actual wearing portion of the rail is the head, or wheel contact surface, a liberal area—consistent with the expected traffic—must be given to that part, whether for a bull-head rail or a flange rail. By comparing the two sections, [Figs. 273 and 274], the one for an 85-lb. bull-head rail, and the other for a 100-lb. flange rail, it will be seen from the dotted lines that the heads of each rail are almost identical, the difference of 15 lbs. being disposed of in the flange of the heavier rail. Practically, therefore, we have 15 lbs. per yard extra weight of steel in the rail, on the one hand, as against the cast-iron chairs and steadier permanent way on the other.
For lines where the traffic is small, weights light, speeds low, and economy of construction imperative, the flange-rail permanent way will be very suitable.
The writer has had long mileages of each description of permanent way under his charge, both at home and abroad, for many years, and the result of his experience has shown that, although a fairly good road may be made with flange rails, still, for constant, heavy, fast traffic, the bull-head rail with cast-iron chairs makes a much stronger, more durable, and better permanent way than any flange railroad.
Briefly summarized, the principal advantages and disadvantages of the two kinds of rails stand as follows:—
| ADVANTAGES. | |
| Bull-head Rail. | Flange Rail. |
Large bearing surface of chairupon the sleeper, and greaterstability of the rail. Longer life of wooden sleeper. Impossibility of rail tiltingover outwards. Facility for changing a railwithout disturbing thefastenings in the sleepers. Easier to maintain, owing toless disturbing strains on thefastenings. A bull-head rail is morereadily set or laid to followline of curve. In most cases the one set ofchairs will serve for a secondset of rails. Perfect straightness of rail:it is very rare to find acrooked bull-head rail. Easier to roll, and morelikely to obtain uniformity ofsteel. | Fewness of parts, and lesscost. Smaller quantity of ballastrequired to cover up the footof rail. More lateral stiffness thanthe bull-head rail. |
| DISADVANTAGES. | |
| Bull-head Rail. | Flange Rail. |
Greater cost. More ballast required to coverup the rail. Less lateral stiffness thanthe flange rail. | The small rail-seat area onsleeper throws great crushingweight on the timber. Shorter life of woodensleepers from the cutting downof rail-seats. The edge of flange cuts thespikes after a few years. The undulation of the railunder trains tends to raisethe spikes, and causes lateralmovement in the rails. More difficult to maintain, inconsequence of greatertendency of the fastenings towork loose. Difficulty in getting flangerails straightened laterally. More difficult to set tofollow regular line of curves. More difficult to roll, andless likely to obtainuniformity of steel. |
Tramway Rails.—Tramways on streets or public roads are now universally recognized as important branches of the railway principle. Their smoothness of movement, increased accommodation, and many other advantages as compared with the old road omnibus, render it no longer necessary to call for special advocacy when there is a possibility of their introduction. They occupy
a position so thoroughly appreciated by the public that any check on their reasonable use or extension would be considered as detrimental to the interests of the travelling community.
As a rule, these tramways are laid down on streets or roads previously constructed for the ordinary road traffic, where all the preliminary work of earth filling, bridges, drainage, etc., has already been accomplished, and there only remains the selection and laying down of the rails or permanent way over which the tram-cars will have to run. The description and weight of permanent way to be adopted will depend largely upon the weight of the cars to be used and the system of motive-power decided upon for the haulage—whether horses, steam, cable, or electricity.
As the portion of the streets or public roads along which the tramway has to be laid will, in all probability, have to be occupied and traversed by all kinds of vehicles besides the tram-cars, it is absolutely necessary that the permanent way for the tramway should be of such description as to require the least possible amount of adjustment of fastenings or opening out of the roadway for repairs. Where the entire width of the street, including the space between the tram-rails, is paved with stone setts, the opening out of even a short length for repairs is tedious and costly, and causes considerable obstruction to the street traffic. It is most important, therefore, that the rail and its fastenings should not only be strong enough for its own tram service and the carts and drays which will pass over and across the track in all directions, but it must possess the minimum necessity for disturbance.
[Figs. 275 to 279] are sketches of a few of the many types which have been brought into use in various places.
Where the public roads are wide, and a space can be set apart at the side for the special use of the tramway, the arrangement shown in [Fig. 275] will be simple and efficient. It is very similar to an ordinary railway permanent way with the ballast filled in flush with the top of the rails. The rails are shown as flange or flat-bottom rails, fished together at the joints, and properly secured to transverse sleepers of wood, iron, or steel. The space between and outside the rails is filled in with small-sized broken stone ballast or good clean gravel, and forms an even surface, over which animals or cattle may pass without risk of being thrown down.
[Fig. 276] represents a system which was laid down extensively,
especially for horse tramways, but not proving efficient, has been superseded by other types of a stronger and more durable description. The rail was rolled with a continuous groove to provide clearance for the flanges of the car-wheels, and the sides of the rail were turned down so as to fit over the longitudinal timber sleeper, to which the rail was secured by staple-dogs, as shown. Cast-iron chairs, spiked on to wooden cross-sleepers, held the longitudinal sleepers in position. The wooden sleepers were favourable for smooth running, but the section of the rail, practically a light channel-iron laid on the flat, was most unsuitable for carrying weight or for making a proper joint. Experience proved this road to be very difficult to maintain in good order for easy traction. The staple-dogs worked loose after a little time, and the rail, having scarcely any vertical stiffness, rose and fell during the passage of every car-wheel, resulting in most uneven joints and a clattering roadway.
With the view to obtain a stronger and more permanent support for the rail than the longitudinal timber sleeper last described, various forms of cast-iron chairs were devised. [Fig. 277] represents one of these patterns. The rail, which is of T-section with a continuous wheel-flange groove, is secured to the cast-iron chair by the cross-pin, as shown. Although this cross-pin may in time work a little loose, it cannot work out, being kept in position by the paving-setts on each side. The cast-iron chairs are placed at convenient distances, and being set in a bed of concrete, do not require cross-sleepers or tie-bars. This type makes a strong road, but the rail-joints cannot be made so even or efficient as with the more modern form of rail.
Rail manufacturers are now able to roll a section of rail combining the vertical stiffness of the ordinary flange, or flat-bottom, rail with the running-head and continuous wheel-flange groove, considered the most suitable for heavy tramway traffic. The introduction of this section of rail has contributed greatly to the increased efficiency and durability of the permanent way for street traffic; and as the ends of the rails can be secured by ordinary fish-plates, there is the great acquisition of even joints and increased smoothness in the running of the tramcars. This rail can be rolled of various weights to suit the rolling loads. On some tram-lines a moderately heavy section has been adopted, and secured to transverse sleepers of rolled iron or steel laid on a bed of concrete. On others similar rolled metal sleepers have
been used, but laid longitudinally. For some descriptions of traffic a much heavier section of rail has been used, having a base sufficiently wide to provide ample bearing on a bed of concrete without the intervention of either transverse or longitudinal sleepers.
[Fig. 278] is a sketch of the modern rail as laid down on a rolled steel transverse sleeper, the rail being held in position either by turned-up clips, wedges, bolts, or any of the devices in use for similar duty in the rolled-steel sleepers for ordinary railway permanent way.
[Fig. 279] shows a modern rail of a heavier section, with a wide flange resting direct on a continuous bed of concrete. The gauge is maintained by bar-iron tie-bars placed vertically so as to fit in between the courses of the paving-setts, the ends being forged and screwed to pass through holes in the vertical web of rail, and secured in position by nuts. Both in this, and in type [Fig. 278], ordinary fish-plates are adopted at the rail-joints, as indicated by dotted lines.
In the last two examples above described all the materials are of the most durable description, and the least liable to wear or decay, but it will be necessary to guard against making the fastenings and the bars too light for the duty they have to perform. There should be ample material in the head of the rail to allow of a fair wearing down, and the continuous flange groove should be sufficiently deep to meet this wearing away without causing the wheel-flanges to strike the bottom of the groove.
Fish-plates.—In the first examples of the newly invented wrought-iron fish-plates they were made to the depth to fit in between the upper and lower tables of the rail, as shown in [Fig. 280], a small space or clearance being left between the inner sides and the vertical web of the rail. Ordinary nuts and bolts were used in most cases, but in some instances one of the fish-plates was tapped, as in [Fig. 281], forming one long continuous nut, and in others both fish-plates were tapped, as in [Fig. 282], and right and left handed bolts were used. Neither of the two arrangements of tapped fish-plates proved sufficiently successful as to lead to their general adoption. When the bolts became rusted in, or iron-bound, it was found to be almost impossible to remove them without permanently damaging the fish-plates. With the four right and left handed bolts the operation of tightening, or removing, the fish-plates was very tedious, as each
bolt had to be turned a very little at a time, one after the other. Independent bolts and nuts, either of iron or steel, are now universally used; plain holes, with sufficient allowance for work and expansion, being punched or drilled in the rails and fish-plates.
For many years the depth of the fish-plates continued to be made the same as the space between the upper and lower members of the rail, as shown in [Fig. 280]; but with the heavier loads and higher speeds of our modern railway working it has been found necessary to strengthen the joints by providing deeper or stiffer fish-plates, as shown in [Figs. 283, 284, and 285]. For bull-head rails the fish-plates have been brought down underneath the lower table, and in some cases extended down sufficiently far to admit of a second set of fish-bolts under the rail. For flange rails some fish-plates are used simply of the form of angle irons, and others have the angle portion carried out beyond the end of the flange, or foot of rail, and then turned down vertically to a depth of an inch or more below the rail. The latter makes a very strong fish-plate.
Fish-plates, like rails, are now almost universally made of steel.
The efficiency and durability of a fish-plate depends materially upon its angle of contact with the under side of the head of the rail, and the extent of its contact surface. It would be an error to suppose there is little or no wearing away in fish-plates, as in reality there is very considerable wear, and especially in rails of lighter section. If the under side of the head of rail has a curved outline, as in the rail in [Fig. 287], there will be some difficulty in ensuring a perfect fit in the fish-plates; the curve of the one may not quite correspond to the curve of the other, and the contact surface will be very small. It is better to make these contact surfaces in straight lines, and to a wide angle rather than to an acute angle. In [Fig. 288] the under side of head and corresponding top of fish-plates are set at an acute angle, and fish-plates to this pattern will soon wear up to the vertical web of rail, and cause a loose noisy joint.
In [Fig. 284], showing a different type of rail, the contact surfaces are set at a very much wider angle, and will allow much more wear before the fish-plates can work close up to the web of the rail.
When once the fish-plates are close up to the web, the best
and tightest bolts cannot prevent the vertical play in the ends of the rails.
A hammering sound will announce each successive drop of the wheels from one rail to the other, more distinctly, perhaps, at slow speeds than when travelling quickly, but existing equally under both conditions. The unpleasant jarring sensation is annoying to the passengers, and has a straining, loosening effect on all the bolts and fastenings. Unless the fish-plates have a thorough continuous bearing against the upper and lower shoulders of both the rails, it will be impossible to obtain a smooth even joint. A road may have good rails, good chairs, and good sleepers, but if the fish-plates are worn and loose the entire permanent way may be pronounced faulty, and all on account of a minor defect which can be easily remedied. With strong, properly fitting fish-plates, the position of the joints should be imperceptible when passing over them in a train.
The writer has had many miles of line where the fish-plates have worn hard up to the rail web. In cases where the rails were good, with the prospect of a long life, new fish-plates of suitable section have been provided. In others, thin wrought-iron plate liners, 1/16 or 1/12 of an inch thick, have been inserted, as in [Fig. 291], so as to bring the plates well out from the web, and allow the fish-bolts and fish-plates to exercise the free gripping action which is absolutely necessary to prevent the vertical rising and falling of the rail-ends during the passage of a rolling load. Fish-plate liners of the above description have given excellent results, and have restored the efficiency of the fish-plates for several years.
Chairs.—All rails which partake of the double head section, or have a base not wider than the head, require supports or carriers to attach them to the sleepers, and to secure them in their proper upright position. In the days of the original edge rails, at the commencement of the railway era, these supports were very appropriately termed chairs, and this name has now been adopted in all parts of the world. Cast-iron is the most suitable material for railways chairs, being much cheaper in cost and less liable to loss or deterioration from rust than wrought-iron. Cast-iron chairs can be formed to suit any section of rail, and from the nature of the material they cannot be bent or twisted out of shape so as to interfere with the gauge or cant. They may break during an accident or derailment, but the
fracture can be detected at once, and the broken chair quickly replaced.
The chair performs the very important duty of distributing the weight of the rolling load on the upper surface of the sleeper. If the under side or base of the chair is small, and the rolling load large, the chair will very rapidly wear or imbed itself into the wood of the sleeper, shortening the life of the latter in a very palpable manner. The short narrow chair naturally gives less stability than the larger and broader chair. The chair shown in [Fig. 292], which was much used for 75 lb. rails some twenty years ago, has much less base area and stability than the chair shown in [Fig. 293], adopted for rails of a similar weight in the present day. The former had a bearing surface on the sleeper of only 53 square inches, as compared with 89 square inches in the latter. The base area of the chair must be in proportion to the weight it has to carry and distribute, and it would be false economy to stint the surface area of one of the details which influences so materially the stability and durability of the permanent way.
As will be seen in [Figs. 294, 295, and 296], the chairs at present used for 80, 85, and 90 lb. rails have a much larger bearing surface than the chair shown in [Fig. 292].
With the wider chair, a much longer and better seat can be given to the under table of rail, and a greater length of jaw for holding the wooden key. The longer the rail-seat the steadier the rail and the smoother the running.
The keys are generally made of hard wood, sometimes compressed by a special process, cut slightly taper, or wedge, shape, and driven in between the jaw of the chair and the vertical web of the rail. On some railways the key is placed outside the rail, as in [Fig. 297], and on others inside the rail, as in [Fig. 298]. The latter method possesses many advantages over the former. The outer jaw of the chair can be brought well up to the under side of head of rail, giving the rail more lateral support and better means of preserving the correct cant; and, as in this chair the outer jaw permanently fixes the gauge, the working out of one or more of the keys does not leave the rail exposed to be forced outwards and widen the gauge, as in the case with dropped keys in outside keying. Another and very important advantage of inside keying is that platelayers, when inspecting the road by walking between the rails, can readily examine the keys on both sides.
Chairs have been made, as in [Fig. 299], with a recess in the rail-seat, to hold a piece of prepared wood, or other suitable semi-elastic material, the object being to provide a rest, or cushion, softer and more yielding than the cast-iron. The idea looks well in theory, but in practice the pounding on the rail compresses or crushes the wood lower and lower into the recess, slackened keys have to be tightened, and when the wood has been worn or crushed away down to the level of the stop ribs, A, A, the under side of rail has no longer any seat, or rest, beyond the two narrow ribs of cast-iron. These afford such a very limited support that the rail becomes notched, and produces a very rough clattering road. It is a very simple matter to take out an old key and put in a new one, but to replace a wooden cushion in a chair recess involves the entire removal of either the rail or the chair. Chairs with wooden cushions have not been adopted to any great extent, the tendency of modern practice being to reduce as far as possible the number of parts of the permanent way, and to provide those parts with ample bearing or contact surfaces.
Although the general practice has been to cast the chairs in one piece, chairs have been made in two pieces, as in [Fig. 300], fastened together and to the rail by a bolt passing through the latter, the castings being secured to the sleeper with spikes. At first sight this pattern of chair appeared to possess some features in its favour. The castings were simple, keys were dispensed with altogether, and the under side of rail was not in contact with the cast-iron. A short experience, however, proved that the drawbacks far outweighed the apparent advantages. Holes for the through-bolts had to be punched at fixed distances in the rails, and although this could be readily done at the works, for the general use on the line it was necessary to resort to the tedious process of drilling by hand for a large number of holes on curves, and for rails cut to form closers.
Sleepers.—Wood possesses so many suitable qualities that we can readily understand why it was early selected as the proper material for sleepers. It can be cut to any size and shape, holes can be bored, spikes can be driven, and bolts can be screwed into it without any difficulty and without causing injury to the timber, while the semi-elastic nature of wood absorbs the vibration of the rails and fastenings, and provides a sound-deadening seat so conducive to smooth running. Its only drawback is that
it is perishable from wear and decay. Were it not for this defect, railway sleepers of wood might be considered as simply perfect.
With a view to greater permanency and durability, stone sleepers were tried. These consisted of square blocks of good hard stone, measuring about 2 feet wide each way and 12 inches thick. Holes were cut in the stone, and plugs of hard wood inserted. The cast-iron chairs were then placed on the top of the blocks, and the iron spikes driven through the chair-holes into the wooden plugs. The elements of permanency were there certainly, but a rougher road it would be impossible to conceive. The stone was solid and unyielding, there was a total absence of softness and elasticity, and the harsh noisy effect produced when running over the stone-block road very soon became intolerable. Stone-block sleepers were found to be a failure, and were all removed. On some of our old lines, numbers of them, with the chair marks plainly visible, may be still seen in loading banks, buildings, sea walls, and other works for which they were never originally intended, but for which their size and weight render them very appropriate.
Wooden sleepers are used in two forms, transverse and longitudinal. In the former, as in [Fig. 301], the sleepers not only carry the rails, but also preserve the gauge; in the latter as in [Fig. 302], the longitudinal sleepers only support the rails, additional timbers and strong fastenings being necessary to maintain the gauge.
Longitudinal sleepers have been used to a large extent for bridge rails, it being supposed that with the broad continuous sleeper a lighter and shallower rail could be adopted, which would be equally efficient as a heavier rail on cross-sleepers. Excellent running roads have been made with longitudinal sleepers, notwithstanding the difficulty of making a good bridge-rail joint; but it is well to bear in mind that almost all the lines which originally adopted this form of permanent way have since reverted to the ordinary cross-sleeper road. The longitudinal sleeper road is an expensive road to lay down and maintain. The main pieces are of large scantling, must be of good quality of timber, and are consequently costly. The cross-pieces, or transomes, must be carefully fitted and secured with heavy ironwork. Where there is much traffic, the removal and renewal of one of the long timbers is much more difficult than the renewal
of several ordinary cross-sleepers. Again, decay may take place on only one portion of a main timber, but there is no alternative but to remove the entire piece.
For gauges varying from 4 feet 8½ inches to 5 feet 3 inches, cross-sleepers are cut to the length of 8 feet 11 inches, and are generally rectangular in section, as in [Fig. 303], measuring 10 inches in width by 5 inches in thickness. On some of the lighter railways with small traffic, sleepers are often used only 9 inches wide by 4½ inches thick, while occasionally on some lines, and in places where there is exceptionally heavy and constant traffic, sleepers 12 inches wide by 6 inches thick are adopted.
Half-round sleepers, as in [Fig. 304], are used on many lines because they are cheaper. In some cases the flat side of the sleeper is placed downwards, and the rail or chair is fastened into an adzed seat cut in the round side; and in the others the round side is placed downwards, and the flat side of the sleeper carries the rail or chair. Triangular sleepers, as in [Fig. 305], have also been used, made by cutting the blocks diagonally, so as to obtain the greatest possible width. They were laid with the flat side upwards, and the apex downwards. They were difficult to keep packed, and have not been adopted to any great extent.
With the exception of a limited number of larch and fir sleepers grown in the country, most of the sleepers for our home railways are imported from the Baltic. They are brought over in logs, or blocks, each 8 feet 11 inches long, some square and others circular in section, and when sawn down the middle, each block forms two sleepers.
The preservation of timber from decay is a subject that very early occupied the attention of engineers and all those interested in railways. A railway sleeper is particularly exposed to deterioration the lower portion being surrounded with moist ballast, whilst the top portion is more or less uncovered—two different conditions in the same piece of timber. Several processes have been tried, such as Kyanizing, Burnetizing, Boucherizing, etc., but the system which has given the best results, and is now almost universally adopted, is that known as creosoting. This method consists of forcing liquid creosote, under considerable pressure, into sleepers or railway timbers which have been prepared or dried by ordinary natural seasoning or by special artificial means. Creosote is a dark, oily liquid,
distilled from coal tar, varying in its composition according to the quality of the coal from which it is obtained, and ranging in its specific gravity from 11·08 to 10·28.
Creosote oils of light specific gravity were at one time in favour, but experience proved that, to some extent, the light oils were volatile and also soluble in water, and that heavy rains washed out the constituents which were essential for the preservation of the timber. On the other hand, by heating the heavy oils and using high pressure the napthaline which is dissolved only by the heat, is forced into the wood, fills the pores, and solidifies.
Creosote is obtainable in large quantities, at prices varying from twopence to fourpence per gallon, according to the demand and cost of production. Newly delivered sleepers or railway timber contain so much sap or water that it is impossible to force a sufficient quantity of creosote into them until they are properly seasoned or dried.
The seasoning is generally arranged by sawing each block into two sleepers, and then stacking the sleepers on edge in tiers, leaving a space of four or five inches between each of them for a proper circulation of air. The sleepers should then be left for nine to twelve months to season, although more may be necessary in some cases if the blocks were particularly wet at the time they were sawn.
When ready for the process the sleepers are placed in the creosoting cylinder, which is generally about 60 feet long by 6 feet in diameter with semi-spherical ends. One of the ends is fitted with strong hinges and fastenings, and forms the doorway. The sleepers are packed carefully inside, and the doorway made tight. The machinery is then set to work to exhaust the air from the cylinder and allow the creosote to flow in amongst the sleepers. When the cylinder is full the force-pumps are started to force in more creosote up to the pressure prearranged and regulated by the safety-valve, in some cases 100, 110, or 120 lbs. per square inch. The creosote should be heated to 112° or 120° Fah., to dissolve the napthaline and reduce all the component parts to a thoroughly fluid condition.
The success of creosoting depends almost entirely upon the effectual seasoning of the timber. Only a very small quantity of creosote can be forced into wet or unseasoned sleepers, even with the best machinery and exceptionally high pressures, while
a thoroughly dry sleeper will readily absorb from 2⅓ to 3 gallons. More could be forced into the dry sleeper if necessary, but a little consideration will show there would be no advantage in doing so. In railway sleepers there are two elements of destruction at work—one the decay of the timber, and the other abrasion or wearing away of the wood itself from the constant pounding of the passing loads.
More particularly does this wearing-away take place with the flange, or bridge, rails, their distributed bearing surface on the sleeper being less than the cast-iron chairs.
A thoroughly well-creosoted 5-inch sleeper laid originally with a thickness of 4-¾ inches in the centre of rail-seat, as in [Fig. 306], will wear down 1½ inches, the timber remaining quite sound.
The writer has had to take out thousands of sleepers where the seats of the flange, or bridge, rails had been pounded or worn down so deep into the wood as to leave too small a thickness of timber to carry the rail with safety. These sleepers had to be taken out of the road, not on account of decay, but because they were actually worn down too thin to be of service. They had done their work well for a long series of years, and were perfectly sound when taken out. No increased quantity of creosote would have made them last longer, and any increased quantity of creosote would have been waste.
Two and three quarter gallons of creosote is a very good and suitable quantity for a 10 inch by 5 inch rectangular sleeper, but not more than half this quantity can be forced in if the sleeper is wet or unseasoned.
Sleeper-blocks are generally cut from the upper part of the tree, and do not therefore consist of the best portion of the timber, yet sleepers made from the soft, coarse-grained Baltic wood, properly creosoted, will last from twelve to eighteen years in the line in this country, while uncreosoted they would perish from decay in six or seven. The benefit is great when, by adding from eightpence to a shilling for the cost of creosoting, the life of the sleeper may be doubled or trebled. Of course, there are countries, like the far west of America, where the lines pass through vast forests, and where sleepers may be had for the mere cost of cutting. Creosoting in those places would be out of the question, and would cost four or five times the value of the plain sleeper. It is found, also, that in tropical countries and
in dry climates at high altitudes creosote loses its efficiency, and in those districts the best creosoted soft-wood sleeper perishes from a species of dry rot in three or four years. Where wood sleepers have to be used in tropical climates it is better to obtain them from the timber of the district, although in many cases suitable trees are difficult to procure and the cost of land transport is very heavy.
The soft cushion-like effect of a sound, properly packed wooden sleeper contributes so largely to form an easy, smooth-running road, that so long as they can be obtained at a moderate cost, and are fairly durable, wooden sleepers will always be preferred to those of any other material. The great question will be the supply. Creosoting and other wood-preserving processes have done much to prolong the life of sleepers, but the rapidly increasing extent of mileage throughout the world, together with the enormous number of sleepers required annually for maintenance or renewals, must before very long severely tax the powers of supply.
In the great timber-producing territories the axe is often heard, but the planter is rarely seen. Vast forests are cleared away, and their sites transformed into busy towns or cultivated lands; and unless some great change takes place, and planting be carried out on a large scale, some other material will have to be adopted for this important item of our permanent way.
Appearances would indicate that at no very distant date iron or steel will take a conspicuous part in the formation of future railway sleepers.
More than thirty years ago several descriptions of cast-iron sleepers were introduced into notice and tried on some of our leading home railways. Cast-iron was at that time considered more suitable for the purpose than wrought iron, as it was very much less costly in price, and could be readily worked into any desired form or size, with the advantage that the castings would all be duplicates of one another.
[Figs. 307 to 313] show some of the types that were designed and laid down in the road. In [Fig. 307] the sleeper and chairs were all cast together in one piece; the rail was held in its place by wooden keys, and the gauge of the line was maintained by transverse wrought-iron tie-bars. The sketch represents one of the sleepers used at the rail-joints, and has three chairs, the larger one in the centre being for the support of the ends of
the rails. This arrangement was the same as was then in use on the ordinary wood-sleeper road, where an extra large chair was placed at the rail-joints, and was the most approved method for many years before fish-plates were introduced. The intermediate sleepers were shorter, and had only two chairs.
[Fig. 30]8 represents a long, flat, cast-iron sleeper made in two halves, bolted together just below the under side of rail at each of the three chair-seats. The rail was gripped and held in position without the use of wooden keys. This being a joint sleeper, three chairs were used, as in [Fig. 307]. Only two chairs were used on the intermediate sleepers.
[Figs. 309 and 310] are somewhat similar, but the circular one is higher and more cup-shaped than the other of oval form. The oval pattern has two small recesses for holding two small hard-wood cushions. The circular holes shown in the sides of the sleepers were intended to facilitate the packing, or tamping, of the light sandy ballast.
[Fig. 311] represents a rectangular cast-iron sleeper, as used for the flange rail. The rail rests on cast-iron cross-ribs, bevelled to give the proper cant, and is held in position by the tie-bar bolt and clip-piece, as shown. The small projecting lug, formed on the under side of sleeper, fits into a corresponding notch in the tie-bar, and keeps the sleepers to gauge. The tie-bar passes through the loop end of the same bolt which secures the rail, and is held up tight against the under side of sleeper.
[Figs. 312 and 313], both the same in principle, possessed features which appeared to give great promise. They were simple in construction; the rail was kept well down, and did not come in contact with the cast-iron at any point. The long wooden wedges, which fitted into the rough or serrated sides of the casting, acted as a cushion to the rail, and were intended to sink deeper into the recess as the super-imposed weight increased, or the wood became thinner from shrinkage. In practice, however, it was found that these sleepers were not the success that was anticipated.
It was soon observed that sand and fine particles of gravel from the ballast worked their way into the lower part of the recess, and became so compact as to prevent the wooden wedges working further down to increase their grip on the rail. Even when the recess was kept free and clear of sand, the enormous pressure exerted by the wooden wedges broke the iron at A,
although an extra thickness was given to that part of the section. The cast-iron was exposed to the greatest strain at the point where it was the least capable of offering resistance.
Much ingenuity was displayed in many of the patterns brought forward, but in dealing with a hard unyielding material like cast-iron, it is difficult, if not impossible, to impart any soft, elastic effect; and the different systems of cast-iron sleepers failed to become popular on our home railways, on account of the noise and vibration when trains passed over them. Another objection was the great multiplicity of parts required in many of the types, and the constant and severe strain produced on the fastenings on the passing of every wheel. The bolts might be made tight at first, but the incessant shaking would work them loose, the threads became stripped, and the rails ceased to be held in a proper and secure position.
The cast-iron sleeper road was considered unsuitable for the heavy and fast traffic of our home lines, and was ultimately all taken up and replaced with wooden transverse sleepers. At the same time, there is no doubt that cast-iron sleepers have been of great value in India and tropical climates, where timber sleepers were not only scarce, but perish very rapidly. Very large numbers of them have been laid down abroad of patterns very similar to those shown in [Figs. 309, 310, and 311], and have done good service for many years. They are not affected by rain or heat, but, unfortunately, being castings, are liable to considerable annual loss from breakage.
Improvements in plate-rolling machinery, and in appliances for bending and stamping wrought-iron, have materially assisted in developing the introduction of wrought-iron and steel sleepers. Cast-iron and wrought-iron are, in the abstract, hard and non-elastic as compared with wood; but whereas cast-iron can only be made into fixed, unyielding shapes, wrought-iron and steel can be worked into forms that possess a certain spring-like effect, which not only enables them almost entirely to resist fracture, but also imparts a measure of elasticity to the permanent way.
The simplest form of wrought-iron sleeper would be a plain, flat plate, to which the chair, or rail-bracket, would be attached; but as this form would have bearing surface only, without any lateral hold on the ballast to keep the rails to line, it could not be adopted.
During the last few years very many types of wrought-iron and steel sleepers have been introduced, and nearly all of them of the transverse-sleeper pattern, formed out of rolled plates; the sides, and in some cases the ends also, are bent, or turned down to obtain a hold in the ballast. Where bull-head or double-head rails are used, cast-iron chairs, or wrought-iron bracket chairs, are bolted, or otherwise secured to the upper surface of the sleeper, a layer of felt, tarred paper, or other soft material being placed between the two metal surfaces. Where flange rails are used, they are fastened to the sleepers either by bolts, clamps, or clips raised up out of the iron sleeper, and bent over to hold tightening keys. Rolled transverse sleepers can readily be bent, or set in the centre to give the proper cant at the rail-seat; and in some types the sleepers are pressed in the machines, so as to be narrower towards the centre, and with a deeper turnover, to obtain increased stiffness.
In [Figs. 314 to 319] are shown some of the patterns which have been brought out, laid down in actual practice, and in use at the present time.
From the fact that wrought-iron and steel sleepers have been laid down in so many places where cast-iron sleepers were discarded or refused a trial, it is evident that the former are considered to have qualities which the latter did not possess. Rolled iron or steel sleepers are coming more and more into use, especially on foreign or colonial railways. So long, however, as good, well-creosoted timber sleepers can be obtained for our home railways at prices from 3s. 8d. to 4s. 8d. each, and last from fourteen to twenty years, there is little probability that they will be supplanted by iron sleepers at double the cost. But abroad the circumstances of cost and durability are different, and there the rolled iron or steel sleepers, which will outlive two or three sets of wooden ones, must claim advantages which cannot be overlooked. The difficulty will be in the fastenings, the mode of attaching the rails to the sleepers. The constant hammering of metal upon metal, resulting from the vibrations of every passing load, will quickly wear or loosen bolts, rivets, or wedges, and the fastenings which will prove the most efficient will be those that are the simplest and most readily adjusted.
Fastenings.—Figs. 320 to 335 illustrate some types of the principal fastenings used in connection with the chair road, and with flat-bottomed or flange rails.
The fish-bolts, [Figs. 320 and 321], are of a form which is in very general use both for steel bull-head rails and steel flange rails. By making the neck square or pear-shaped, to fit into corresponding hole in the fish-plate, the bolt is prevented from turning round when the wrench or spanner is applied to tighten the nut. A channel or groove is sometimes rolled on the outside of fish-plate to grip bolts made with square heads. Some engineers adopt two nuts, others prefer one nut of extra depth. Washers are used in some cases, but are not universal. With a deep rail it is preferable to place the nuts inside, so that the platelayer inspecting his length can see both rows of nuts as he walks along between the rails. With shallow rails the nuts must be placed outside and the cup-heads inside, to give ample clearance to the wheel-flanges.
Fish-bolts are subject to very severe work. Heavy rolling loads passing over the rail-joints—frequently at very high speeds—bring into play all the gripping power of the fish-bolts to maintain a firm support of the fish-plates to ends of rails, and the constant action of pressure and release produces a loosening or unscrewing motion in the bolts which is very difficult to counteract. Loose fish-bolts cause clattering joints and uneven road, and unless promptly remedied, the screw threads are soon destroyed and bolts rendered useless. Many devices have been invented to prevent or check this loosening of the bolts; one of the methods, and a very simple one, consists of a plain steel bolt with a steel lock-nut, made as shown in [Fig. 322]. As will be seen from the section, one-half of the nut is tapped of the same size as the bolt, and the remainder with deep-locking threads. The first half of the nut is readily screwed on to the bolt, but considerable force must be exerted to screw on the portion having the deep-locking threads; practically the second half of the nut has to cut a new or deeper thread for itself when screwing round the bolt.
The slits or grooves at the angles of the nuts form four distinct cutting edges for shaping the deep threads. As the upper part of the lock-nut is divided by the grooves into four separate or detached segments, these segments will be forced slightly open or outwards during the action of cutting the deep thread on the bolt, and from their natural tendency to return to their original position they must exercise a strong gripping power on the bolt. This combined operation of cutting the deep
threads and of forcing open the upper or detached segments, give an enormous holding and retaining power to the lock-nut, and enables it to withstand the train vibrations for a very long time without any perceptible slackening. In case of line repairs the nut can be readily unscrewed, and taken off the bolt.
Round iron spikes, as in [Figs. 323 and 324], and round wooden trenails, as in [Fig. 325], are both used for fastening cast-iron chairs to the sleepers. The spikes are made with a slightly taper neck, of size rather less than the hole in the chair, to avoid risk of breaking the casting when driving the spike down. Trenails are made out of well-seasoned hard wood, and are compressed by machinery. When driven into the sleeper, they expand by exposure to the atmosphere, and hold the chair very securely in position; but being only wood and of very small scantling, they are subject to early decay. The head, which is the only part in sight, may be perfectly sound, while the part between the chair-seat and top of sleeper may be quite rotten and useless. It would be very risky to depend upon trenails alone; one spike at least should be used to every chair. In some cases an extra large trenail is used with an augur-hole down the centre, through which either an iron spike is driven or a bolt is passed and screwed into a crab-nut on the under side of the sleeper. This arrangement will work well for a time, but there will be a great deal of play in the spike or bolt when the trenail becomes much decayed.
The spikes represented in [Figs. 326, 327, and 328], are much used with flange rails. They are square in section, and finished with either blunt or sharp points, as shown. The top of spike is made with a doghead and side-lugs to facilitate the easing or withdrawal when necessary for renewals of sleepers, or alterations in line. By inserting the curved double claw end of a platelayers’ crowbar, the spike can be raised without injuring the sleeper; but if it is required to be driven into the same sleeper again, a new hole must be bored, as the old hole will be too slack to be of any service. Augur-holes must be bored in the sleepers for the above spikes. For new roads, these holes can be bored by machinery when cutting the grooves for rail-seats; but when carrying out alterations or repairs, a large number of spike-holes must be bored by hand-augurs, an operation both slow and laborious. With the hand-boring there is the danger that the hole may not be made deep enough, owing to
the workman’s endeavour to avoid damaging the point of his augur by forcing it entirely through the sleeper, and bringing it in contact with a stone. Augur-holes bored wide to gauge will remain out of gauge, and although the spike may be driven down firm in its position, a space will be left for play between the rail-flange and spike.
[Fig. 329] is a sketch of a dog-spike for flange rails which the writer has used for many years both abroad and at home, and which can be driven without any boring at all. The back of this spike is made perfectly straight, half of the front side is made parallel to the back, and the remainder is tapered down to a chisel point not exceeding 1/16 of an inch thick, the entering edge on the face being narrowed down to 3/8 of an inch in width. Three jags or spurs are cut on each side of the tapered portion, or twelve in all, and add greatly to the holding power. Not only can this spike be driven without any boring, but it possesses the additional advantage that in driving it down its taper or wedge-like shape causes it to drift hard up to the edge of the flange of rail, an element of great value in securing the exact gauge of line. With these spikes permanent-way laying can be carried on very rapidly, and they are especially valuable when making alterations, as augurs for spike-boring can be dispensed with altogether.
Wood screws with square heads similar to [Fig. 330] are sometimes used for fastening flange rails to wooden sleepers. They are passed through holes punched or drilled in the flanges of the rails, and are intended to preserve the gauge as well as secure the rails to the sleepers. Experience has shown that these wood screws possess very limited holding power. The screwed portion of the bolt cuts but a very imperfect and weak holding thread in the soft wood of an ordinary sleeper, moisture insinuates itself into the bolt-hole, rusting the bolts and decaying the surrounding timber, and in a very short time the bolts become loose and incapable of holding the rail down firmly. As permanent-way fastenings wood screws are very inferior to crab bolts.
Crab bolts, as in [Fig. 331], may be made either with square or hexagonal heads, and with three spur-nuts or four spur-nuts, as in A or B. The length of the bolts will depend upon the thickness of the sleeper or timber-work through which they have to be inserted. The bolt is pushed down through the hole bored in the sleeper, and the crab-nut put on from underneath.
With a few turns of the bolt, the crab-nut is brought close up to the under side of the sleeper, the spur-points become embedded in the wood, and hold the nut firmly in position during subsequent tightening of the bolt. Crab bolts are extensively used with flange or flat-bottomed rails, and also in switch chairs and in crossings. A large number of flange rails are used with one hole through the flange at each end of rail, and a crab bolt passed through the hole and through the sleeper next to the joint, as shown in [Fig. 332]. This system checks the creeping of the rails by effectually securing or anchoring each rail to two of the sleepers. As there is always a tendency for these rails to crack through to the outside at the flange-holes, it is very desirable to have as few holes as possible. The two above described will be found sufficient for all practical purposes. To avoid punching or drilling more holes in the flanges of the rails, additional or intermediate crab bolts can be used by means of the fang clips shown on [Fig. 333]. The crab bolt is passed through the fang clips and through the sleeper close up to the flange of rail, and by screwing it round in the crab-nut under the sleeper the fang-clip is pressed down until the two spurs are driven into the timber, and the rail held securely in its place and to gauge. Intermediate crab-nuts and fang-clips should always be used in pairs, one on each side of the rail. Possessing more holding-down power than ordinary spikes, they are particularly valuable on sharp curves.
In some cases flange rails are laid in small cast-iron saddles, or chairs, as shown in [Fig. 334], one end of the rail-seat having a recess to prevent the rail tilting upwards and outwards. An ordinary spike may be used for the inside end of chair, and a crab bolt with bent washer for the other. Unless the fastenings can be kept always tight, the above arrangement makes a very noisy, clattering road, as there are so many metal surfaces in contact, and so little to deaden the vibration. For narrow flange rails carrying heavy rolling load, chairs may be necessary to increase the bearing surface on the sleeper, but with rails having flanges five inches wide and upwards, it is better to let the flange rest direct on the wood of a properly grooved sleeper, and thus obtain a smoother and less noisy road.
On exceptionally sharp curves, wrought-iron or steel tie-bars, as in [Fig. 335], are sometimes used to maintain the line to gauge. They may be made out of bars 3 inches wide by ½ an inch thick,
turned over at the ends to grip the outside flanges. Being made to exact template, they have to be threaded on to the rails before spiking down, and are placed between the sleepers at distances from 7 to 10 feet apart.
Laying Permanent Way.—To preserve a good line and level to the permanent way, it is absolutely necessary that the road-bed should be kept thoroughly drained. If provision be not made for quickly carrying away the rain-water, and if it be allowed to collect under and around the sleepers, the action of the passing trains will work the finer particles of the packing into the consistency of soft mud, which will be gradually squeezed away, leaving the sleepers imperfectly supported and insecure. A loose sleeper involves a depression in the rails, and a corresponding lurch in the vehicles of the train, and a series of these depressions may produce such an oscillation in the train as to cause it to leave the rails.
The height or space from formation-level to rail-level is generally about 1 foot 9 inches for a flange railroad, and about 2 feet for a chair railroad.
[Figs. 336 and 337] show cross-sections of both descriptions of road as laid down for a double line in cutting. The same arrangement applies to similar roads laid down in embankment, merely omitting the side-drains or water-tables. The bottom layer of ballast or road-bed should consist of good hard, quarried, or broken stones, each 6 inches deep, set on edge, firmly and closely hand-packed, forming a foundation through which the rain-water can be quickly carried away. On the top of this bottom pitching should be placed a 6-inch layer of broken stone ballast or strong clean gravel, of which none of the stones should be larger than will pass through a 2-inch ring. When the sleepers and rails have been laid on this second layer, and properly packed to line and level, the top ballasting, or boxing, of either broken stones or strong clean gravel, should be filled in to the form and extent specified. Where broken stones are used for the top ballasting none of them should be larger than will pass through a 1½-inch ring.
Broken stone ballast should only be made from the hardest and soundest description of rock or boulders, so that, however small the particles, they will remain sharp and clean.
There are many kinds of rock which appear hard and compact when first excavated, but upon exposure to the weather
undergo a complete change, developing into soft masses containing too much clay to allow the water to pass through readily. Where rock is scarce and gravel plentiful, the lower layer may be made of the heavier or coarser gravel, leaving the finer gravel for the upper layer, or boxing; but there is no doubt that the broken stone pitching makes the most efficient bottom layer. No gravel ballast should be used which is not free from clay or earthy sand.
Wherever there are particles of earthy matter, sufficient to furnish nourishment for vegetable growth, weeds will quickly spring up, and once established are most difficult, if not impossible, to eradicate. The presence of weeds checks drainage, and gives an untidy appearance to the line, besides constantly occupying a large portion of the platelayers’ time in their removal.
Clean cinders, free from dust or earth, are much used for upper ballast and boxing, and being lighter than gravel, are specially applicable for soft boggy ground. Burnt clay, broken into small pieces, has been largely adopted in districts where both rock and gravel were difficult to obtain. Chalk, furnace-slag broken small, crushed brick and sand, are frequently used as ballast. Sand is objectionable where there is high-speed traffic, as the finer particles rise in the form of dust and deposit themselves on the vehicles and machinery of the train.
The water-tables, or side drains in the cuttings, should be cut below the formation level, and to a depth or width sufficient to take away all rain-water, or water arising from springs. Where the material of the cutting is of a loose friable nature, it may be necessary to protect the sides of the water-tables with low dry stone walls, as in [Fig. 338]; or glazed earthenware pipes may be laid, as in [Fig. 339], with open joints, or with grate openings at regular intervals. In some cases substantial side-walls and invert are requisite to carry away the flow of water.
Timber sleepers intended for the flange railroad should have the rail-seats grooved by machinery to ensure perfect accuracy in the position of the grooves, and in the angle or inclination of the rail-seats. [Fig. 340] is a side view of part of a sleeper grooved to receive a flange rail. The presence of the grooves materially facilitate the laying of the rails to gauge, but must not be allowed to interfere with the constant use of the platelayer’s gauge. In a similar manner the timber sleepers for the
chair road frequently have the spike-holes bored to template by machinery, as indicated on [Fig. 341]. Steel or iron sleepers are delivered with the recesses for rails, and holes for bolts or fastenings formed complete by machinery.
The distances apart of the sleepers will be regulated in a great measure by the weight of the rails and the description of the traffic. Where light rails are intended to carry heavy engines the sleepers must be laid closer together than would be necessary for heavy rails. The joint being the weakest part of the rail, it is usual to put the sleepers closer together at that place, with a view to gain additional support, to assist the fish-plates in preserving as much as possible a firm unyielding surface at the rail-joint.
[Fig. 343] shows an arrangement of sleepering largely adopted for steel flange rails 26 feet long, and weighing 79 lbs. per yard. The length of a rail is more a question of convenience of handling, facility of transhipment, and general use, than of actual manufacture. There is no difficulty in rolling rails up to 50 feet in length, or more; but very long rails are extremely ungainly things to move about, and are more exposed to receive permanent bends or kinks in unloading, besides requiring greater spaces at the joints to allow for contraction and expansion.
[Fig. 344] is an example of sleepering for a chair railroad, for steel bull-head rails 26 feet long, and weighing 85 pounds per yard.
Line stakes and level pegs must be put in at suitable distances to guide the platelayers in laying the rails to the correct line and level, and on the curves the proper amount must be marked off for the super-elevation of the outer rail.
When the second layer of ballast has been spread for its full width and depth the sleepers can be distributed, and the rails or chairs spiked down to the correct gauge. Before putting on the fish-plates spaces must be left at the ends of the rails to allow for contraction and expansion, the amount depending upon the temperature at the time of laying down the rails. As the rails will expand, or increase in length, with the heat, it is necessary to allow more space for expansion for rails laid down in the cold, or winter months. On our home railways rails are very rarely laid down when the temperature is lower than 25° F., or higher than 125° F., and this range of 100° may be considered as covering all the variations likely to occur in ordinary practice. The greater portion of the permanent-way
laying is carried on when the temperature is between 40° and 75°. The results of very carefully conducted experiments show that an increase of temperature of 1° F. will cause an iron or steel bar, or rail, to expand or lengthen to the extent of seven one-millionths of its length. Working this out for a range of 100° F. would give an increase in length of seven hundred one-millionths, which would be equal to an extension of 0·2184 of an inch in a 26-foot rail. For our home railways, therefore, a space of 5/16 of an inch will be found amply sufficient to meet the variations in length between the extremes of winter and summer, for a rail from 26 feet to 30 feet in length. Too much allowance for expansion is detrimental to the rails, because where the spaces are excessively large the wheels drop into the hollow and hammer or spread the ends of the rails.
The fish-bolts should not be completely tightened up until the permanent way is thoroughly set, and packed to its finished line and level.
On straight line the rail-joints should be laid square and opposite to each other. Permanent-way laying with broken joints is rarely adopted, except on curves or station-yards.
On curves the joints of the inner rails gain on the joints of the outer rails to the extent of—
radius + gaugeradius × length of rail.
The amount of this gain, or lead, is adjusted by cutting off a portion of the end of the inner rails at certain intervals.
Assuming the fish-bolt holes to be spaced as shown on [Fig. 342], then, when the inner rail is leading to the extent of 2 inches, a piece 4 inches long is cut off, as shown by dotted lines, leaving the original second fish-bolt hole to serve as first or end fish-bolt hole, and a new or second bolt-hole is drilled by hand at A. This method sets back the joint 2 inches from the square, and the lead is allowed to go on again until it becomes necessary to cut off another piece of 4 inches. Another mode is to have a proportion of the rails rolled 2 or 3 inches shorter for use on the curves.
On curves of a 1000 feet radius and upwards, the rails should be laid to the normal gauge, but on curves of lesser radius the gauge may be slightly increased, and as much as ¾ of an inch allowed on a curve of 500 feet radius.
The amount of cant, or super-elevation, to be given to the outer rail on curves must be regulated by the speed of the train and the gauge of the line. Many formulæ have been compiled to determine the necessary amount of super-elevation, but experience has shown that by some of them the calculated amounts were excessive. Possibly during past years too much cant has been given in many cases. The following simple formula approaches very closely to practical experience—
| (velocity in miles per hour)2 × gauge in feet radius in feet × 1·25 | = | the super-elevation of outer rail in inches. |
For high-speed trains uniformity of cant is of the utmost importance, more so even than the exact amount. Any irregularity in the super-elevation of the outer rail, sometimes high and sometimes low, will produce a dangerous swaying movement in the train, which, if not promptly checked, would lead to derailment.
More injury is done to curves by spreading, arising from rigid wheel-bases of engines and tenders, than from any want of counteraction to centrifugal force.
When a long length of permanent way has been linked in, rails spiked to gauge, and fish-plates bolted together, the platelayers can proceed to the final adjustment to line and level in accordance with the stakes and pegs provided for their guidance. The setting to exact line is effected by means of long pointed round iron crowbars, which are struck forcibly into the ballast alongside the rails, and serve as powerful hand-levers to pull or push the rails to the right or left as directed by the foreman standing some distance back at one of the line-stakes. The men with the crowbars pass from rail-length to rail-length, until a long stretch of road has been pulled into correct line.
The adjustment to rail-level is done by first packing up the sleepers to the correct height at the various level-pegs, and then packing up the intermediate sleepers so that the surface of the top of the rails forms one uniform even line from level-peg to level-peg. On new lines it is usual to pack a little high in the first instance to allow for the subsidence or compression which invariably takes place on the passage of heavy trains over fresh ballast.
The form or contour line of the top ballast will vary
according to circumstances. In station-yards it is usual to fill in the ballast almost up to the level of the top of the rails for the convenience and safety of the men who are constantly moving about marshalling the carriages and waggons. Out on the open line between stations, the ballast on some railways is filled in up to rail-level, while on others it is only filled in up to the tops of the sleepers, leaving the rails and chairs quite clear of the ballast. On others, again, the ballast is filled well up to the rails and channelled in the centre, as shown on the sketches [Figs. 336 and 337]. Channelling the centre of the road reduces the quantity of ballast per mile, ensures good drainage, and also stability by not permitting any central support to the sleepers. By covering up the lower table and sides of rails the noise is reduced to a minimum, vibration is absorbed, and a more silent road is the result. The contact with the ballast also preserves the rail from the extremes of temperature. Where the ballasting is not channelled there is some risk of the sleepers breaking in the middle. The constant packing of the sleepers just under the rails has a tendency to drift some of the ballast inwards towards the middle of the sleeper, forming a hard compact mass, and this mass, acting as fulcrum, throws considerable strain on the middle of the sleeper when the trains pass over and depress the ends. Where the ballast is filled in level with the rails on top of sleepers it should be loosened occasionally in the middle to prevent it becoming too hard.
Connections with the rails of the main line will have to be made in various forms to suit the circumstances of the joining lines or sidings.
[Fig. 345] shows a simple double-line junction.
[Fig. 346] shows an example of what is termed a flying junction, or a junction of two double lines arranged in such a manner as to cause the least interruption to a constant train traffic passing UP and DOWN over both lines. Upon referring to [Fig. 345] it will be seen that a train from F, turning off at the points E and proceeding to G, must block, or close for traffic the section ABC during its passage over that line towards G. With a crowded train-service the blocking of both UP and DOWN main lines for the working of one train would cause much interruption, and to obviate such delay the flying junction is substituted. [Fig. 346] shows how a train from F is turned off at the points J and proceeds on to K, where by means of a bridge
it passes either over or under both main lines, and continues on to G without in any way interfering with the train service on ABC.
[Fig. 347] is an ordinary plain siding or turn-out, including the necessary throw-off or trap-points and short dead end.
[Fig. 348] is an ordinary cross-over road from DOWN main line to UP main line, and vice versâ.
[Fig. 349] is a double cross-over road, generally termed a scissors cross-over.
[Fig. 350] is a simple through cross-over road from DOWN main line to siding alongside UP main line.
[Fig. 351] is a similar arrangement of through cross-over road with the addition of a pair of slip points at S to make a connection with the UP main line, thus combining the facilities of the ordinary cross-over and through cross-over road.
[Fig. 352] shows a set of three throw-switches with all the sliding tongues placed side by side; and [Fig. 353] shows another arrangement of three throws with the sliding-rails of the second set of switches placed just behind the heel of the first set of switches. The latter method works very well where there is sufficient length for the purpose.
[Fig. 354] shows a square crossing, where one line of railway crosses another line of railway on the same level.
[Fig. 355] shows a connection with a siding by means of an ordinary carriage or waggon turn-table.
[Fig. 356] shows a set of “runaway” points which are sometimes placed in the main line at the top of an incline close to a station, the object being to intercept or throw off any portion of a train which may have become detached, and which would, if unchecked, run away back down the incline. By means of a weighted lever or spring the points are set to the normal position of open to the siding, and as they are “trailing” points for the running road they are readily closed by a passing train. One or other of the above forms of connections, or a combination of them, will meet all the requirements which usually occur in railway work.
[Fig. 357] is an enlarged sketch of an ordinary cross-over road, and [Fig. 358] of a double or scissors cross-over.
[Fig. 359] shows a single-slip point connection, and [Fig. 360] a double-slip point connection. In places where slip connections can be introduced they add greatly to the facilities for train
movements without curtailing the available standing-room for vehicles on the lines and sidings. They are simple in construction, do not require crossings, and in many cases save a complete cross-over road. At the same time slip connections can only be laid down where the angle of the intersecting lines is sufficiently flat to admit of a connecting curve of workable radius.
[Fig. 361] is an enlarged sketch of a set of ordinary 15-foot switches or points. By placing them about the middle of the stock rails the joints of the latter are kept well beyond the sliding rails, and the road is held firmly together. It is necessary to place the sleepers closer together at the switches to allow for the reduction in section of the sliding rails, which results from planing them down to the requisite shape. By substituting two long timbers for the ordinary sleepers at the points of the switch rails, as shown on the sketch, a more efficient support is obtained for the switch-box or crank in the case of rod-worked switches, and the working distance from the rails is accurately maintained, irrespective of any packing or pulling of the road. In the sketch a steel bull-head rail is shown on one side, and a steel flange rail on the other, each bolted to an ordinary cast-iron switch chair. Switch chairs are sometimes made of plates of wrought-iron or steel, forged to the correct shape, and riveted together. They are, however, much more costly than cast-iron chairs, and deteriorate more quickly from corrosion.
[Fig. 362] is an enlarged sketch of an ordinary crossing similar to the one indicated at C ([Fig. 359]), and composed of a cast-steel reversible block. The ends and lugs, L, L, are formed to suit the connecting rails and fish-plates, as shown in the cross-sections. The casting is secured to the crossing timbers by bolts passing through the side lugs, S, a cast-iron packing-washer, W, being placed between the lug and the timber to ensure a solid seat and avoid rocking. A very important point in the construction of these block crossings is to have the groove or flange-path sufficiently deep to prevent the striking or touching of the flange of a much-worn tyre. A well-made, carefully annealed steel-block reversible crossing is very smooth in the road, and has a long life. It is all in one solid piece; there are no parts to work loose or spread; the wear of the running surface is very uniform, and when the one side is much worn down, there is the other ready for service. The writer has had many of these steel-block
reversible crossings in use under heavy and fast traffic for six and eight years without turning.
[Fig. 363] shows an ordinary crossing made of steel bull-head rails secured in strong cast-iron chairs; and [Fig. 364] is a similar crossing made of steel flange rails. In some cases the two rails forming the V are welded together at the point B, and in others they are riveted or bolted together. [Fig. 365] shows a diamond or through crossing similar to the one indicated at D, [Fig. 359], made of steel bull-head rails and chairs.
Crossings are constructed in a variety of forms, whether on the principle of the cast-steel block, or made out of ordinary steel rails; and the above sketches merely illustrate some well-recognized types which experience has proved to be efficient and durable in the road. The angles of the crossings will depend upon the divergence of the intersecting lines to be connected; ordinary crossings, to the angle of 1 in 10, work in for very general use in station-yards, but many are required of angles varying from 1 in 6 to 1 in 14, and in some cases 1 in 16.
As a rule, engineers endeavour as far as possible to avoid using ordinary crossings flatter than 1 in 12, or diamond crossings flatter than 1 in 9, because the gap between the running rails becomes very considerable beyond those angles. At the same time, there are many cases of ordinary crossings of 1 in 16, and diamond crossings of 1 in 12 and 1 in 13 laid down in exceptional places, and which have carried heavy and fast traffic for many years. All crossings should be well protected with wing rails and guard rails, as shown on the sketches.
[Fig. 366] illustrates a method of bringing the UP and down lines of a double line of railway close to each other, and passing them over a single-line opening bridge, or a bridge where the works for the second line have not been completed. This arrangement avoids the necessity of any switches, and prevents any accidents which would arise from a misplaced switch. Each set of trains is effectually kept to its own line of rails. With proper signalling or pilot working, the double-line traffic can be worked over the single-line bridge without difficulty. The writer has adopted the above arrangement in many cases when renewing double-line bridges or viaducts where the width for traffic working has been restricted to half of the bridge.
In some instances the same system has been extended to the
carrying of four lines of rails over a double-line bridge, as shown on [Fig. 367].
The principal tool used by platelayers for lifting the permanent way is a long iron-shod wooden lever, as shown in [Fig. 368]. The point of the lower end is pushed under the sleeper, and the curved shoulder placed on a large stone or piece of wood as a support, and then by pulling down the upper end of the lever the road can be lifted to the height required. Screw lifting-jacks of various kinds are also used for the same purpose, the foot or base of the jack resting on the ballast, while the claws grasp the under side of the rail, and raise it by means of the screw. With appliances which lift by the rails, the sleepers have to be raised by the holding power of the spikes or bolts, an operation which is apt to throw undue strain on spikes. Where possible it is preferable to lift from the under side of the sleepers.
Beaters similar to the one shown on [Fig. 369] are used for packing the ballast. One end of the beater is pointed like a pick, and serves to loosen the ballast or broken stone, and the other end is made somewhat in the hammer-head form to pack or beat the ballast under the sleeper. With skilled men the beater is a most useful tool, speedy and effective in its action. Held in both hands, it is raised slightly, and then brought down sharply, the hammer-head striking the gravel or broken stone placed alongside for packing under the sleeper. A series of smart blows can be given with rapidity and without requiring any great muscular effort. In some foreign countries there is difficulty in initiating the natives to work with the ordinary beater, on account of the stooping position necessary for its use. To meet this difficulty the writer has in many cases substituted a packing or tamping bar, as shown in [Fig. 370]. This bar, about 5 feet long, is made of light round wrought-iron or steel, with a ring-shaped handle at one end, and an ordinary beater head at the other. The workman using this bar stands upright, guides the bar, held loosely, with his left hand, and with his right gives a continuance of smart blows. This tool works well in the hands of light active natives, who can thus give a number of rapid strokes without much exertion.
The simple rail-bender, or Jim Crow, of the form shown in [Fig. 371], is much used by platelayers for giving a slight bend or set to rails which have to be laid down on sharp curves on main line or cross-over roads. The rail is laid across the two arms,
and the screw turned round and downwards by means of an iron bar lever used as a spanner or wrench to the nut shown on the sketch. The same tool is also serviceable for straightening rails which have become crooked or kinked. Large and more comprehensive machines are used for bending rails in large quantities or setting them to exact curvature, but, being heavy and cumbersome, they are rarely taken away from the store-yards.
Strong steel shovels of the form shown in [Fig. 372] are the most suitable for platelayers’ general use when working with gravel, sand, or broken stones.
For driving iron spikes and wooden keys in cast-iron chairs a long-handled hammer is the most convenient for work, and its long swinging action produces considerable force without much actual labour.
Road-gauges, nut-wrenches, short straight-edges, spirit-levels, ratchet-drills, augurs, and cold setts of well-tempered steel for cutting rails, are all required by the men engaged in laying permanent way.
The following summaries give the estimated cost of materials alone for one mile of steel bull-head rail and steel flange rail permanent way of different weights. The 90-lb. steel bull-head rail is at present the heaviest of that section laid down to any extent on our home railways, and the chairs and fastenings are made heavy to correspond to the rail and the traffic for which it is intended. As the rails in the summaries become lighter, the weights of the chairs and fastenings are decreased. As yet there are not many samples of the 100-lb. steel flange rail; but in those places where it has been laid down it has been supported with a liberal supply of sleepers, to obtain increased bearing surface. With a 5½-inch flange, and a rectangular sleeper 10 inches wide, the bearing surface on the wood is only about 55 square inches, as compared with about 100 square inches, the bearing surface of a large cast-iron chair for a heavy bull-head rail. As previously explained, a small bearing surface on a sleeper tends to the cutting down into the wood, and rendering the sleeper unsafe and useless even before it has become unserviceable from decay: hence the reason for ample bearing surface on the sleeper. The last two summaries refer to 3-foot narrow-gauge lines. In more than one instance the 45-lb. rails first laid down have been found much too light for the engines required to work the traffic, and when
making extensions of the system 65-lb. rails have been adopted. Indeed, when taking into consideration the weight of most of the narrow-gauge engines, generally from 24 to 28 tons in working order, and their short wheel-base, it would appear that a 65-lb. rail is the minimum which should be used both for stability and economy in maintenance.
The summaries are prepared from examples in actual use, and represent the number and weight of sleepers, chairs, and fastenings in each instance. Even with the same weight of rail, the practice differs on various lines as to the weights of the chairs and fastenings; and the selections have been made to show a fair average. On some railways the chairs are secured partly by tree-nails and partly by spikes, or crab bolts; on others only spikes are used. The prices put down are the estimated values of the materials delivered into the Permanent Way Stores of our own home railways, and are exclusive of all costs of freight, carriage, or distribution to the site of laying down. The prices are only comparative, and fluctuate up or down according to the current value of the raw materials from which the various items are manufactured. Lighter rails and smaller fastenings cost more per ton than those of a heavier type, as they involve more labour and workmanship.
Steel Bull-head Rails (90 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 90 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 141 | 8 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 707 | 2 | 6 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 41 lbs. per pair | 6 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 15 | 0 | 43 | 17 | 6 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 6 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 404 | 16 | 0 | |||
| 4224 cast-iron chairs, each 50 lbs. | 94 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 330 | 0 | 1 |
| 8448 iron cup-headed spikes | 3 | 15 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 37 | 15 | 0 |
| 8448 tree-nails, at per 1000 | — | 3 | 10 | 0 | 29 | 11 | 4 | |||
| 4224 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | 5 | 0 | 0 | 21 | 2 | 5 | |||
| £ | 1589 | 10 | 10 | |||||||
Steel Bull-head Rails (90 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 90 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 141 | 8 | 2 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 41 lbs. per pair | 6 | 10 | 0 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||
| 4224 cast-iron chairs, each 50 lbs. | 94 | 5 | 3 | 0 |
| 8448 iron cup-headed spikes | 3 | 15 | 2 | 0 |
| 8448 tree-nails, at per 1000 | — | |||
| 4224 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | |||
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 90 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 707 | 2 | 6 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 41 lbs. per pair | 6 | 15 | 0 | 43 | 17 | 6 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 6 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 404 | 16 | 0 |
| 4224 cast-iron chairs, each 50 lbs. | 3 | 10 | 0 | 330 | 0 | 1 |
| 8448 iron cup-headed spikes | 10 | 0 | 0 | 37 | 15 | 0 |
| 8448 tree-nails, at per 1000 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 29 | 11 | 4 |
| 4224 oak keys, at per 1000 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 21 | 2 | 5 |
| £ | 1589 | 10 | 10 | |||
Steel Bull-head Rails (85 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 85 lbs. per yard (26-ft. length ) | 134 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 670 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 38 lbs. per pair | 6 | 17 | 3 | 0 | 6 | 15 | 0 | 46 | 9 | 10 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 15 | 7 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 45 lbs. | 81 | 11 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 285 | 9 | 5 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 3 | 12 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 36 | 5 | 0 |
| 4060 tree-nails, at per 1000 | — | 3 | 10 | 0 | 14 | 4 | 2 | |||
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | |||
| £ | 1477 | 11 | 8 | |||||||
Steel Bull-head Rails (85 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 85 lbs. per yard (26-ft. length ) | 134 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 38 lbs. per pair | 6 | 17 | 3 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 3 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 45 lbs. | 81 | 11 | 1 | 0 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 3 | 12 | 2 | 0 |
| 4060 tree-nails, at per 1000 | — | |||
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | |||
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 85 lbs. per yard (26-ft. length ) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 670 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 38 lbs. per pair | 6 | 15 | 0 | 46 | 9 | 10 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 15 | 7 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 |
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 45 lbs. | 3 | 10 | 0 | 285 | 9 | 5 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 10 | 0 | 0 | 36 | 5 | 0 |
| 4060 tree-nails, at per 1000 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 14 | 4 | 2 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 |
| £ | 1477 | 11 | 8 | |||
Steel Bull-head Rails (80 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 80 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 125 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 628 | 10 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 37 lbs. per pair | 6 | 14 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 15 | 0 | 45 | 6 | 2 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 15 | 7 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 40 lbs. | 72 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 253 | 15 | 0 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 3 | 12 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 36 | 5 | 0 |
| 4060 tree-nails, at per 1000 | — | 3 | 10 | 0 | 14 | 4 | 2 | |||
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | 5 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 6 | 0 | |||
| £ | 1403 | 3 | 7 | |||||||
Steel Bull-head Rails (80 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 80 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 125 | 14 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 37 lbs. per pair | 6 | 14 | 1 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 3 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 40 lbs. | 72 | 10 | 0 | 0 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 3 | 12 | 2 | 0 |
| 4060 tree-nails, at per 1000 | — | |||
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | |||
| Price. | Amount. | ||||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | ||
| Steel bull-head rails, 80 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 628 | 10 | 0 | |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 37 lbs. per pair | 6 | 15 | 0 | 45 | 6 | 2 | |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 15 | 7 | |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 | |
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 40 lbs. | 3 | 10 | 0 | 253 | 15 | 0 | |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 10 | 0 | 0 | 36 | 5 | 0 | |
| 4060 tree-nails, at per 1000 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 14 | 4 | 2 | |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 6 | 0 | |
| £ | 1403 | 3 | 7 | ||||
Steel Bull-head Rails (75 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 75 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 117 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 585 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 35 lbs. per pair | 6 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 15 | 0 | 42 | 17 | 3 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 15 | 7 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 37 lbs. | 67 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 234 | 14 | 5 |
| 12,180 iron cup-headed spikes | 5 | 8 | 3 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 54 | 7 | 6 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | 5 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 6 | 0 | |||
| £ | 1342 | 2 | 5 | |||||||
Steel Bull-head Rails (75 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |||||||
| Steel bull-head rails, 75 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 117 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 35 lbs. per pair | 6 | 7 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 3 | 0 | ||||||
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||||||||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 37 lbs. | 67 | 1 | 1 | 0 | ||||||
| 12,180 iron cup-headed spikes | 5 | 8 | 3 | 0 | ||||||
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | |||||||||
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 75 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 585 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 35 lbs. per pair | 6 | 15 | 0 | 42 | 17 | 3 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 15 | 7 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 |
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 37 lbs. | 3 | 10 | 0 | 234 | 14 | 5 |
| 12,180 iron cup-headed spikes | 10 | 0 | 0 | 54 | 7 | 6 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 6 | 0 |
| £ | 1342 | 2 | 5 | |||
Steel Bull-head Rails (70 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 70 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 110 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 550 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 32 lbs. per pair | 5 | 16 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 15 | 0 | 39 | 3 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 6 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 34 lbs. | 61 | 12 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 215 | 13 | 9 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 3 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 15 | 0 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | 4 | 10 | 0 | 18 | 5 | 5 | |||
| £ | 1257 | 19 | 4 | |||||||
Steel Bull-head Rails (70 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 70 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 110 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 32 lbs. per pair | 5 | 16 | 0 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 34 lbs. | 61 | 12 | 2 | 0 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 3 | 3 | 2 | 0 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | |||
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 70 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 550 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 32 lbs. per pair | 6 | 15 | 0 | 39 | 3 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 12 | 15 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 6 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 |
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 34 lbs. | 3 | 10 | 0 | 215 | 13 | 9 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 10 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 15 | 0 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | 4 | 10 | 0 | 18 | 5 | 5 |
| £ | 1257 | 19 | 4 | |||
Steel Bull-head Rails (65 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 65 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 102 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 536 | 5 | 9 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 28 lbs. per pair | 5 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 35 | 10 | 6 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 13 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | — | 0 | 3 | 0 | 304 | 10 | 0 | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 28 lbs. | 50 | 15 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 203 | 0 | 0 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 2 | 19 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 10 | 0 | 30 | 19 | 6 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | 4 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 4 | 9 | |||
| £ | 1140 | 3 | 6 | |||||||
Steel Bull-head Rails (65 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 65 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 102 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 28 lbs. per pair | 5 | 1 | 2 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | — | |||
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 28 lbs. | 50 | 15 | 0 | 0 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 2 | 19 | 0 | 0 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | — | |||
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel bull-head rails, 65 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 5 | 5 | 0 | 536 | 5 | 9 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 28 lbs. per pair | 7 | 0 | 0 | 35 | 10 | 6 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 13 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 13 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | 0 | 3 | 0 | 304 | 10 | 0 |
| 4060 cast-iron chairs, each 28 lbs. | 4 | 0 | 0 | 203 | 0 | 0 |
| 8120 iron cup-headed spikes | 10 | 10 | 0 | 30 | 19 | 6 |
| 4060 oak keys, at per 1000 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 4 | 9 |
| £ | 1140 | 3 | 6 | |||
Steel Flange Rails (100 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 100 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 157 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 785 | 15 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 42 lbs. per pair | 6 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 10 | 0 | 42 | 18 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 18 | 9 |
| 2464 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 472 | 5 | 4 | |||
| 8448 dog-head spikes | 3 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 41 | 5 | 0 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 8 | 3 | 0 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 18 | 2 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 16 | 14 | 5 |
| £ | 1380 | 14 | 8 | |||||||
Steel Flange Rails (100 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |||||||
| Steel flange rails, 100 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 157 | 3 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 42 lbs. per pair | 6 | 12 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 5 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| 2464 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||||||||
| 8448 dog-head spikes | 3 | 6 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 8 | 3 | 0 | ||||||
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 0 | ||||||
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 100 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 785 | 15 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 42 lbs. per pair | 6 | 10 | 0 | 42 | 18 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 18 | 9 |
| 2464 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 472 | 5 | 4 |
| 8448 dog-head spikes | 12 | 10 | 0 | 41 | 5 | 0 |
| 704 fang clips | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 18 | 2 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 12 | 10 | 0 | 16 | 14 | 5 |
| £ | 1380 | 14 | 8 | |||
Steel Flange Rails (79 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 79 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 125 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 625 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 37 lbs. per pair | 6 | 14 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 10 | 0 | 43 | 12 | 8 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 6 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 | |||
| 6496 dog-head spikes | 2 | 10 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 31 | 14 | 5 |
| 812 fang clips | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 6 | 15 | 0 |
| 1624 crab bolts | 1 | 10 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 19 | 4 | 5 |
| £ | 1130 | 14 | 2 | |||||||
Steel Flange Rails (79 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel flange rails, 79 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 125 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 37 lbs. per pair | 6 | 14 | 1 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||
| 6496 dog-head spikes | 2 | 10 | 3 | 0 |
| 812 fang clips | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 |
| 1624 crab bolts | 1 | 10 | 3 | 0 |
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 79 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 625 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 37 lbs. per pair | 6 | 10 | 0 | 43 | 12 | 8 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 12 | 15 | 0 | 15 | 6 | 0 |
| 2030 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 389 | 1 | 8 |
| 6496 dog-head spikes | 12 | 10 | 0 | 31 | 14 | 5 |
| 812 fang clips | 13 | 10 | 0 | 6 | 15 | 0 |
| 1624 crab bolts | 12 | 10 | 0 | 19 | 4 | 5 |
| £ | 1130 | 14 | 2 | |||
Steel Flange Rails (74 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 74 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 116 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 581 | 8 | 9 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 30½ lbs. per pair | 4 | 15 | 3 | 0 | 6 | 10 | 0 | 31 | 2 | 5 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 0 | 13 | 7 | 9 |
| 1936 creosoted sleepers, ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 371 | 1 | 4 | |||
| 6336 dog-head spikes | 2 | 9 | 2 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 30 | 18 | 9 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 8 | 3 | 0 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 18 | 2 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 16 | 14 | 5 |
| £ | 1050 | 11 | 7 | |||||||
Steel Flange Rails (74 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel flange rails, 74 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 116 | 5 | 3 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 30½ lbs. per pair | 4 | 15 | 3 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 1936 creosoted sleepers, ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||
| 6336 dog-head spikes | 2 | 9 | 2 | 0 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 8 | 3 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 0 |
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 74 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 581 | 8 | 9 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 30½ lbs. per pair | 6 | 10 | 0 | 31 | 2 | 5 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 12 | 15 | 0 | 13 | 7 | 9 |
| 1936 creosoted sleepers, ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 371 | 1 | 4 |
| 6336 dog-head spikes | 12 | 10 | 0 | 30 | 18 | 9 |
| 704 fang clips | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 18 | 2 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 12 | 10 | 0 | 16 | 14 | 5 |
| £ | 1050 | 11 | 7 | |||
Steel Flange Rails (65 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 65 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 102 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 10 | 0 | 561 | 16 | 6 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 27 lbs. per pair | 4 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 7 | 5 | 0 | 30 | 14 | 5 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 |
| 1936 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 371 | 1 | 4 | |||
| 6336 dog-head spikes | 2 | 9 | 2 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 30 | 18 | 9 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 8 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 16 | 14 | 5 |
| £ | 1029 | 13 | 5 | |||||||
Steel Flange Rails (65 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel flange rails, 65 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 102 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 27 lbs. per pair | 4 | 4 | 3 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1936 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||
| 6336 dog-head spikes | 2 | 9 | 2 | 0 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 0 |
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 65 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 5 | 10 | 0 | 561 | 16 | 6 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 27 lbs. per pair | 7 | 5 | 0 | 30 | 14 | 5 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 13 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 |
| 1936 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 371 | 1 | 4 |
| 6336 dog-head spikes | 12 | 10 | 0 | 30 | 18 | 9 |
| 704 fang clips | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 8 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 12 | 10 | 0 | 16 | 14 | 5 |
| £ | 1029 | 13 | 5 | |||
Steel Flange Rails (60 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 60 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 94 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 5 | 10 | 0 | 518 | 11 | 7 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 25 lbs. per pair | 3 | 18 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 5 | 0 | 28 | 9 | 2 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | 0 | 3 | 10 | 404 | 16 | 0 | |||
| 7040 dog-head spikes | 2 | 15 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 34 | 7 | 6 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 8 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 16 | 14 | 5 |
| £ | 1021 | 6 | 8 | |||||||
Steel Flange Rails (60 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel flange rails, 60 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 94 | 5 | 3 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 25 lbs. per pair | 3 | 18 | 2 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | — | |||
| 7040 dog-head spikes | 2 | 15 | 0 | 0 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 0 |
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 60 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 5 | 10 | 0 | 518 | 11 | 7 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 25 lbs. per pair | 7 | 5 | 0 | 28 | 9 | 2 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 13 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 10 in. × 5 in. | 0 | 3 | 10 | 404 | 16 | 0 |
| 7040 dog-head spikes | 12 | 10 | 0 | 34 | 7 | 6 |
| 704 fang clips | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 8 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 12 | 10 | 0 | 16 | 14 | 5 |
| £ | 1021 | 6 | 8 | |||
Steel Flange Rails (50 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 50 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 78 | 11 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 15 | 0 | 451 | 16 | 1 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 22 lbs. per pair | 3 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 10 | 0 | 25 | 19 | 5 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 0 | 18 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 12 | 3 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | — | 0 | 3 | 0 | 316 | 16 | 0 | |||
| 7040 dog-head spikes | 2 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 30 | 14 | 3 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 7 | 6 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 6 | 0 |
| £ | 856 | 2 | 3 | |||||||
Steel Flange Rails (50 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel flange rails, 50 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 78 | 11 | 2 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 22 lbs. per pair | 3 | 9 | 1 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 0 | 18 | 0 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | — | |||
| 7040 dog-head spikes | 2 | 7 | 1 | 0 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 6 | 1 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 50 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 5 | 15 | 0 | 451 | 16 | 1 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 22 lbs. per pair | 7 | 10 | 0 | 25 | 19 | 5 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 13 | 10 | 0 | 12 | 3 | 0 |
| 2112 creosoted sleepers, 9 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | 0 | 3 | 0 | 316 | 16 | 0 |
| 7040 dog-head spikes | 13 | 0 | 0 | 30 | 14 | 3 |
| 704 fang clips | 14 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 7 | 6 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 13 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 6 | 0 |
| £ | 856 | 2 | 3 | |||
Steel Flange Rails (65 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 65 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 102 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 10 | 0 | 561 | 16 | 6 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 27 lbs. per pair | 4 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 7 | 5 | 0 | 30 | 14 | 5 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 |
| 2288 creosoted sleepers, 6 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | — | 0 | 2 | 3 | 257 | 8 | 0 | |||
| 7744 dog-head spikes | 2 | 17 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 35 | 12 | 6 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 7 | 2 | 0 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 3 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 10 | 0 | 26 | 5 | 0 |
| £ | 929 | 17 | 8 | |||||||
Steel Flange Rails (65 lbs. per Yard). | ||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |
| Steel flange rails, 65 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 102 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 27 lbs. per pair | 4 | 4 | 3 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 2288 creosoted sleepers, 6 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | — | |||
| 7744 dog-head spikes | 2 | 17 | 0 | 0 |
| 704 fang clips | 0 | 7 | 2 | 0 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 65 lbs. per yard (30-ft. lengths) | 5 | 10 | 0 | 561 | 16 | 6 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 27 lbs. per pair | 7 | 5 | 0 | 30 | 14 | 5 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 13 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 |
| 2288 creosoted sleepers, 6 ft. × 9 in. × 4½ in. | 0 | 2 | 3 | 257 | 8 | 0 |
| 7744 dog-head spikes | 12 | 10 | 0 | 35 | 12 | 6 |
| 704 fang clips | 13 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 3 |
| 1408 crab bolts | 12 | 10 | 0 | 26 | 5 | 0 |
| £ | 929 | 17 | 8 | |||
Steel Flange Rails (45 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | Price. | Amount. | ||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 45 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 70 | 14 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 15 | 0 | 406 | 12 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 16 lbs. per pair | 2 | 18 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 10 | 0 | 21 | 15 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 0 | 18 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 12 | 3 | 0 |
| 2233 creosoted sleepers, 6 ft. × 8 in. × 4 in. | — | 0 | 1 | 10 | 204 | 13 | 10 | |||
| 7308 dog-head spikes | 2 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 35 | 2 | 0 |
| 812 fang clips | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 0 |
| 1624 crab bolts | 0 | 18 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 14 | 0 |
| £ | 695 | 9 | 10 | |||||||
Steel Flange Rails (45 lbs. per Yard). | ||||||||||
| Weight per mile of single line. | ||||||||||
| tons. | cwt. | qrs. | lbs. | |||||||
| Steel flange rails, 45 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 70 | 14 | 1 | 0 | ||||||
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 16 lbs. per pair | 2 | 18 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 0 | 18 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| 2233 creosoted sleepers, 6 ft. × 8 in. × 4 in. | — | |||||||||
| 7308 dog-head spikes | 2 | 14 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| 812 fang clips | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| 1624 crab bolts | 0 | 18 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| Price. | Amount. | |||||
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |
| Steel flange rails, 45 lbs. per yard (26-ft. lengths) | 5 | 15 | 0 | 406 | 12 | 0 |
| Steel fish-plates (deep), 16 lbs. per pair | 7 | 10 | 0 | 21 | 15 | 0 |
| Fish-bolts and nuts | 13 | 10 | 0 | 12 | 3 | 0 |
| 2233 creosoted sleepers, 6 ft. × 8 in. × 4 in. | 0 | 1 | 10 | 204 | 13 | 10 |
| 7308 dog-head spikes | 13 | 0 | 0 | 35 | 2 | 0 |
| 812 fang clips | 14 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 0 |
| 1624 crab bolts | 13 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 14 | 0 |
| £ | 695 | 9 | 10 | |||