Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans / Second annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1880-81, pages 179-306

by William Henry Holmes

ENGRAVED GORGETS.

It has already been suggested that the simpler forms of pendants with plain surfaces may have had particular significance to their possessors, as insignia, amulets, or symbols, or that they may have received painted designs of such a character as to give significance to them. For ornament the natural or plainly polished surface of the shell possessed sufficient beauty to satisfy the most fastidious taste—a beauty that could hardly be enhanced by the addition of painted or incised figures. But we find that many of the larger gorgets obtained from the mounds and graves of a large district have designs of a most interesting nature engraved upon them, which are so remarkable in conception and execution as to command our admiration. Such is the character of these designs that we are at once impressed with the idea that they are not products of the idle fancy, neither is it possible that they had no higher office than the gratification of barbarian vanity. I have given much time to their examination, and, day by day, have become more strongly impressed with the belief that no single design is without its significance, and that their production was a serious art which dealt with matters closely interwoven with the history, mythology and polity of a people gradually developing a civilization of their own.

Although these objects were worn as personal ornaments they probably had specialized uses as insignia, amulets, or symbols.

As insignia, they were badges of office or distinction. The devices engraved upon them were derived from many sources and were probably sometimes supplemented by numeral records representing enemies killed, prisoners taken, or other deeds accomplished.

As amulets, they were invested with protective or remedial attributes and contained mystic devices derived from dreams, visions, and many other sources.

As symbols they possessed, in most cases, a religious character, and were generally used as totems of clans. They were inscribed with characters derived chiefly from mythologic sources. A few examples contain geometric designs which may have been time-symbols, or they may have indicated the order of ceremonial exercises.

That these objects should be classed under one of these heads and not as simple ornaments engraved with intricate designs for embellishment alone is apparent when we consider the serious character of the work, the great amount of labor and patience shown, the frequent recurrence of the same design, the wide distribution of particular forms, the preservation of the idea in all cases, no matter what shortcomings occur in execution or detail, and the apparent absence of all lines, dots, and figures not essential to the presentation of the conception.

In describing these gorgets I have arranged them in groups distinguished by the designs engraved upon them.[135] They are presented in the following order:

The Cross,

The Scalloped Disk,

The Bird,

The Spider,

The Serpent,

The Human Face,

The Human Figure: and to these I append The Frog, which is found in Arizona only, and although carved in shell does not appear to have been used as a pendant, as no perforations are visible.

Within the United States ancient tablets containing engraved designs are apparently confined to the Atlantic slope, and are not found to any extent beyond the limits of the district occupied by the stone-grave peoples. Early explorers along the Atlantic coast mention the use of engraved gorgets by a number of tribes. Modern examples may be found occasionally among the Indians of the northwest coast as well as upon the islands of the central Pacific.

THE CROSS.

The discoverers and early explorers of the New World were filled with surprise when they beheld their own sacred emblem, the cross, mingling with the pagan devices of the western barbarian. Writers have speculated in vain—the mystery yet remains unsolved. Attempts to connect the use of the cross by prehistoric Americans with its use in the East have signally failed, and we are compelled to look on its occurrence here as one of those strange coincidences so often found in the practices of peoples totally foreign to each other.

If written history does not establish beyond a doubt the fact that the cross had a place in our aboriginal symbolism, we have but to turn to the pages of the great archæologic record, where we find that it occupies a place in ancient American art so intimately interwoven with conceptions peculiar to the continent that it cannot be separated from them. It is found associated with other prehistoric remains throughout nearly the entire length and breadth of America.

I have the pleasure of presenting a few new examples of this emblem, obtained from the district at one time occupied by the mound-builders. The examples are carved in shell or engraved upon disks of shell which have been employed as pendant gorgets. In the study of these particular relics, one important fact in recent history must be kept constantly in mind. The first explorers were accompanied by Christian zealots, who spared no effort to root out the native superstitions and introduce a foreign religion, of which the cross was the all-important symbol. This emblem was generally accepted by the savages as the only tangible feature of a new system of belief that was filled with subtleties too profound for their comprehension. As a result, the cross was at once introduced into the regalia of the natives; at first probably in a European form and material attached to a string of beads in precisely the manner that they had been accustomed to suspend their own trinkets and gorgets; but soon, no doubt, delineated or carved by their own hands upon tablets of stone and copper and shell, in the place of their own peculiar conceptions. From the time of La Salle down to the extinction of the savage in the middle Mississippi province, the cross was kept constantly before him, and its presence may thus be accounted for in such remains as post-date the advent of the whites. Year after year articles of European manufacture are being discovered in the most unexpected places, and we shall find it impossible to assign any single example of these crosses to a prehistoric period, with the assurance that our statements will not some day be challenged. It is certainly unfortunate that the American origin of any work of art resembling European forms must rest forever under a cloud of suspicion. As long as a doubt exists in regard to the origin of a relic, it is useless to employ it in a discussion where important deductions are to be made. At the same time it should not be forgotten that the cross was undoubtedly used as a symbol by the prehistoric nations of the South, and consequently that it was probably also known in the North. A great majority of the relics associated with it in ancient mounds and burial places are undoubtedly aboriginal. In the case of the shell gorgets, the tablets themselves belong to an American type, and are highly characteristic of the art of the Mississippi Valley. A majority of the designs engraved upon them are also characteristic of the same district.

We find at rare intervals designs that are characteristically foreign; these, whether Mexican or European, are objects of special interest and merit the closest possible examination. That the design under consideration, as well as every other engraved upon these tablets, is symbolic or otherwise significant, I do not for a moment doubt; but the probabilities as to the European or American origin of the symbol of the cross found in this region are pretty evenly balanced. In its delineation there is certainly nothing to indicate its origin. By reference to Plate LIII it will be seen that in all the examples given it is a simple and symmetrical cross, which might be duplicated a thousand times in the religious art of any country. A study of the designs associated with the cross in these gorgets is instructive, but does not lead to any definite result. In one case the cross is inscribed upon the back of a great spider; in another it is surrounded by a rectangular framework of lines, looped at the corners, and guarded by four mysterious birds, while in others it is without attendant characters; but the workmanship is purely aboriginal. I have not seen a single example of engraving upon shell that suggested a foreign hand, or a design, with the exception of this one, that could claim a European derivation.

Some very ingenious theories have been elaborated in attempting to account for the presence of the cross among American symbols. Brinton believes that the great importance attached to the points of the compass—the four quarters of the heavens—by savage peoples has given rise to the sign of the cross. With others the cross is a phallic symbol, derived, by some obscure process of evolution, from the veneration accorded to the reciprocal principle in nature. It is also frequently associated with sun-worship, and is recognized as a symbol of the sun—the four arms being remaining rays left after a gradual process of elimination. Whatever is finally determined in reference to the origin of the cross as a religious symbol in America will probably result from the exhaustive study of the history, language, and art of the ancient peoples, combined with a thorough knowledge of the religious conceptions of modern tribes, and when these sources of information are all exhausted it is probable that the writer who asserts more than a probability will overreach his proofs.

Such delineations of the cross as we find embodied in ancient aboriginal art represent only the final stages of its evolution, and it is not to be expected that its origin can be traced through them. In one instance, however, a direct derivation from nature is suggested. The ancient Mexican pictographic manuscripts abound in representations of trees, conventionalized in such a manner as to resemble crosses; these apparently take an important part in the scenes depicted. By a comparison of these curious trees with the remarkable cross in the Palenque tablet, I have been led to the belief that they must have a common significance and origin. The analogies are indeed remarkable. The tree-cross in the paintings is often the central figure of a group in which priests offer sacrifice, or engage in some similar religious rite. The cross holds the same relation in the Palenque group. The branches of these cross-shaped trees terminate in clusters of symbolic fruit, and the arms of the cross are loaded down with symbols which, although highly conventionalized, have not yet entirely lost their vegetable character. The most remarkable feature, however, is not that the crosses resemble each other in these respects, but that they perform like functions in giving support to a symbolic bird which is perched upon the summit. This bird appears to be the important feature of the group, and to it, or the deity which it represents, the homage or sacrifice is offered. These analogies go still farther; the bases of the cross in the tablet and of the crosses in the paintings are made to rest upon a highly conventionalized figure of some mythical creature. A consideration of these facts seems to me to lead to the conclusion that the myths represented in all of these groups are identical, and that the cross and cross-like trees have a common origin. Whether that origin is in the tree on the one hand or in a cross otherwise evolved on the other I shall not attempt to say.

The gorget presented in Fig. 1, Plate LI, belongs to the collection of Mr. F. M. Perrine, and was obtained from a mound in Union County, Ill. It is a little more than three inches in diameter and has been ground down to a uniform thickness of about one-twelfth of an inch. The surfaces are smooth and the margin carefully rounded and polished. Near the upper edge are two perforations for suspension. The cord used passed between the holes on the concave side, wearing a shallow groove. On the convex side, or back, the cord marks extend upward and outward, indicating the usual method of suspension about the neck. The cross which occupies the center of the concave face of the disk, is quite simple. It is partially inclosed on one side by a semicircular line, and at present has no other definition than that given by four triangular perforations which separate the arms. The face of the cross is ornamented with six carelessly drawn incised lines, which interlace in the center, as shown in the cut—three extending along the arm to the right and three passing down the lower arm to the inclosing line. I have not been able to learn anything of the character of the interments with which this specimen was associated.

Fig. 2 of the same plate represents a large shell cross, the encircling rim of which has been broken away. The perforations are still intact. The cross is quite plain. This specimen is very much decayed, and came to the National Museum inside of a skull obtained from a grave at Charleston, Mo. Beyond this there is no record of the specimen.

PL. LI—SHELL GORGETS—THE CROSS.

1. From a mound, Union County, Ill.
2. From Charleston, Mo.

(1/1)

In Fig. 1, Plate LII, I present a large fragment of a circular shell ornament, on the convex surface of which a very curious ornamental design has been engraved. The design, inclosed by a circle, represents a cross such as would be formed by two rectangular tablets or slips, slit longitudinally and interlaced at right angles to each other. Between the arms of the cross in the spaces inclosed by the circular border line are four annular nodes, having small conical depressions in the center. These nodes have been relieved by cutting away portions of the shell around them. In the center of the cross is another small node or ring similarly relieved. The lines are neat and deeply incised. The edge of the shell has been broken away nearly all around. The accompanying cut represents the ornament natural size—one and a half inches in diameter and one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness. It was obtained from a mound on Fain's Island, Tennessee.

The small gorget presented in Fig. 2, Plate LII, is of inferior workmanship and the lines and dots seem to have a somewhat haphazard arrangement. The cross, which may or may not be significant, consists of two shallow irregular grooves which cross each other at right angles near the center of the disk and terminate near the border. There are indications of an irregular, somewhat broken, concentric line near the margin. A number of shallow conical pits have been drilled at rather irregular intervals over most of the surface. One pair of perforations seems to have been broken away and others drilled, one of the latter has also been broken out. A triangular fragment is lost from the lower margin of the disk. This specimen was obtained from a mound on Lick Creek, East Tennessee, by Mr. Dunning.

The gorget shown in Fig. 3 contains a typical example of the cross of the mound-builder. The cut was made from a pencil sketch and is probably not quite accurate in detail. The border of the disk is plain, with the exception of the usual perforations at the top. The cross is inclosed in a carelessly drawn circle, and the spaces between the arms, which in other crosses are entirely cut out, or are filled with rays or other figures, are here decorated with a pattern of crossed lines. The lines which define the arms of the cross intersect in the middle of the disk. The square figure thus produced in the center contains a device that is probably significant. A doubly-curved or S-shaped incised line, widened at the ends, extends obliquely across the square from the right upper to the left lower corner. This figure appears to be an elementary or unfinished form of the device found in the center of many of the more elaborate disks. Intersected by a similar line it would form a cross like that upon the back of one of the spiders shown in Plate LXI, or somewhat more evenly curved, it would resemble the involuted figure in the center of the circular disks given in Plate LIV. This specimen was obtained from a mound on Lick Creek, Tenn., and is now in the Peabody Museum.

In Fig. 4 a large copper disk from an Ohio mound is represented. The specimen is eight inches in diameter, is very thin, and has suffered greatly from corrosion. A symmetrical cross, the arms of which are five inches in length, has been cut out of the center. Two concentric lines have been impressed in the plate, one near the margin and the other touching the ends of the cross. It is now in the Natural History Museum at New York.

PL. LII—THE CROSS OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS.

1. Shell gorget, Fain's Island, Tenn.
2. Shell gorget, Lick Creek, Tenn.
3. Shell gorget, Lick Creek, Tenn.
4. Copper plate, Ohio.

In Plate LIII I present a large number of crosses, most of which have been obtained from the mounds, or from ancient graves, within the district occupied by the mound-builders. Eight are engraved upon shell gorgets (illustrations of which are given in the accompanying plates), one is cut in stone, three are painted upon pottery, and four are executed in copper. With two exceptions they are inclosed in circles, and are hence symmetrical Greek crosses, the ends being rounded to conform to the circle; the remaining two (Figs. 14 and 15) represent forms of the Latin cross, and resemble the crosses attached to the rosaries of the Catholic priesthood. A silver cross similar to the last given was obtained from a mound in Ohio.

The plate itself is instructive, and may be presented without further remark.

PL. LIII—THE CROSS.

SCALLOPED DISKS.

In making a hasty classification of the many engraved gorgets, I have found it convenient to place in one group a numerous and somewhat extraordinary class of designs which have been engraved upon scalloped disks. Like the cross, the symbol here represented is one that cannot with certainty be referred to an original. The general shape of the disks is such as to suggest to most minds a likeness to the sun, the scallops being suggestive of the rays. As this orb is known to be an object of first importance in the economy of life—the source of light and heat—it is naturally an object of veneration among many primitive peoples. It is well known that the barbarian tribes of Mexico and South America had well-developed systems of sun-worship, and that they employed symbols of many forms, some of which still retained a likeness to the original, while others had assumed the garb of animals or fanciful creatures. These facts being known, it seems natural that such a symbol as the one under consideration should be referred to the great original which it suggests.

The well-known fact that the district from which these gorgets come, was, at the time of discovery by the whites, inhabited by a race of sun-worshipers—the Natchez—gives to this assumption a shadow of confirmation. So far as I am aware, however, no one has ventured a positive opinion in regard to their significance, but such suggestions as have been made incline toward the view indicated above. I feel the great necessity of caution in such matters, and while combating the idea that the designs are ornamental or fanciful only, I am far from attributing to them any deeply mysterious significance. They may in some way or other indicate political or religious station, or they may even be cosmogenic, but the probabilities are much greater that they are time symbols. Before venturing further, however, it will be well to describe one of these disks, a typical example of which is presented in Plate LIV.

The specimen chosen as a type of these rosette-like disks was obtained from a mound near Nashville, Tenn., by Professor Powell. It was found near the head of a skeleton, which was much decayed, and had been so disturbed by recent movements of the soil as to render it difficult to determine its original position. The shell used is apparently a large specimen of the Busycon perversum, although the lines of growth are not sufficiently well preserved to permit a positive determination of the species. The substance of the shell is well preserved; the surface was once highly polished, but is now pitted and discolored by age. The design is engraved on the concave surface as usual, and the lines are accurately drawn and clearly cut. The various concentric circles are drawn with geometric accuracy around a minute shallow pit as a center. These circles divide the surface into five parts—a small circle at the center surrounded by four zones of unequal width. The central circle is three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and is surrounded by a zone one-half an inch in width, which contains a rosette of three involuted lines; these begin on the circumference of the inner circle in three small equidistant perforations, and sweep outward to the second circle, making upwards of half a revolution. These lines are somewhat wider and more deeply engraved than the other lines of the design. In many specimens they are so deeply cut in the middle part of the curve as to penetrate the disk, producing crescent-shaped perforations. The second zone is one-fourth of an inch in width, and in this, as in all other specimens, is quite plain. The third zone is one-half an inch in width, and exhibits some very interesting features. Placed at almost equal intervals we find six circular figures, each of which incloses a circlet and a small central pit; the spaces between the circular figures are thickly dotted with minute conical pits, somewhat irregularly placed; the number of dots in each space varies from thirty-six to forty, which gives a total of about two hundred and thirty.

The outer zone is subdivided into thirteen compartments, in each of which a nearly circular figure or boss has been carved, the outer edges of which form the scalloped outline of the gorget. Two medium sized perforations for suspension have been made near the inner margin of one of the bosses next the dotted zone; these show slight indications of abrasion by the cord of suspension. These perforations, as well as the three near the center, have been bored mainly from the convex side of the disk. Whatever may be the meaning of this design, we cannot fail to recognize the important fact that it is significant—that an idea is expressed. Were the design ornamental, we should expect variation in the parts or details of different specimens resulting from difference of taste in the designers; if simply copied from an original example for sale or trade to the inhabitants we might expect a certain number of exact reproductions; but in such a case, when variations did occur, they would hardly be found to follow uniform or fixed lines; there would also be variation in the relation of the parts of the conception as well as in the number of particular parts; the zones would not follow each other in exactly the same order; particular figures would not be confined to particular zones; the rays of the volute would not always have a sinistral turn, or the form of the tablet be always circular and scalloped. It cannot be supposed that of the whole number of these objects at one time in use, more than a small number have been rescued from decay, and these have been obtained from widely scattered localities and doubtless represent centuries of time, yet no variants appear to indicate a leading up to or a divergence from the one particular type. A design of purely ornamental character, even if executed by the same hand, could not, in the nature of things, exhibit the uniformity in variation here shown. Fancy, unfettered by ideas of a fixed nature, such as those pertaining to religious or sociologic customs, would vary with the locality, the day, the year, or the life. I have examined upwards of thirty of these scalloped disks, the majority of which are made of shell. I shall not attempt to describe each specimen, but shall call attention to such important variations from the type as may be noticed.

PL. LIV—SCALLOPED SHELL DISK.

Nashville, Tenn.
(1/1)

In Fig. 1, Plate LV, we have a well-preserved disk which has four involute lines, the others having three only; these lines are deeply cut and, for about one-third of their length, penetrate the shell, producing four crescent-shaped perforations. The circles in the third or dotted zone are neatly made and evenly spaced, and inclose circlets and conical pits. The dots in the intervening spaces are closely and irregularly placed, and in number range from forty to forty-five, giving a total of about three hundred and forty. Other features are as usual. The specimen was obtained from a stone grave in Kane's Field, near Nashville, Tenn., and is now in the Peabody Museum.

It is possible that the specimen presented in Fig. 2, Plate LV, should not be placed in this group; but as there are many points of resemblance to the type, it may be described here. At first sight it appears that one of the outer zones is lacking, but it will be seen that through some unknown cause the two have been merged together, alternating bosses of the outer line being carried across both zones. The whole design has been carelessly laid out and rudely engraved. The lines of the involute are arranged in four groups of two each and occupy an unusually wide belt. There are near the margin two sets of perforations for suspension. The specimen was obtained from the Brakebill mound, near Knoxville, Tenn., and is in an advanced stage of decay.

PL. LV—SHELL DISKS.

1. From a mound near Nashville. (1/1)
2. From the Brakebill Mound. (1/1)

Tennessee.

In Plate LVI, Fig. 4, I present a small specimen, which has the appearance of being unfinished. The zones are all defined, but, with the exception of the outer, which has thirteen bosses, are quite plain. The lines are deeply but rudely cut. It was obtained from a stone grave at Oldtown, Tenn., and is now in the Peabody Museum.

Besides the type specimen already presented, there may be seen in the National Museum two very good examples, from a mound near Franklin, Tenn. The smaller is about three inches in diameter and is nearly circular; it has suffered much from decay, but nearly all the design can be made out. The lines of the involute penetrate the disk producing short crescent-shaped perforations; the circles in the dotted zone are seven in number and inclose the usual circlets and conical pits; the dots in the intervening spaces are too obscure to be counted. The specimen has sixteen marginal scallops. The larger specimen is somewhat fragmentary, portions being broken away from opposite sides. It is nearly four and a half inches in diameter, and the design has been drawn and engraved with more than ordinary precision. The central circle incloses a perforated circlet, and the involute lines are long and shallow. The dotted zone has seven circles with inclosed circlets and pits. The outer zone contains fifteen oval figures.

Another example of these shell disks is illustrated by Professor Putnam, in the eleventh annual report of the Peabody Museum, page 310. It is said to have been found near Nashville, Tenn., although its pedigree is not well established. According to Professor Putnam, it is made from the shell of a Busycon, and is apparently in a very good state of preservation. It is about four inches in diameter and is inscribed with the usual design, a central circle and dot surrounded by a triple involute and three concentric zones. The narrow inner zone is plain, as usual; the middle dotted zone has six circles with central dots, the spaces between being closely dotted, and the outer zone contains thirteen of the oval figures, the outer edges of which form the scalloped margin of the disk. The perforations for suspension are placed as usual near the inner margin of the outer zone in the spaces between the oval figures.

A fine example of engraved disks has been figured by Dr. Joseph Jones, from whose work the illustrations given in Figs. 1 and 2, Plate LVI, have been taken. As his description is one of the first given and quite graphic, I make the following quotation: "In a carefully constructed stone sarcophagus, in which the face of the skeleton was looking toward the setting sun, a beautiful shell ornament was found resting upon the breast-bone of the skeleton. This shell ornament is 4.4 inches in diameter, and it is ornamented on its concave surface, with a small circle in the center, and four concentric bands, differently figured, in relief. The first band is filled by a triple volute; the second is plain, while the third is dotted, and has nine small round bosses carved at unequal distances upon it. The outer band is made up of fourteen small elliptical bosses, the outer edges of which give to the object a scalloped rim. This ornament on its concave figured surface had been covered with red paint, much of which was still visible. The convex smooth surface is highly polished and plain, with the exception of three concentric marks. The material out of which it is formed was evidently derived from a large flat sea-shell. * * * The form of the circles or 'suns' carved upon the concave surface is similar to that of the paintings on the high rocky cliffs on the banks of the Cumberland and Harpeth. * * * This ornament, when found, lay upon the breast-bone, with the concave surface uppermost, as if it had been worn in this position suspended around the neck, as the two holes for the thong or string were in that portion of the border which pointed directly to the chin or central portion of the lower jaw of the skeleton. The marks of the thong by which it was suspended are manifest upon both the anterior and posterior surfaces, and in addition to this the paint is worn off from the circular space bounded below by the two holes."[136]

Fig. 2 represents the back or convex side of the disk, the long curved lines indicate the laminations of the shell, and the three narrow crescent-shaped figures near the center are perforations resulting from the deep engraving of the three lines of the volute on the concave side. The stone grave in which this ornament was found occupied the summit of a mound on the banks of the Cumberland River opposite Nashville, Tennessee. Professor Jones, also represents in the same work, page 109, a large fragment of a similar ornament which has apparently had seven circlets in the dotted zone and thirteen marginal bosses. This specimen, which is three and one-half inches in diameter, was exhumed by Dr. Grant, from "a small rock mound" near Pulaski, Giles County, Tennessee.

PL. LVI—SCALLOPED SHELL DISKS.

1. Nashville, Tenn.
2. Nashville, Tenn. (reverse).
3. Nashville, Tenn.
4. Oldtown, Tenn.
5. Nashville, Tenn.
6. Pulaski, Tenn.

Prof. C. C. Jones describes a number of stone disks containing designs which evidently belong to the class under consideration. He inclines to the opinion that they were designed for some sacred office, and suggests that they were used as plates to offer food to the sun god. The specimen of which I present an outline in Fig. 3, Plate LVII, is figured by Mr. Jones, and his description is as follows: It is "circular in form, eleven inches and a half in diameter, an inch and a quarter in thickness, and weighing nearly seven pounds. It is made of a close-grained, sea-green slate, and bears upon its surface the stains of centuries. Between the rim, which is scalloped, and the central portion, are two circular depressed rings, running parallel with the circumference and incised to the depth of a tenth of an inch. This circular basin, nearly eight inches in diameter, is surrounded by a margin or rim a little less than two inches in width, traversed by the incised rings and beveled from the center toward the edge. The lower surface or bottom of the plate is flat, beveled upward, however, as it approaches the scalloped edge, which is not more than a quarter of an inch in thickness. * * * The use of these plates from the Etowah Valley may, we think, be conjectured with at least some degree of probability. It is not likely that they were employed for domestic or culinary purposes. Their weight, variety, the care evidenced in their construction, and the amount of time and labor necessarily expended in their manufacture, forbid the belief that they were intended as ordinary dishes from which the daily meal was to be eaten, and suggest the impression that they were designed to fulfill a more unusual and important office. The common vessels from which the natives of this region ate their prepared food were bowls and pans fashioned of wood and baked clay, calabashes, pieces of bark, and large shells. Flat platters, made of an admixture of clay and pounded shells, well kneaded and burnt, were ordinarily employed for baking corn-cakes and frying meat; but it does not anywhere appear that ornamental stone plates were in general use."[137]

This specimen, or one identical with it, is in the possession of the Natural History Museum in New York. It was plowed up in 1859 on the lower terrace of a large mound near Cartersville, Ga.

Other specimens somewhat similar to the one described by Professor Jones have been obtained from the same region, two of which are now in the National Museum. One of these from a mound on the Warrior Riv. is made of gray slate, and is about eight inches in diameter. It is smooth, symmetrical, and doubly convex. There are three shallow, irregular lines near the border, and the periphery is ornamented with twenty-one scallops. Another specimen, a cut of which has already been published by Dr. Rau in "The Archæological Collection of the National Museum," p. 37, is illustrated in Plate LVII, Fig. 1. It is nearly one-half an inch in thickness, and about ten inches in diameter. A single incised line runs parallel with the circumference, which is ornamented with nine rather irregularly placed notches. The stone disk, of which an outline is given in Fig. 2, Plate LVII, was obtained from the Lick Creek mound, in East Tennessee. Its resemblance to the shell disks is so striking that it must be regarded as having a similar origin if not a similar use. The division into zones is the same as in the shell disks; the outer is divided into twelve lobes, and the cross in the center takes the place of the involute rosette with its central circle. The fact that this particular design is engraved on heavy plates of stone as well as upon shell gorgets is sufficient proof that its origin cannot be attributed to fancy alone.

I have seen at the National Museum a curious specimen of stone disk, which should be mentioned in this place, although there is not sufficient assurance of its genuineness to allow it undisputed claim to a place among antiquities. It is a perfectly circular, neatly-dressed sandstone disk, twelve inches in diameter and one-half an inch in thickness. Upon one face we see three marginal incised lines, as in the example just described, while on the other there is a well-engraved design which represents two entwined or rather knotted rattlesnakes. An outline of this curious figure is given in Plate LXVI. Within the circular space inclosed by the bodies of the serpents is a well-drawn hand in the palm of which is placed an open eye; this would probably have been omitted by the artist had he fully appreciated the skeptical tendencies of the modern archæologist. The margin of the plate is divided into seventeen sections by small semicircular indentations. This object is said to have been obtained from a mound near Carthage, Ala. The reverse is shown in Fig. 4, Plate LVII. A similar specimen from a mound near Lake Washington, Mississippi, is described by Mr. Anderson.[138]

PL. LVII—SCALLOPED DISKS.

1. Stone, Warrior River, Ala.
2. Stone, Lick Creek Mound, Tenn.
3. Stone, Etowah, Valley, Ga.
4. Stone, Carthage, Ala.
5. Stone, Sun symbol, Uxmal.

The short time at my disposal has barely permitted me to collect the facts, and I shall have to leave it to the future or to others to follow out fully the suggestions here presented. I had expected to find some uniformity in the numbers or ratios of the various zones, circles, and dots, and by that means possibly to have arrived at some conclusion as to their significance. I have already shown that certain elements of the design are fixed in position and number, while others vary, and the following table is presented that these facts may be made apparent. The list is quite incomplete.

It will be seen by reference to the fourth column that the involute symbol of the inner zone is, with one exception, divided into three parts. The second zone is not given in the table, as it is always plain. The third or dotted zone contains circlets which range from six to nine, while the dots, which have been counted in a few cases only, have a wide range, the total number in some cases reaching three hundred and forty. The bosses of the outer zone range from thirteen to eighteen. The examples in stone seem to have a different series of numbers.

The student will hardly fail to notice the resemblance of these disks to the calendars or time symbols of Mexico and other southern nations of antiquity. There is, however, no absolute identity with southern examples. The involute design in the center resembles the Aztec symbol of day, but is peculiar in its division into three parts, four being the number almost universally used. The only division into three that I have noticed occurs in the calendar of the Muyscas, in which three days constitute a week. The circlets and bosses of the outer zones gives them a pretty close resemblance to the month and year zones of the southern calendars.

My suggestion that these objects may be calendar disks will not seem unreasonable when it is remembered that time symbols do very often make their appearance during the early stages of barbarism. They are the result of attempts to fix accurately the divisions of time for the regulation of religious rites, and among the nations of the south constituted the great body of art. No well-developed calendar is known among the wild tribes of North America, the highest achievements in this line consisting of simple pictographic symbols of the years, but there is no reason why the mound-builders should not have achieved a pretty accurate division of time resembling, in its main features, the systems of their southern neighbors.

SHELL.
Illustrated in—	Collection.	Locality.	Divisions of involute.	Circlets in 2d zone.	Bosses in marginal zone.	Dots in 2d zone.	Peculiar features.
Pl. LIV	N. M., 32060	Tenn.	3	6	13	340(?)	Three central perforations.
Pl. LV, 1	P. M., 15247	do	4	8	14
Pl. LVI, 1	J. Jones	do	3	9	14		Three incisions.
Pl. LVI, 3	P. M., 11801	do	3	6	13
Pl. LVI, 4	P. M., 15969	do	3	Plain	13		Unfinished (?)
	P. M., 15896	do	3	8	17
	P. M.	do	3	6	16
	P. M., 15906	do	3	8	13	100(?)	Two central perforations.
	P. M., 15835	do	3	6	14	250(?)
	P. M., 15916	do	3	6	18		Three crescent perforations.
	N. M., 19976	do	3	7	6
	N. M., 19975	do	3	7	15	280(?)
STONE.
Pl. LVII,1	N. M., 9334	Ga.		Plain	9
Pl. LVII,2	P. M., 2962	do		do	12		Cross in center.
Pl. LVII,3	N. Y. Nat. Hist. M.	do		do	24
	N. M., 9332	do		do	21
Pl. LXVI	N. M.	Ala.		do	17		Serpent, obverse.
	Anderson	Miss.		do	18		Serpent, center.
N. M., National Museum.				P. M., Peabody Museum.

THE BIRD.

With all peoples the bird has been a most important symbol. Possessing the mysterious power of flight, by which it could rise at pleasure into the realms of space, it naturally came to be associated with the phenomena of the sky—the wind, the storm, the lightning, and the thunder. In the fervid imagination of the red man it became the actual ruler of the elements, the guardian of the four quarters of the heavens. As a result the bird is embodied in the myths, and is a prominent figure in the philosophy of many savage tribes. The eagle, which is an important emblem with many civilized nations, is found to come much nearer the heart of the superstitious savage; its plumes are the badge of the successful warrior; its body a sacred offering to his deities, or an object of actual veneration. The swan, the heron, the woodpecker, the paroquet, the owl, and the dove were creatures of unusual consideration; their flight was noted as a matter of vital importance, as it could bode good or evil to the hunter or warrior who consulted it as an oracle.

The dove, with the Hurons, is thought to be the keeper of the souls of the dead, and the Navajos are said to believe that four white swans dwell in the four quarters of the heavens and rule the winds.

The storm-bird of the Dakotas dwells in the upper air, beyond the range of human vision, carrying upon its back a lake of fresh water; when it winks its eyes there is lightning; when it flaps its wings we hear the thunder; and when it shakes out its plumage the rain descends. Myths like this abound in the lore of many peoples, and the story of the mysterious bird is interwoven with the traditions which tell of their origin. A creature which has sufficient power to guide and rule a race is constantly embodied in its songs, its art, and its philosophy. Thus highly regarded by the modern tribes, it must have been equally an object of consideration among prehistoric races. We know that the Natchez and the Creeks included the bird among their deities, and by the relics placed within his sepulchers we know that it held an important place in the esteem of the mound-builder.

Our prehistoric peoples seem to have taken special delight in carving its form in wood and stone, in modeling it in clay, in fashioning it in copper and gold, and in engraving it upon shell. One of the most interesting of all the specimens preserved to us is illustrated in Plate LVIII. The design with which this relic is embellished possesses no little artistic excellence, and doubtless embodies some one of the many charming myths of the heavens.

I am perfectly well aware that a scientific writer should guard against the tendency to indulge in flights of fancy, but as the myths of the American aborigines are highly poetical, and abound in lofty rhetorical figures, there can be no good reason why their graphic art should not echo some of these rhythmical passages. To the thoughtful mind it will be apparent that, although this design is not necessarily full of occult mysteries, every line has its purpose and every figure its significance. Yet of these very works one writer has ventured the opinion that "they do but express the individual fancy of those by whom they were made;" that they are even without "indications of any intelligent design or pictographic idea." I do not assume to interpret these designs; they are not to be interpreted. Besides, there is no advantage to be gained by an interpretation. We have hundreds of primitive myths within our easy reach that are as interesting and instructive as these could be. All I desire is to elevate these works from the category of trinkets to what I believe is their rightful place—the serious art of a people with great capacity for loftier works. What the gorgets themselves were, or of what particular value to their possessors, aside from simple ornament, must be, in a measure, a matter of conjecture. They were hardly less than the totems of clans, the insignia of rulers, or the potent charms of a priesthood.

The gorget in question is unfortunately without a pedigree. It reached the National Museum through the agency of Mr. C. F. Williams, and is labeled "Mississippi." On its face, however, there is sufficient evidence to establish its aboriginal origin. The form of the object, the character of the design and the evident age of the specimen, all bespeak the mound-builder. It was in all probability obtained from one of the multitude of ancient sepulchers that abound in the State of Mississippi. The disk is four and a quarter inches in diameter, and is made from a large, heavy specimen of the Busycon perversum. It has been smoothly dressed on both sides, but is now considerably stained and pitted. The design has in this case been engraved upon the convex side, the concave surface being plain. The perforations are placed near the margin and are considerably worn by the cord of suspension. In the center is a nearly symmetrical cross of the Greek type inclosed in a circle one and one-fourth inches in diameter. The spaces between the arms are emblazoned with groups of radiating lines. Placed at regular intervals on the outside of the circle are twelve pointed pyramidal rays ornamented with transverse lines. The whole design presents a remarkable combination of the two symbols, the cross and the sun. Surrounding this interesting symbol is another of a somewhat mysterious nature. A square framework of four continuous parallel lines, symmetrically looped at the corners, incloses the central symbol, the inner line touching the tips of the pyramidal rays. Outside of this again are the four symbolic birds placed against the side of the square opposite the arms of the cross. These birds, or rather birds' heads, are carefully drawn after what, to the artist, must have been a well recognized model. The mouth is open and the mandibles long, slender, and straight. The eye is represented by a circlet which incloses a small conical pit intended to represent the iris, a striated and pointed crest springs from the back of the head and neck, and two lines extend from the eye, down the neck, to the base of the figure. In seeking an original for this bird we find that it has perhaps more points of resemblance to the ivory-billed woodpecker than to any other species. It is not impossible, however, that the heron or swan may have been intended. That some particular bird served as a model is attested by the fact that other specimens, from mounds in various parts of Tennessee, exhibit similar figures. I have been able to find six of these specimens, all of which vary to some extent from the type described, but only in detail, workmanship, or finish. The specimen presented in Fig. 2, Plate LIX, was obtained by Mr. Cross from a stone grave on Mr. Overton's farm near Nashville, Tenn. Professor Putnam, who secured it from Mr. Cross, has published a cut of it in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum. It is made from a large marine shell, probably a Busycon, and is represented natural size both by Mr. Putnam and myself. The design is essentially the same as that shown in the type specimen, but is much more rudely executed. A circlet with a central pit takes the place of the cross and sun. The looped rectangular figure has but two lines and the birds' heads are not so full of character as those on the other specimens; they resemble the heads of chicks with a few pin-feathers sprouting from the back and top of the head rather than full-fledged birds. The design is engraved on the concave side. The perforations are much worn. This specimen is now in the Peabody Museum.

PL. LVIII—SHELL GORGET—THE BIRD.

Mississippi.
(1/1)

The same collection contains a large fragment of another small disk about two inches in diameter. The central part seems to be plain, but the looped figure, which has four lines, resembles very closely that engraved on the other plates. It is mentioned by Professor Putnam, on page 309 of the Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum. It is said to have been found on the surface in Humphrey County, Tennessee.

A much larger specimen, which resembles my type specimen very closely, is shown in Fig. 1, Plate LIX. It was obtained by Professor Putnam and Dr. Curtis from a stone grave on Mrs. Williams' farm, Cumberland River, Tennessee. It is nearly circular, and about two and a half inches in diameter. A small piece has been lost from the upper margin. It is neatly made and quite smooth, and the lines of the design are clearly and evenly engraved. The small cross in the center is inclosed by a plain narrow zone, and is defined by four triangular perforations between the arms. In this respect it resembles other shell crosses found within the Mississippi Valley. Surrounding the plain zone are eight pyramidal rays with cross-bars; in this feature, and in the drawing of the looped square and the birds' heads, there is but little variation from the type specimen. The surface upon which the engraving is made seems to be slightly convex.

Another specimen of this class was obtained from a stone grave near Gray's mound, at Oldtown, Tenn. It is shown in Fig. 3, Plate LIX. The design is very much like that of the type specimen, from which it differs in having four large perforations near the center. Although the engraved design which once occupied the central space is almost totally effaced, one or two of the tips of the pyramidal rays may be detected. It is probable that the four round perforations correspond to the four triangular ones by which the arms of the cross in the preceding example are defined. The perforations for suspension are near one margin, and seem to be very much worn by use. The whole object is fragile from decay. This specimen is also in the Peabody Museum.

One more very imperfect specimen obtained from a stone grave in the Cumberland Valley is nearly five inches in diameter and very irregular in outline. Barely enough of the engraved design remains to show that it belongs to the class under consideration.

It will be observed that the specimens of this class obtained from Tennessee are confined to a limited area. It thus seems especially unfortunate that so little is known of the history of the type specimen given in Plate LVIII, as without assurance of the correctness of the statement that it is from Mississippi we cannot make use of it to show geographical distribution. In reference to this point, however, we have a few very interesting facts which make the occurrence of specimens in localities as widely separated as the "Cumberland River" and "Mississippi" seem inconsequential. I refer now to two specimens described by Dr. Abbott in "Primitive Industry." One of these is a remarkable slate knife, the striking features of which are a "series of etchings and deeply incised lines of perhaps no meaning. Taken in order, it will be noticed that at the back of the knife are four short lines at uniform distances apart, and a fifth near the end of the implement. Besides these are fifteen shorter parallel lines near the broader end of the knife and about the middle of the blade. A series of five zigzag lines are also cut on the opposite end of the blade. * * * More prominent than the numerous lines to which reference has been made, are the clearly defined, unmistakable birds' heads, placed midway between the two series of lines. * * * Did we not learn from the writings of Heckewelder, that the Lenapé had 'the turkey totem,' we might suppose that this drawing of such bird heads originated with the intrusive southern Shawnees, who, at one time, occupied lands in the Delaware Valley, and who are supposed by some writers to have been closely related to the earliest inhabitants of the Southern and Southwestern States. Inasmuch as we shall find that, not only on this slate knife, but upon a bone implement also, similar heads of birds are engraved, it is probable that the identity of the design is not a mere coincidence, but that it must be explained either in accordance with the statements of Heckewelder, or be considered as the work of southern Shawnees after their arrival in New Jersey. In the latter event, the theory that these disks were the work of a people different from and anterior to the Indians found in the Cumberland Valley at the time of the discovery of that region by the whites is, apparently, not sustained by the facts."[139]

A cut of the bone implement referred to above is reproduced from Dr. Abbott's work, in Plate LIX, Fig. 4. It has probably been made from a portion of a rib of some large mammal and is thought to be somewhat fragmentary. "The narrow portion has been cut or ground away to some extent, and the edges are quite smoothly polished. Near the end of this handle-like portion, there is a countersunk perforation, and upon the concave side of the wider part there are rudely outlined the heads of two birds."[140] These resemble somewhat closely the heads depicted on the other specimen described by Dr. Abbott. The specimens referred to are both from New Jersey, and are probably surface finds.

Although the heads represented on these specimens do certainly in some respects suggest that of the turkey, the characters are not sufficiently pronounced to make it impossible that some other bird was intended, so that the original in the mind of the ancient artist may have been the same as that from which the examples on shell were drawn.

In comparing the northern examples with those of Tennessee I observe another feature that is more conclusive as to the identity of origin than the rather obscure resemblance of the birds' heads delineated. I have not had the opportunity of examining the specimen illustrated in Fig. 4; but in the cut given by Dr. Abbott a rather indefinite figure can be traced which has a striking resemblance to the looped rectangle characteristic of the designs on shell. This resemblance could hardly be owing to accident, and if the peculiar figure mentioned is actually found in conjunction with the birds' heads upon the New Jersey specimen, it will certainly be safe to conclude that the bone, stone, and shell objects belonged to the same people, and that they constituted the totems of the same clan, or were the insignia of corresponding offices or orders.[141]

As bearing upon the question of the species of bird represented in the preceding specimens, I present in Plate LX an illustration published by Dr. Rau in the Smithsonian Report for 1877. This remarkable ornament (represented in Fig. 3) was obtained from a mound in Manatee County, Florida. It is a thin blade of gold, pointed at one end and terminating at the other in a highly conventionalized representation of a bird's head, the general characteristics of which are much like those of the examples engraved upon shell. The crest is especially characteristic, and, as pointed out by Dr. Rau, suggests a prototype in the ivory-billed woodpecker, an inhabitant of the Gulf States.

The significance of the looped figure which forms so prominent a feature in the designs in question has not been determined. I would offer the suggestion, however, that, from the manner of its occurrence, it may represent an inclosure, a limit, or boundary. It may be well to point out the fact that a similar looped rectangle occurs several times in the ancient Mexican manuscripts. One example, from the Vienna Codex,[142] is presented in Fig. 5, Plate LIX. It is not a little remarkable that a cross occupies the inclosed area in all these examples.

PL. LIX—THE BIRD.

1. Shell gorget from stone grave, Tenn.
2. Shell gorget from stone grave, Tenn.
3. Shell gorget from stone grave, Tenn.
4. Bone implement, N. J.
5. Design from Aztec painting.

I shall close this very hasty review of the bird in the art of the Mound Builders by presenting the remarkable example of shell carving shown in Fig. 1, Plate LX. Like so many of the National Museum specimens, it is practically without a record—a stray. It is labeled "B. Pybas, Tuscumbia, Ala." It is old and fragmentary, the shell substance being, however, quite well preserved. It is the right-hand half of a gorget which represents an eagle's head in profile. The skill of the ancient artist is shown to great advantage; nothing can be found, even in the most elaborately carved pipes, equal to the treatment of this remarkable head. To overcome the difficulty of cutting the flinty and massive shell was no small triumph for a people still in the stone age. To conceive and execute such a graphic work is a still more marvelous achievement.[143] The lines of the mandibles and protruding tongue are strongly and correctly drawn. The eye and the markings of the head are executed in smooth, deeply incised lines, and are conventionalized in a manner peculiar to the American aborigines.

PL. LX—THE BIRD.

1. Fragment of shell gorget, Alabama. (1/1)
2. Gold ornament, Florida. (1/2)
3. Head of ivory-billed-woodpecker.

THE SPIDER.

Among insects the spider is perhaps best calculated to attract the attention of the savage. The tarantula is in many respects a very extraordinary creature, and is endowed with powers of the most deadly nature, which naturally places it along with the rattlesnake in the category of creatures possessing supernatural attributes. Its curiously constructed house with the hinged door and smoothly plastered chamber must ever elicit the admiration of the beholder. But the spider, which spins a web and projects in mid-air a gossamer structure of marvelous symmetry and beauty, and builds an ambush from which to spring upon his prey, was probably one of the first instructors of adolescent man, and must have seemed to him a very deity. It is not strange, therefore, that the spider appears in the myths of the savages. With the great Shoshone family, according to Professor Powell, the spider was the first weaver, and taught that important art to the fathers. The Cherokees, in their legend of the origin of fire, "represent a portion of it as having been brought with them and sacredly guarded. Others say that after crossing wide waters they sent back for it to the Man of Fire from whom a little was conveyed over by a spider in his web."[144]

The spider occurs but rarely in aboriginal American art, occasionally it seems, however, to have reached the dignity of religious consideration and to have been adopted as a totemic device. Had a single example only been found we would not be warranted in giving it a place among religious symbols. Four examples have come to my notice; these are all engraved on shell gorgets and are illustrated in Plate LXI. Two are from Illinois, one from Missouri, and the other from Tennessee.[145] The example shown in Fig. 1 was obtained by Mr. Croswell from a mound near New Madrid, Mo. It is described as a circular ornament, three inches in diameter, that had, apparently, been cut from a Busycon. Mr. Croswell says that "the convex face was entirely plain, but the concave side bears the figure of a tarantula, or large spider, very skillfully engraved, the body being formed by a circle inclosing a cross, showing beyond doubt its sacred and symbolic character. This ornament, when found, lay on the breast-bone of a skeleton, with the concave or ornamented side uppermost. Two holes in the upper part were evidently intended for the thong or string by which it had been suspended from the neck. A circumstance that renders this relic still more interesting is the fact that two other shell ornaments, bearing precisely similar devices, have recently been found in Illinois within seven miles of this city, thus proving that the figures were not a mere fanciful invention, but had some symbolic meaning."[146]

The disk thus briefly described by Mr. Croswell is so much like the example shown in Fig. 3 that I shall not describe it further, but shall refer to its peculiarities in the descriptions of others that follow.

The handsome gorget illustrated in Fig. 3 was obtained from a mound in Saint Clair County, Illinois, seven miles from the city of Saint Louis. It was found upon the breast of a skeleton, and was very much discolored and quite fragile from decay, but no part of the design, which is engraved upon the concave side, has been obliterated. Near the margin and parallel with it three lines have been engraved. The spider is drawn with considerable fidelity to nature and covers nearly the entire disk, the legs, mandibles, and abdomen reaching to the outer marginal line. As in the specimen described above, the thorax is placed in the center of the disk, and is represented by a circle; within this a cross has been engraved, the ends of which have been enlarged on one side, producing a form much used in heraldry, but one very rarely met with in aboriginal American art. The head is somewhat heart-shaped and is armed with palpi and mandibles, the latter being ornamented with a zigzag line and prolonged to the marginal lines of the disk. The eyes are represented by two small circles with central dots. The legs are correctly placed in four pairs upon the thorax, and are very graphically drawn. The abdomen is large and heart-shaped, and is ornamented with a number of lines and dots, which represent the natural markings of the spider. The perforations for suspension are placed near the posterior extremity of the abdomen. It will be observed that this is also the case with the three other specimens. Having described this specimen somewhat carefully, it will be unnecessary to give a detailed description of the very similar specimen shown in Fig. 2. The latter was found in a stone grave in Saint Clair County, Illinois, and does not differ in any essential feature from either of the other specimens, one of which was found near by, and the other about one hundred miles farther south.

In reference to the cross it has been suggested that it may have been derived from the well-defined cross found upon the backs of some species of the genus Atta, but there appears to be good reason for believing otherwise. The cross here shown has a very highly conventionalized character, quite out of keeping with the realistic drawing of the insect, and, what is still more decisive, it is identical with forms found upon many other objects. The conclusion is that the cross here, as elsewhere, has a purely symbolic character. Spider gorgets are also mentioned by A. J. Conant in the Kansas City Review, Vol. I, page 400, and in his work on the Commonwealth of Missouri, page 96, but no details are given. It is probable that the objects referred to by Mr. Conant are the same as those more definitely placed by Prof. Hilder.

The specimen shown in Fig. 4 was obtained from a mound on Fain's Island, Tennessee. The disk is somewhat more convex on the front than is indicated in the engraving. It is two and a half inches in diameter, and is quite thin and fragile, although the surface has not suffered much from decay. The margin is ornamented with twenty-four very neatly made notches or scallops. Immediately inside the border on the convex side are two incised circles, on the outer of which two small perforations for suspension have been made; inside of these, and less than half an inch from the margin, is a circle of seventeen sub-triangular perforations, the inner angle of each being much rounded. Inside of this again is another incised circle, about one and one-fourth inches in diameter, which incloses the highly conventionalized figure of an insect resembling a spider. In a general way—in the number and arrangement of the parts—this figure corresponds pretty closely to the very realistic spiders of the three other disks; in detail however, it is quite unlike them. It is much more highly conventionalized—the natural markings of the body being nearly all omitted, and the legs being without joints and square at the tips. The cross does not appear on the body, but its place is taken by a large conical perforation, made entirely from the convex side. The central segment of the body is round, as in the other cases; to this the four pairs of legs are attached. Without reference to the other specimens, it would be difficult to distinguish the anterior from the posterior extremity, and even with this aid we cannot be quite certain. The larger extremity is somewhat triangular in outline and is ornamented with two cross lines and two eyes. Were it not for the fact that these eyes resemble so closely those found in the other specimens I should call this the posterior extremity, as the opposite end terminates in a pair of well-shaped mandibles, the triangular space between them being cut quite through the disk. The section of the body between this and the central circle also resembles the head, which suggests the conclusion either that the eyes are misplaced or that, as drawn, they are only intended to represent the bright spots of the insect's body.

The rarity of these spider gorgets makes it seem rather remarkable that specimens should occur in localities so widely separated as Fain's Island and Saint Louis, but the races inhabiting this entire region, are known to have had many arts in common, and besides this it is not impossible that the same tribe or clan may, at different times, have occupied both of these localities. The marked differences in the design and execution of these specimens, however, indicate a pretty wide distinction in the time or art of the makers.

PL. LXI—SPIDER GORGETS.

1. From a mound, Missouri.
2. From a stone-grave, Illinois.
3. From a mound, Illinois.
4. From a mound, Tennessee.

(1/1)

THE SERPENT.

The serpent has had a fascination for primitive man hardly surpassed by its reputed power over the animals on which it preys. In the minds of nearly all savages it has been associated with the deepest mysteries and the most potent powers of nature. No other creature has figured so prominently in the religious systems of the world, few of which are free from it; and as art, in a great measure, owes its existence to an attempt to represent or embellish objects which are supposed to be the incarnations of spirits, the serpent is an important element in all art. Wherever the children of nature have wandered its image may be found engraved upon the rocks, or painted or sculptured upon monuments of their own construction. It is found in a thousand forms; beginning with those so realistic that the species can be determined, we may pass down through innumerable stages of variation until all semblance of nature is lost. Beyond this it becomes embodied in the conventional forms of art or looks back from its obscure place in an alphabet through a perspective of metamorphism as marvelous as that visible to the creature itself could it view the course of its evolution from the elements of nature.

So well is the serpent known as a religious symbol among the American peoples that it seems hardly necessary to present examples of the curiously interesting myths relating to it. We are not surprised to find the bird, the wolf, or the bear placed among representatives of the "Great Spirit," and hence to find them embodied in art; but it would be a matter of surprise if the serpent were ever absent.

With the mound-builders it seems to have been of as much importance as to other divisions of the red race, ancient or modern. It is of very frequent occurrence among the designs engraved upon gorgets of shell, a multitude of which have been thus dedicated to the serpent-god.

It is a well-known fact that the rattlesnake is the variety almost universally represented, and we find that these engravings on shell present no exception to this rule. From a very early date in mound exploration these gorgets have been brought to light, but the coiled serpent engraved upon their concave surfaces is so highly conventionalized that it was not at once recognized. Professor Wyman appears to have been the first to point out the fact that the rattlesnake was represented; others have since made brief allusion to this fact. Two examples only have been illustrated; one by Professor Jones,[147] who regards it as being without intelligent design, and the other by Dr. Rau,[148] who does not suggest an interpretation. Among the thirty or forty specimens that I have examined, the engraving of the serpent is, with one exception, placed upon the concave side of the disk, which is, as usual, cut from the most distended part of the Busycon perversum, or some similar shell. The great uniformity of these designs is a matter of much surprise. At the same time, however, there is no exact duplication; there are always differences in position, detail, or number of parts. The serpent is always coiled, the head occupying the center of the disk. With a very few exceptions the coil is sinistral. The head is so placed that when the gorget is suspended it has an erect position, the mouth opening toward the right hand.

As at first glance it will be somewhat difficult for the reader to make out clearly the figure of the serpent, even with the well defined lines of the drawing before him, I will present the description pretty much in the order in which the design revealed itself to me in my first attempt to decipher it.

The saucer-like disks are almost circular, the upper edge being mostly somewhat straightened—the result of the natural limit of the body of the shell above. All are ground down to a fairly uniform thickness of from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch. The edges are evenly rounded and smooth. Two small holes for suspension occur near the rim of the straighter edge, and generally on or near the outline of the engraved design, which covers the middle portion of the plate. The diameter ranges from one to six inches.

To one who examines this design for the first time it seems a most inexplicable puzzle; a meaningless grouping of curved and straight lines, dots and perforations. We notice, however, a remarkable similarity in the designs, the idea being radically the same in all specimens, and the conclusion is soon reached that there is nothing haphazard in the arrangements of the parts and that every line must have its place and purpose. The design is in all cases inclosed by two parallel border lines, leaving a plain belt from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in width around the edge of the disk. All simple lines are firmly traced, although somewhat scratchy, and are seldom more than one-twentieth of an inch in width or depth.

In studying this design the attention is first attracted by an eye-like figure near the left border. This is formed of a series of concentric circles, the number of which varies from three in the most simple to twelve in the more elaborate forms. The diameter of the outer circle of this figure varies from one-half to one inch. In the center there is generally a small conical depression or pit. The series of circles is partially inclosed by a looped band one-eighth of an inch in width, which opens downward to the left; the free ends extending outward to the border line, gradually nearing each other and forming a kind of neck to the circular figure. This band is in most cases occupied by a series of dots or conical depressions varying in number from one to thirty. The neck is decorated in a variety of ways; by dots, by straight and curved lines, and by a cross-hatching that gives a semblance of scales. A curious group of lines occupying a crescent-shaped space at the right of the circular figure and inclosed by two border lines, must receive particular attention. This is really the front part of the head—the jaws and the muzzle of the creature represented. The mouth is always clearly defined and is mostly in profile, the upper jaw being turned abruptly upward, but, in some examples, an attempt has been made to represent a front view, in which case it presents a wide V-shaped figure. It is, in most cases, furnished with two rows of teeth, no attempt having been made to represent a tongue. The spaces above and below the jaws are filled with lines and figures, which vary much in the different specimens; a group of plume-like figures, extends backward from the upper jaw to the crown, or otherwise this space is occupied by an elongated perforation. The body is represented encircling the head in a single coil, which appears from beneath the neck on the right, passes around the front of the head, and terminates at the back in a pointed tail with well defined rattles. It is engraved to represent the well-known scales and spots of the rattlesnake, the conventionalized figures being quite graphic. In the group of specimens represented in Plate LXIV areas of cross-hatched lines, representing scales, alternate with circular figures, containing two or three concentric circles and a central dot. In some cases one or more incised bands cross the body in the upper part of the curve.

The examples shown in Plate LXV have many distinctive features. The markings of the body consist of alternating areas of scales and chevrons or of chevrons alone. These figures are interrupted in the upper part of the coil by a number of lines which cross the body at right angles. The body is in many cases nearly severed from the rim of the disk by four oblong perforations, which follow the border line of the design. In most cases three other perforations occur about the head; one represents the mouth, one defines the forehead and upper jaw, and the third is placed against the throat. These may be intended merely to define the form more clearly. The curious plume-like figures that occur upon the heads of both varieties may indicate the natural or reputed markings of the animal represented. It is possible that the group shown in this plate may be intended to represent the common yellow rattlesnake, the Crotalus horridus, of the Atlantic slope, the characteristic markings of which are alternating light and dark chevrons, while the diamond rattlesnake, the Crotalus adamanteus, of the Southern States may have served as a model for the other group.

In Plate LXII I present two of these rattlesnake gorgets. The specimens shown in Fig. 1 is from Georgia and is the smallest example that has come to my notice. It is represented natural size. The design is quite obscure, but enough remains to show that it does not differ essentially from the type already presented. There appear to be no holes for suspension, but it is probable that two of the oblong perforations upon the border of the design had been used for that purpose.

The handsome specimen given in Fig. 2 was obtained from the great mound at Sevierville, Tenn., and is in a very good state of preservation. It is a deep, somewhat oval plate, made from a Busycon perversum. The surface is nicely polished and the margins neatly beveled. The marginal zone is less than half an inch wide and contains at the upper edge two perforations, which have been considerably abraded by the cord of suspension. Four long curved slits or perforations almost sever the central design from the rim; the four narrow segments that remain are each ornamented with a single conical pit. The serpent is very neatly engraved and belongs to the chevroned variety. The eye is large and the neck is ornamented with a single rectangular intaglio figure. The mouth is more than usually well defined. The upper jaw is turned abruptly upward and is ornamented with lines peculiar to this variety of the designs.

The body opposite the perforations for suspension is interrupted by a rather mysterious cross band, consisting of one broad and two narrow lines. As this is a feature common to many specimens it probably has some important office or significance.

PL. LXII—RATTLESNAKE GORGETS.

1. Shell gorget from Georgia. (1/1)
2. McMahan Mound, Tenn. (1/1)

In Plate LXIII I present two of the best examples of these serpent gorgets yet brought to light. They were obtained from the McMahan Mound, at Sevierville, Tenn., in 1871, and are in an excellent state of preservation. Both are made from large heavy specimens of the Busycon perversum. The example given in Fig. 1 is but slightly altered by decomposition, the translucency of the shell being still perceptible. The back retains the strongly marked ridges of growth. The interior has been highly polished, but is now somewhat marked, apparently by some fine textile fabric which has been buried with it and has, in decaying, left its impress upon the smooth surface of the shell. The design is very much like the type described, but has some peculiar features about the neck and under the head of the serpent.

The specimen shown in Fig. 2 may be regarded as a type of these gorgets, and is the one chiefly used in the general description given on a preceding page. It is six inches long by five wide, and has been neatly dressed and polished on both sides. As every detail is clearly and correctly shown in the cut I shall not describe it farther.

PL. LXIII—RATTLESNAKE GORGETS.

1. McMahan Mound, Tenn.
2. McMahan Mound, Tenn.

(3/4)

For convenience of comparison I have arranged two plates of outlines. The specimen shown in Fig. 1, Plate LXIV, is almost identical with the one last mentioned in size and shape. This, with the similar but somewhat smaller specimen given in Fig. 2, is also from the McMahan Mound. Figs. 3 and 4 are outlines of the specimens already given in Plate LXIII.

The fine specimen shown in Fig. 5 is from the Brakebill Mound, near Knoxville, Tenn., and is now in the Peabody Museum. It is five inches in length and a little more than four and one-half in width. It is very much like the Sevierville specimens and is made of the same species of shell. The markings of the space beneath the head are peculiar, and in some other details it differs from the other specimens.

Fig. 6 illustrates a large specimen now in the National Collection. It is also from Tennessee, and resembles the preceding examples quite closely.

PL. LXIV—RATTLESNAKE GORGETS.

1. McMahan Mound.
2. McMahan Mound.
3. McMahan Mound.
4. McMahan Mound.
5. Brakebill Mound.
6. Williams Island.

Tennessee.

The specimens illustrated in Plate LXV represent a somewhat different type of design, but are found associated with the others. The three shown in Figs. 2, 6, and 7 belong to the Peabody Museum, and are from mounds in East Tennessee. The others are in the National Collection, and come from the same region.

PL. LXV—RATTLESNAKE GORGETS.

1. McMahan Mound.
2. Lick Creek Mound.
3. McMahan Mound.
4. McMahan Mound.
5. Green County Mound.
6. Lick Creek Mound.

Tennessee.

It was my intention to pursue this study somewhat further, and the illustrations presented in Plate LXVI were partially prepared for the purpose of instituting comparisons between these northern forms and others of the south, but the time at my disposal will not permit of it.

Fig. 1 is an outline of a rattlesnake gorget, probably from Georgia, which is preserved in the Natural History Museum of New York. It is four inches in length by three and one-half in width. The same specimen is figured by Jones in Plate XXX of his "Antiquities of the Southern Indians."

Fig. 2 represents a large specimen from Tennessee, which is now preserved in the National Collection. The design is placed upon the gorget somewhat differently from the other specimens, the mouth of the serpent being near the top and the neck below at the right. There is also a dotted belt at the right of the head which is not found in any of the specimens described.

Figs. 3 and 4 represent drawings of serpents' heads found in the ancient city of Chimu, Peru.[149]

Fig. 5 is copied from one of the codices of Goldsborough, and is a very spirited representation of a plumed and spotted rattlesnake.

The tablet shown in Fig. 6 has already been described under "scalloped disks."

The remarkable plumed and feathered serpent given in Fig. 7 is painted upon the rocks at Lake Nijapa, Nicaragua.[150]

PL. LXVI—THE SERPENT.

1. Shell gorget, Georgia.
2. Shell gorget, Tennessee.
3, 4. Painting, Peru.
5. From an Aztec painting.
6. Stone disk, Carthage, Ala.
7. Painted on rock, Nicaragua.

THE HUMAN FACE.

A very important group of shell ornaments represent, more or less distinctly, the human face. By a combination of engraving and sculpture a rude resemblance to the features is produced. The objects are generally made from a large pear-shaped section of the lower whorl of heavy marine univalves. The lower portion, which represents the neck and chin, is cut from the somewhat restricted part near the base of the shell, while the broad outline of the head reaches the first suture of the noded shoulder of the body whorl. The simplest form is represented by a specimen from a mound at Sevierville, Tenn. It is a plain, pear-shaped fragment, with evenly dressed margin and two perforations, which take the position of the eyes. A sketch of this is presented in Fig. 1, Plate LXIX. Similar specimens have been obtained from mounds in other States. A little further advance is made when the surface of the most convex part is ground away, with the exception of a low vertical ridge, which represents the nose. Further on a boss or node appears below the nose, which takes the place of the mouth, as seen in Fig. 2.

From the elementary stages exhibited in these specimens a gradual advance is made by the addition of details and the elaboration of all the features. A corona encircles the head, the ears are outlined (Fig. 5, Plate LXX), the eyes are elaborated by adding one or more concentric circles or ovals, brows are placed above, and groups of notched and zigzag lines extend downward upon the cheeks. The node at the mouth is perforated or cut in intaglio in circular or oblong figures, and the chin is embellished by a variety of incised designs. Illustrations of the various forms are given in Plates LXIX and LXX.

These objects are especially numerous in the mounds of Tennessee, but their range is quite wide, examples having been reported from Kentucky, Virginia, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas, and smaller ones of a somewhat different type from New York. In size they range from two to ten inches in length, the width being considerably less. They are generally found associated with human remains in such a way as to suggest their use as ornaments for the head or neck. There are, however, no holes for suspension except those made to represent the eyes, and these, so far as I have observed, show no abrasion by a cord of suspension. Their shape suggests the idea that they may have been used as masks, and as such may have been placed upon the faces of the dead in the same manner that metal masks were used by some oriental nations.

Among the large number of interesting objects of shell obtained from the McMahan Mound at Sevierville, Tenn., were a number of these shell masks. In the notes of the collector they are mentioned as having been found on the breast or about the heads of skeletons. The example shown in Fig. 1, Plate LXVII, is a medium-sized, rather plain specimen from the above-named locality. It is seven and one-fourth inches long and nearly six inches wide, and has been made from a Busycon perversum. The margins are much decayed, and the convex surface is pitted and discolored. The inside is smooth, and has a slight design rudely engraved upon it. Of a very different type is the specimen shown in Fig. 2. It is new looking, and well preserved. The slightly translucent surface is highly polished, and the engraved lines are quite fresh looking. It was collected by J. D. Lucas, and is labeled Aquia Creek, Va. It is five and one-half inches in length by five in width, and is apparently made from some dextral-whorled shell. The outline is somewhat rectangular, the upper surface being pretty well rounded and ornamented with a corona of incised lines, which are arranged in six groups of four each. Inside of these a single incised line runs parallel with the edge, from temple to temple. The eyes are represented by small circles with small central pits, and the lids are indicated by long, pointed ellipses. From each of the eyes a group of three zigzag lines extends downward across the cheek, terminating near the edge of the plate, opposite the mouth. These lines may be interpreted in two ways: First, if the object is a mourning mask, made with especial reference to its use in burial, they may signify tears, since, in the pictographic language of many tribes, tears are represented by lines descending from the eyes, and, with other nations, running water is symbolized by curved or zigzag lines; in the second place, these lines may represent figures painted upon the face during the period of mourning, or they may simply represent the characteristic lines of the painting or tattooing of the clan or tribe to which the deceased belonged. It is not at all improbable that these objects were further embellished by painted designs which have been obliterated.

The nose is represented by a flat ridge, which terminates abruptly below, the nostrils being indicated by two small excavations. The mouth is represented by an oval node, in which a horizontal groove has been made.

PL. LXVII—THE HUMAN FACE.

1. Mask-like ornament, Tennessee. (1/2).
2. Mast-like ornament, Virginia. (3/4).

The most elaborately engraved example of these masks yet brought to the notice of the public is shown in Plate LXVIII. It was obtained by Mr. Lucien Carr from a large mound, known as the Ely Mound, near Rose Hill, Lee County, Virginia, and is described and illustrated by that gentleman in the tenth annual report of the Peabody Museum.[151] Wishing to present this fine specimen to the best advantage possible, I have had a large cut made from a photograph furnished by Professor Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum. Parts of the design which were obscure I have strengthened, following the guidance of such fragments of lines as were still traceable, or by simply duplicating the lines of the opposite side, as these designs are in all cases bi-symmetrical.

Having described a great number of relics exhumed from this mound, Mr. Carr goes on to say "that the most interesting of the articles taken from this grave was an engraved shell made from the most dilated portion of the Strombus gigas, and carved on the convex side into the likeness of a human face." It measures 138 millimeters in length, by 120 in breadth. It is perforated with three holes, "the two upper of which are surrounded with circles, and represent eyes; between these is a raised ridge of shell, in place of the nose, and below this is a third hole, which is just above a series of lines that were probably intended as the mouth. Four lines, parallel to each other during three-fourths of their length, begin at the outer corner of the eye and are zigzaged to the lower jaw, where they are drawn to a point. The concave side of the shell is perfectly plain, and still preserves its high polish, though the right portion of the face on the carved or convex side shows the sad effects of time and exposure."

Although I have not had an opportunity of examining this specimen closely, I am inclined to the opinion, judging by its outlines, that the shell from which it was made has been sinistrally whorled, and hence a Busycon perversum. I should also prefer to consider the hole beneath the nose as representing the mouth, as it certainly does in many other cases, and the peculiar figure—the three vertical lines which extend downward from the hole and the two banded figures that cross them at right angles—as a representation of some painted or tattooed design characteristic of the builders of the mound.

PL. LXVIII—SHELL MASK.

Virginia.
(1/2)

Other examples of these objects are represented in Plate LXIX. Of especial interest I may mention the specimen shown in Fig. 4, obtained, with other similar examples, by Professor Putnam, from the Lick Creek mound, in East Tennessee. The perforations which represent the eyes are surrounded by two concentric circles, and the zigzag lines beneath are supplemented by two sets of pendant figures formed of notched lines, the two longer of which extend down the sides of the nose, the others being connected with the lower margin of the eye. In one example four parallel lines pass from the mouth downward over the chin.

Fig. 3 represents a specimen from the Brakebill Mound, East Tennessee. The mouth is not indicated, and the nose is but slightly relieved. Each eye, however, is inclosed by a figure which extends downward over the cheek, terminating in three sharp points.

PL. LXIX—THE HUMAN FACE.

1. McMahan Mound, Tenn.
2. McMahan Mound, Tenn.
3. Brakebill Mound, Tenn.
4. Lick Creek Mound, Tenn.
5. Aquia Creek, Va.
6. Mound, Ely County, Va.

So far as the specimens at hand show, this peculiar embellishment of the eyes and mouth is characteristic of Virginia and East Tennessee. A small specimen from Georgia, now preserved in the Natural History Museum at New York, has a somewhat similar ornamentation of the eyes. This specimen is shown in Fig. 6, Plate LXX.

In Fig. 8 of the same plate we have the representation of a face modeled in clay, on which a number of incised lines, similar to those engraved on shell, have been drawn. The crown of notches is also present. The specimen has been illustrated by Professor Jones.[152] It is now in the museum of Natural History at New York, and was probably obtained from the Etowah Valley, Georgia. Examples in stone are also numerous, and show certain features in common with those in shell.

Fig. 9 is from Northern Ohio, and is carved from a nodule of iron ore.

The very beautiful little head shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is from a cave at Mussel Shoals, Ala. It is made of shell, and is somewhat altered by decay. The crown is peculiarly notched, and resembles a very common Mexican form. The notch in the middle of the forehead can be traced to a division in the head-dress noticed in the more elaborately carved Mexican specimens.

The example shown in Figs. 3 and 4 is copied from a rather rude cut given by Schoolcraft, who describes it as follows: "This well-sculptured article was discovered in the valley of the Kasauda Creek, Onondaga County. The material is a compact piece of sea-shell. It still preserves in a considerable degree the smoothness and luster of its original finish. * * * At the angle of the temples are two small orifices for suspending it around the neck. The entire article is finished with much skill and delicacy."[153]

The very rude specimen presented in Fig. 7 is from a mound at Franklin, Tenn. It seems to have been some natural form, but slightly changed by art. A somewhat similar specimen from a mound in Tennessee may be seen in the Peabody Museum.

The cut presented in Fig. 5 is taken from Jones's Antiquities of Tennessee, page 48. The specimen was obtained from the stone grave of a child at the foot of a mound near Nashville, Tenn. It has diamond-shaped eyes, a feature of very rare occurrence in the art of this region.

PL. LXX—THE HUMAN FACE.

1, 2. Shell ornament from a cave, Alabama. (1/1)
3, 4. Shell ornament from New York. (1/1)
5. Shell ornament, stone grave, Tennessee.
6. Shell ornament from Georgia. (1/1)
7. Shell ornament from Tennessee. (1/1)
8. Face modeled in clay, Georgia.
9. Face carved in iron ore, Ohio.

THE HUMAN FIGURE.

I now come to a class of works which are new and unique, and in more than one respect are the most important objects of aboriginal art yet found within the limits of the United States. These relics are four in number, and come from that part of the mound-building district occupied at one time by the "stone grave" peoples—three from Tennessee and one from Missouri. Similar designs are not found in other materials, and, indeed, nothing at all resembling them can be found, so far as I know, either in stone or in clay. If such have been painted or engraved on less enduring materials they are totally destroyed. I shall first describe the specimens themselves, and subsequently dwell at some length upon their authenticity, their significance, and their place in art.

First, I present, in Plate LXXI, a shell gorget on which is engraved a rather rude delineation of a human figure. The design occupies the concave side of a large shell disk cut from a Busycon perversum. Near the upper margin are the usual holes for suspension. The engraved design fills the central portion of the plate and is inclosed by two approximately parallel lines, between which and the edge of the shell there is a plain belt three-fourths of an inch wide. A casual observer would probably not recognize any design whatever in the jumble of half obliterated lines that occupies the inclosed space. It will first be noticed that a column about three-fourths of an inch in width stands erect in the center of the picture; from this spring a number of lines, forming serpentine arms, which give the figure as much the appearance of an octopus crowded into a collector's alcohol jar as of a human creature. A little study will convince one, however, that the central column represents the human body, and the tangle of lines surrounding it will be found to represent the arms, legs, hands, feet, and their appendages—no line within the border being without its office. The upper extremity of the body is occupied by a circle one-eighth of an inch in diameter, which represents the eye. The head is not distinguished from the body by any sort of constriction for the neck, but has evidently been crowned by a rude aurora-like crest similar to that found in so many aboriginal designs. This does not appear in the engraving given, as it, as well as other features, was so nearly obliterated as to escape observation until the idea was suggested by the study of other similar designs. The mouth is barely suggested, being represented by three shallow lines placed so low on the trunk that they occupy what should be the chest. From the side of the head a number of lines, probably meant for plumes, extend across the bordering lines almost to the edge of the shell; below this are two perforated loops, which seem to take the place of ears; the one on the right is doubly perforated and has a peculiar extension, in a bent or elbowed line, across the border. The arms are attached to the sides of the body near the middle in a haphazard sort of way and are curiously double jointed; they terminate, however, in well-defined hands against the right and left borders, the thumb and fingers being, in each case, distinctly represented. The legs and feet are at first exceedingly hard to make out, but when once traced are as clear as need be. The body terminates abruptly below within an inch of the base of the inclosed space. One leg extends directly downward, the foot resting upon the border line; the other extends backward from the base of the trunk and rests against the border line at the right; the legs have identical markings, which probably represent the costume. Each foot terminates in a single well-defined talon or claw, which folds upward against the knee. This is a most interesting feature, and one which this design possesses in common with the three other drawings of the human figure found in Tennessee. The spaces between the various members of the figure are filled in with ornamental appendages, which seem to be attached to the hands and feet, and probably represent plumes. The numerous perforations in this specimen are worthy of attention: within the border line there are twenty-six, which vary from one-fourth to one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. They are placed mostly at the joints of the figure or at the junction of two or more lines. Such perforations are of frequent occurrence in this class of gorgets and may have had some particular significance to their possessors. This specimen was found in the great mound at Sevierville, Tenn., upon the breast of a skeleton, and is now in the National Collection. It has suffered considerably from decay, the surface being deeply furrowed, pitted, and discolored. The holes are much enlarged and the lines in places are almost obliterated.

I began the study of this design with the thought that, in reference to this specimen at least, Professor Jones was right, and that the confused group of lines might be the meaningless product of an idle fancy, but ended by being fully satisfied that no single line or mark is without its place or its significance.

PL. LXXI—SHELL GORGET—THE HUMAN FIGURE.

McMahan Mound, Tennessee.
(2/3)

After having examined this design so critically, it will be an easy matter to interpret that engraved upon the tablet illustrated in Plate LXXII. Although found in widely separated localities, and engraved in a somewhat different style, they are identical in type, and exhibit but slight differences in detail. At the top of the plate we have the two doubly conical perforations for suspension, but the double border line is not completed above, being interrupted by the plumes from the head. The head itself is decorated with the usual crown of radiating lines, a small circle with a central pit represents the eye, and below this is a well-defined mouth with a double row of teeth. Extending to the right from the mouth is an appendage consisting of one straight and two interrupted lines, which may be a part of the costume, or, since it issues from the mouth, may possibly symbolize speech. The body, which is short and straight, is divided vertically into three parts; the central space contains a large conical perforation, and is covered with a lace-work of lines; the lateral spaces are ornamented with rows of buttons or scales, which consist of meagerly outlined circles with central dots. The curiously folded arms have precisely the same relative positions as the corresponding members in the other specimen, and the fingers touch the bordering line on the right and left, the thumb being turned backward against the elbow. The legs are represented in a manner that suggests a sitting posture, the rounded knees coming in front of and joining the base of the body; in position and decoration they repeat the other specimen. The feet, or the rounded extremities that represent them, rest upon the border line, as in the case previously described, and terminate in upturned talons that are long, curved, and jointed, and terminate in square or blunt tips. Plume-like appendages are attached to the arms and legs, and fill the spaces not occupied by the members of the body; these plumes or pendants are always represented by folded bands or fillets which are ornamented on one side with dots. A plume attached to the left side of the head is represented by two curved lines, which reach to the edge of the shell. There are five perforations, two for suspension, two at the sides of the face, and one near the middle of the trunk. This specimen is in a very perfect state of preservation, the surface being smooth and but little stained. It is somewhat pear-shaped, resembling in this respect the mask-like gorgets previously described. It is about seven inches in height and five in width, and has been made from a very thick and compact shell, probably a Busycon. It was obtained from a mound in Meigs County, Tennessee, and is preserved in the Peabody Museum. In mechanical execution this specimen is much superior to the preceding one; the edges and surface of the shell are nicely dressed, although the lines of the design are indifferently cut.

PL. LXXII—SHELL GORGET—THE HUMAN FIGURE.

Mound, Tennessee.
(3/4)

Another unique shell gorget is presented in Plate LXXIII. It was obtained from a mound in Southeastern Missouri, and is now in the possession of Professor Potter, of Saint Louis. The disk is about four and a half inches in diameter, and was originally nearly circular, but the edges are now much decayed and battered. A cut with a brief description is given by Mr. A. J. Conant in his recent work, "Foot-prints of Vanished Races," page 95. My cut is made from a photograph obtained from Professor Putnam, of the Peabody Museum. This is probably the same photograph used by Mr. Conant. The engraved design is of a totally distinct type from the last, and evinces a much higher grade of skill in the artist. It is encircled by six nearly parallel lines, which occupy about half an inch of the border of the disk. Portions of these still remain, the inner one being nearly entire. Between this and the second line are two perforations for suspension. The idea first suggested by a glance at the engraved design is that it strongly resembles the work of the ancient Mexicans, and the second idea of many archæologists will probably be that there may be a doubt of its genuineness. Setting this question aside for the present, let us examine the engraving in detail. Placing the plate so that the two perforations are at the left, we have the principal figure in an upright posture. This figure apparently represents a personage of some importance, as he is decked from head to foot with a profusion of ornaments and symbols. He is shown in profile with the arms extended in action, and the feet separated as if in the act of stepping forward. The head is large, occupying about one-third of the height of the design. The elaborate head-dress fills the upper part of the inclosed space, pendant plumes descend to the shoulders before and behind, and circular ornaments are attached to the hair and the ear. The conventionalized eye is lozenge or diamond shaped, with a small conical pit for the pupil.

The profile shows a full forehead, a strong nose, and a prominent chin. Two lines extend across the cheek from the bridge of the nose to the base of the ear. In and projecting from the mouth is a symbolic figure, the meaning of which can only be conjectured. The shoulders and body are but meagerly represented. From the waist a peculiar apron-like object is suspended, which reaches to the knees; it may be a part of the costume or a priestly symbol. The legs and feet are dwarfed, but quite well outlined. There are encircling bands at the knees and ankles, and a fan-like extension of the costume, somewhat resembling the tail of a bird, descends between the legs. Attached to the back, is a figure of a rather extraordinary character. Similar figures may be seen in some of the Mexican paintings, and seem to represent a contrivance for carrying burdens, in which at times elfish figures are accommodated. The right arm is extended forward, and the hand grasps a singular shaft, with which a blow is aimed at the severed head of a victim, which is held face downward by the left hand of the standing figure. The severed head still retains the plumed cap, from which a long pendant descends in front of the face. The eye is lozenge-shaped. A zigzag line crosses the cheek from the ear to the bridge of the nose, and a curious symbolic figure is represented as issuing from the mouth. The shaft held in the right hand seems to issue from a circular figure, doubtless of symbolic character, which occupies the space in front of the head of the standing figure. It is possible that the figure which issues from the mouth of the victim represents the point of this mystic shaft which has penetrated the head, although we should have to allow some inaccuracies in the drawing if this were the case. Any one at all familiar with the curious pictographic manuscripts of the ancient Mexicans will see at a glance that we have here a sacrificial scene, in which a priest seems to be engaged in the sacrifice of a human being. In the extraordinary manuscripts of the ancient Aztecs we have many parallels to this design. So closely does it approach the Aztec type that, although no duplicate can be found in any of the codices, there is not a single idea, a single member or ornament that has not its analogue in the Mexican manuscripts. To make this clear to every one I present, in Plate LXXV, Fig. 4, a single example for comparison. This one is selected from the manuscript of M. De Féjerváry, preserved at Budapest, Hungary.[154] Fortunately for the credit of this Missouri relic we do not find its duplicate—there are only family resemblances; there are similar plumes, with similar ornaments and pendants, similar costume and attitudes; there are similar features and similar symbols; but there is no absolute identity, except in motive and conception.

PL. LXXIII—SHELL GORGET—THE HUMAN FIGURE.

Missouri.
(1/1)

Among the multitude of works of art collected within the last decade very few will be found to surpass in interest the fragment of a shell gorget from the McMahan Mound, at Sevierville, Tenn. The disk, when entire, has been nearly five inches in diameter. A little more than one-third had crumbled away, and the remaining portion was only preserved by the most careful handling, and by immediate immersion in a thin solution of glue. This specimen is the first of the kind ever brought to light in this country, and must certainly be regarded as the highest example of aboriginal art ever found north of Mexico. The design, as in the other cases, has been engraved on the convex surface of a polished shell disk, and represents two human figures, plumed and winged and armed with eagles' talons, engaged in mortal combat. As in the last specimen described, this has, at first sight, an exotic look, bearing certainly in its conception a general resemblance to the marvelous bas-reliefs of Mexico and Central America; but the resemblance goes no further, and we are at liberty to consider it a northern work sui generis. The design has apparently covered the entire tablet, leaving no space for encircling lines. The two figures are in profile and face each other in a fierce onset. Of the right-hand figure only the body, one arm, and one leg remain. The left-hand figure is almost complete; the outline of the face, one arm, and one foot being obliterated. The right hand is raised above the head in the act of brandishing a long double-pointed knife. At the same time this doughty warrior seems to be receiving a blow in the face from the right hand of the other combatant, in which is clutched a savage-looking blade, with a curved point. The hands are vigorously drawn, the joints are correctly placed, and the thumb presses down upon the outside of the forefinger in its natural effort to tighten and secure the grasp. Two bands encircle the wrists and probably represent bracelets. The arms and shoulders are plain. The head is decorated with a single plume, which springs from a circular ornament placed over the ear; an angular figure extends forward from the base of this plume and probably represents what is left of the head-dress proper; forward of this, on the very edge of the crumbling shell, is one-half of the lozenge-shaped eye, the dot intended to represent the pupil being almost obliterated. It is certainly a great misfortune that both faces are completely gone; their exact character must remain conjectural. A neat pendant ornament is suspended upon the well-formed breast, and a broad belt encircles the waist, beneath which, covering the abdomen, is a design that suggests the scales of a coat of mail. The legs are well-defined and perfectly proportioned; the left knee is bent forward and the foot is planted firmly on the ground, while the right is thrown gracefully back against the rim at the left. Double belts encircle the knees and ankles. The legs terminate in wonderfully well-drawn eagle's feet, armed with vigorously curved talons. A very interesting feature of the design is the highly conventionalized wing, which is attached to the shoulder behind, and fills the space beneath the uplifted arm. A broad many-feathered tail is spread out like a fan behind the legs. The right hand figure, so far as seen, is an exact duplicate of the left. A design of undetermined significance occupies the space between the figures beneath the crossed arms; it may represent conventionalized drapery, but is more probably symbolic in its character. The heads have probably been a little too large for good proportion, but the details of the anatomy are excellent. The muscles of the shoulder, the breast and nipple, the waist, the buttock, and the calves of the legs are in excellent drawing. The whole group is most graphically presented. A highly ideal design, it is made to fill a given space with a directness of execution and a unity of conception that is truly surprising.

PL. LXXIV—ENGRAVED GORGET—FIGHTING FIGURES.

Tennessee.
(1/1)

Let us turn for a moment from this striking effort of the mound-builders to the early efforts of other peoples in the engraver's art. Here are the drawings of the Troglodytes of France, scintillations of paleolithic genius, which appear as a flash of light in the midst of a midnight sky. They are truly remarkable. The clear-cut lines that shadow forth the hairy mammoth suggest the graphic and forcible work of the Parisian of to-day. The rude Esquimaux of our own time engraves images of a great variety of natural objects on his ornaments and implements of ivory in a manner that commands our admiration. But these shell tablets have designs of a much higher grade. They not only represent natural objects with precision, but they delineate conceptions of mythical creatures of composite character for which nature affords no model. In execution the best of these tablets will not compare with the wonderful works in stucco and stone of Palenque, or the elaborate sculptures of the Aztecs, but they are, like them, vigorous in action and complete in conception.

In case the authenticity of these relics be questioned, the facts in regard to them, so far as known, are here presented for reference. As to the two specimens from Sevierville, Tenn. (Plates LXXI and LXII), the shadow of a doubt cannot be attached to them. Were there no record whatever of the time or place of discovery, the evidence upon the faces of the relics themselves would show satisfactorily that they are genuine. They were taken from the great mound, which I have called the McMahan Mound, at Sevierville, Tenn. This mound was opened in 1881 by one of our most experienced collectors, Dr. E. Palmer. The specimens when found were in a very advanced stage of decay, pitted, discolored, and crumbling, and had to be handled with the utmost care to prevent total disintegration. They were dried by the collector, immersed in a weak solution of glue, and forwarded immediately to the National Museum at Washington. In this mound a multitude of relics were found, a large number being of shell, many of which are figured and described in this paper. These two gorgets, as well as many others of more ordinary types were found on or near the breasts of skeletons, and it is highly probable that they were suspended about the necks of the dead just as they had been worn by the living. By accurately ascertaining the authenticity of one of these specimens we establish, so far as need be, the genuineness of all of the same class. If one is genuine that is sufficient; the others may or may not be so, without seriously effecting the questions at issue, yet the occurrence of duplicate or closely related specimens in widely separated localities furnishes confirmatory evidence of no little importance. I do not wish to be understood as casting a doubt upon any of the four specimens described, as I am thoroughly convinced that there is no cause for suspicion.

The Missouri gorget, which has already been described and figured, was obtained by unknown persons in Southeastern Missouri. Several years back it came into the hands of Colonel Whitley, and from him it was obtained by its present owner, Professor Potter, of Saint Louis. There has never been a question as to its genuineness, and according to Professor Hilder, who saw it shortly after its discovery, the appearance and condition of the specimen were such that it could not have been of fraudulent manufacture. It was chalky and crumbling from decay, the lines of the design bearing equal evidence with the general surface of the shell of great age. Beside this, even if it were possible to produce such a condition in a recently carved shell, there existed no motive for such an attempt. Nothing was to be made by it; no benefit could accrue to the perpetrator to reward him for his pains, and, further, there was no precedent, there was extant nothing that could serve as a model for such a work.

In Plate LXXV I have arranged a number of figures for convenience of comparison, Figs. 1, 3, 5, and 6, being outlines of the four examples just described. In regard to the restored part of the outline in Fig. 1, I wish to say that my only object in filling out the figure on the right was to secure as far as possible the full effect of the complete original. Observing that all that remains of the right hand figure—the arm, the body, the leg and foot, is a duplicate of the left, it is safe to conclude that the design has been approximately bi-symmetrical, slight discrepancies probably occurring in the details of head and arm, in the expression of face, or in the character of the weapon. It is much to be regretted that the faces are totally destroyed.

In Fig. 2 I present a group of two figures from the so-called "sacrificial stone" found in the Plaza Mayor, city of Mexico. It seems to represent the submission of one warrior or ruler to his victorious opponent, and is one of many designs that might be presented to illustrate the analogies of the Tennessee relic with the interesting works of the far South. There is what might be called a family resemblance, a similarity in idea and action, but little analogy of detail. The northern work is by far the more spirited, and is apparently superior in all the essentials of artistic excellence.

PL. LXXV—THE HUMAN FIGURE.

1. Shell gorget, McMahan Mound, Tenn.
2. Sculptured in stone, Mexico.
3. Shell gorget, mound, Missouri.
4. Figure from an Aztec painting.
5. Shell gorget, McMahan Mound, Tenn.
6. Shell gorget, Lick Creek Mound, Tenn.

In the composite character of the personages represented this picture finds no parallel. Composite figures are of frequent occurrence in Peruvian art, as in the running figures sculptured on the great monolith at Tiahuanuco, or the mythical combats of the gods of the earth and sea painted on the pottery of Chimu. They are also found in the manuscripts of the ancient Mexicans, as well as in the paintings of the modern Pueblos of New Mexico (Fig. 1, Plate LXXVI), and in the totemic art of the Haidahs (Fig. 2, Plate LXXVI). The most frequent combinations are of birds with men, the inspiration of the work in all cases being derived from the mythology of the people. The wearing of masks has doubtless given rise to many such conceptions, and where the head alone of the human creature has undergone metamorphosis, we may suspect that a mask has originated the conception; but the Tennessee example appears to be the only one in which wings are added independently of the arms or in which bird's feet are attached to the otherwise perfect human creature.

PL. LXXVI—COMPOSITE FIGURES.

1. Design on Zuñi war-shield, painting.
2. Thunder-bird of the Haidahs, painting.

And now we come to the question of the origin of these objects, and especially of the example most closely resembling Mexican work. The Missouri gorget is in many respects quite isolated from known works of the Mississippi Valley. Must it be regarded as an exotic, as an importation from the South, or does it belong to the soil from which it was exhumed? In order to answer this question we must not only determine its relations to the art of Mexico, but we must know just what affinities it has to the art of the mound-builders.

In the first place, gorgets of shell are a marked characteristic of the personal embellishment of the northern peoples. They may have been in use among the Aztecs, but do not appear among southern antiquities, and no evidence can be derived from history. This gorget belongs, in its general character as an ornament, to the North. It is circular in form, it has two small perforations near the margin for suspension, and is made from the wall of a large univalve. The design occupies the central portion of the convex side of the disk and is inclosed by a number of incised lines. In all of these features, together with its technical execution and its manner of inhumation, it is identical with the well-known work of the mound-builders. These analogies could hardly occur if it were an exotic. It is true, however, as we have already seen, that the design itself has a closer affinity to Mexican art than to that of the North. It represents a sacrificial scene, and has many parallels in the paintings and sculpture of the South, whereas no such design is known in the art of any nation north of Mexico.

The engravings of the mound-builders represent legendary creatures derived from the myths of the fathers, and in this respect have their parallels in the bird-man of the Haidahs, the war-god of the Zuñis, and the mythical deities of other countries; but they are never illustrative of the customs or ceremonies of the peoples themselves. As an ornament this Missouri gorget is a member of a great family that is peculiarly northern, but the design engraved upon it affiliates with the art of Mexico, and so close and striking are the resemblances, that accident cannot account for them, and we are forced to the conclusion that it must be the offspring of the same beliefs and customs and the same culture as the art of Mexico.

PL. LXXVII—FROGS, ARIZONA.

Carved from pectunculus shells. (1/1)

---

FOOTNOTES:

[1] I am greatly indebted to Prof. W. H. Dall, of the Coast Survey, for assistance in the identification of Pacific coast varieties.

[2] Putnam: in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 251.

[3] Reiss and Stübel: Necropolis of Ancon, Peru, Plate 83.

[4] De Bry: Collectio Pars 2. Brevis Narratio, 1591, Plate 29.

[5] Kohl: Kitschi-Gami, vol. I, p. 186, Rau, trans.

[6] Cabeça de Vaca: Relation et Naufrages. Paris, 1837, p. 121. Spanish ed., 1555.

[7] Rau, in Smithsonian Report for 1872, p. 376.

[8] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 233.

[9] Jones: Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee, p. 59.

[10] Ibid., p. 60.

[11] Ibid., p. 45.

[12] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 355.

[13] Wyman, in Third Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 7.

[14] Wyman, in Third Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 8.

[15] Foster: Prehistoric Races of the United States, p. 78.

[16] Since the shell here named is quite small it is probable that the specimens found were Busycons.

[17] Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Vol. I, p. 361.

[18] Atwater, in Transactions American Antiquarian Society, Vol. I.

[19] Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, p. 283.

[20] Ibid., p. 284.

[21] Farquharson, in Proceedings of the Am. Association, 1875, page 296.

[22] Ibid., p. 297.

[23] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 235.

[24] I am indebted to Dr. Charles A. White, of the Geological Survey, for the identification of the numerous specimens of Unionidæ mentioned in this paper.

[25] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, 1879.

[26] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 334.

[27] Ibid., p. 344.

[28] Jones: Antiquities of Tennessee, p. 64.

[29] Beverly: History of Virginia, 1722, pl. 10, p. 154.

[30] Strachey, in Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. VI, p. 52.

[31] Ibid., vol. VII, p. 67.

[32] Kalm's Travels, London, 1772, vol. I, p. 341.

[33] Collections New York Historical Society, vol. I, 2nd series, p. 198.

[34] Beverly: History of Virginia, 1722, p. 197.

[35] Drake, in Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. XVI, p. 74.

[36] Ibid., p. 78.

[37] Sproat's Savage Life, p. 86.

[38] De Bry: Collectio Pars 1. "Admiranda Narratio," Plate 12.

[39] Catlin: Indians of the Rocky Mountains and Andes, page 101.

[40] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 102.

[41] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society of Madisonville, Ohio, Part I, p. 17.

[42] Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. VII, p. 193.

[43] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 87.

[44] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 106.

[45] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society, part II, p. 38, fig. 31.

[46] Putnam, in Explorations West of the 100th Meridian, vol. VII, p. 223.

[47] Cook: Voyage Around the World, 1770, vol. II, p. 218.

[48] Rau: Archæological Collection of the National Museum, page 67.

[49] Knight: Savage Weapons at the Centennial Exhibition, page 10.

[50] Wyman: American Naturalist for October, 1878, p. 453.

[51] Adair: History of the American Indians, p. 6.

[52] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 140.

[53] Heckewelder's Indian Nations, p. 205.

[54] Reiss and Stübel: Necropolis of Ancon, Plate 83, fig. 17–1/2.

[55] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 234, 518.

[56] Wyman, in the American Naturalist, November, 1868, Plate X, p. 455.

[57] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 230.

[58] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 259.

[59] Perkins, on An Ancient Burial-Ground in Swanton, Vt., Proceedings of the American Association, 1873.

[60] Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, p. 232.

[61] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 266.

[62] Schoolcraft: History of the Indian Tribes, Vol. III, p. 79, Plate 25.

[63] Schoolcraft: Notes on the Iroquois, p. 233.

[64] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 145, Plate VI.

[A] Schoolcraft: Notes on Iroquois, p. 233.

[B] From sketch by Mr. Beauchamp.

[65] Haldeman, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 263.

[66] Atwater: Western Antiquities, p. 86. In the early days of mound exploration shell was usually mistaken for bone or ivory.

[67] Kip: Jesuit Missions, p. 25.

[68] Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1794, Vol. III, pp. 231, 232.

[69] Worsley: A View of the American Indians, p. 65.

[70] Collections of the New York Historical Society, 1841; vol. I, 2nd Series, p. 194.

[71] Thought to be raccoon skins.

[72] Smith: True Relation of Virginia, pp. 33, 34.

[73] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 74.

[74] Du Pratz: History of Louisiana, p. 364.

[75] Lewis and Clark: Expedition up the Missouri, &c., p. 537.

[76] Harmon's Journal, p. 287.

[77] Swan: The Northwest Coast, p. 158.

[78] Powers: Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. III, p. 263.

[79] Drake: Book of Indians, p. 27.

[80] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the New York State Cabinet of Natural History, pp. 71, 73.

[81] Loskiel: Mission of the United Brethren, Latrobe trans., p. 34.

[82] Hutchinson: History of Mass., Vol. I, p. 406.

[83] Thomas Morton, in Historical Tracts, Vol. II, p. 29.

[84] Williams: A Key into the Language of America, p. 144.

[85] Penna: Historical Society, Vol. III, p. 131.

[86] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 195.

[87] Lawson: History of North Carolina; Raleigh reprint, 1860, p. 315.

[88] On this point, however, the author quoted is apparently at fault, as there is abundance of proof that the whites often engaged successfully in the manufacture of this shell money.

[89] Adair: History of the American Indians, p. 170.

[90] Kalm's Travels, London, 1772, Vol. II, p. 100.

[91] Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 190, 191.

[92] Ruttenber: Indian Tribes of the Hudson River, p. 26.

[93] Lewis and Clark: Expedition up the Missouri, p. 73.

[94] Ruttenber: Indian Tribes of the Hudson River, page 43.

[95] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the condition of the New York State Cabinet of Natural History, page 73.

[96] Brice: History of Fort Wayne, 1868, page 28.

[97] Events in Indian History, Lancaster, Pa., 1841, page 143.

[98] History and description of New France, Vol. II, page 256.

[99] Penn, in Memoirs Hist. Soc. Penn'a, Vol. VI, p. 222.

[100] In order to make the authors meaning quite clear, a free translation has been given of such words as porcelaine, branches, colliers, etc., as his use of them is somewhat confusing.

[101] Lafitau: Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, 1724, tom. II, pp. 502–'3 and 506–'7.

[102] Loskiel: Missions of the United Brethren. Trans. by La Trobe, Book I, p. 26.

[103] Brice: History of Fort Wayne, p. 118.

[104] Gilpin, in Memoirs of the Hist. Soc. of Penna. Vol. VI, p. 248.

[105] Heckewelder: Indian Nations, 1876, p. 110.

[106] Parkman: Jesuits in North America, p. xxxiii.

[107] Events in Indian History, Lancaster, Pa., 1841, p. 143.

[108] Hunter: Indian Manners and Customs, p. 192.

[109] Gumilla: Histoire de Orinoque, Vol. III, p. 91.

[110] Molina: History of Chili, Vol. I, p. 119.

[111] From an original sketch by Mr. Beauchamp.

[112] Pike: Travels through the Western Territories of N. A., 1805–'7, p. 103.

[113] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the Condition of the New York State Cabinet of Natural History, 1852, p. 72.

[114] Morgan: League of the Iroquois, p. 387.

[115] Heckewelder: Indian Nations, 1876, pp. 108–'9–'10.

[116] Beatty: Journal of Two Months Tour, 1768, p. 67.

[117] Loskiel: Missions of the United Brethren. Trans, by La Trobe, 1794. Book I, p. 26.

[118] Lafitau: Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, Tome II, p. 314.

[119] Mr. Beauchamp has published many interesting facts in regard to these belts in the American Antiquarian, Vol. II, No. 3.

[120] Present chief of the Onondagas.

[121] The proceedings attending the presentation are fully recorded in the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, volume iii, page 207. A full size lithographic illustration of the belt printed in color is also given.

[122] Clavigero: History of Mexico, Trans. by Cullen, vol. I, p. 437.

[123] Davis: Spanish Conquest of New Mexico, p. 121.

[124] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 196.

[125] Lafitau: Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, p. 61.

[126] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 74.

[127] Kalm: Travels in North America, 1772, vol. ii, p. 320.

[128] Vide Kingsborough, Waldeck, Bancroft, &c.

[129] Schoolcraft, in Trans. Am. Eth. Soc., Vol. II, Plate 1.

[130] Tomlinson, in The American Pioneer, Vol. II, p. 200.

[131] Matson, in Ohio Centennial Report, p. 131.

[132] Schoolcraft: History of the Indian Tribes, &c., part I, plate XIX.

[133] The ossuaries here mentioned are in the township of Beverly, twenty miles from Dundas, at the head of Lake Ontario. They are situated in a primitive forest, and were discovered upwards of thirty years ago through the uprooting of a tree. Large numbers of skeletons had been deposited longitudinally in trenches, with many implements, utensils, and ornaments. Two brass kettles were found in one of the graves. (Schoolcraft: Red Races of America, p. 326.)

[134] Rau: Archæological Collection of the National Museum, p. 33.

[135] The handsome illustrations presented in the accompanying plates were mostly drawn by Miss Kate C. Osgood, who has no superior in this class of work.

[136] Jones: Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee, pp. 42–3.

[137] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 373–5.

[138] Anderson, in the Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of Science, October, 1875, p. 378.

[139] Abbott: Primitive Industry, pp. 70, 72, and 73.

[140] Ibid., p. 207.

[141] Since this paragraph has been in type I have seen the specimen, and find that the looped figure is clearly defined.

[142] Kingsborough: vol. II, Plate 20.

[143] Let any one who thinks lightly of such a work undertake, without machinery or well-adapted appliances, to cut a groove or notch even, in a moderately compact specimen of Busycon, and he will probably increase his good opinion of the skill and patience of the ancient workman if he does nothing else.

[144] E. G. Squier: Serpent Symbol, page 69, quoting MSS. of J. H. Payne.

[145] I am very much indebted to Prof. F. F. Hilder, of Saint Louis, for photographs of three of these specimens as well as for much information in regard to their history.

[146] Croswell, in Transactions Academy of Science of Saint Louis, vol. III, p. 537.

[147] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indian, plate XXX.

[148] Archæological Collection of the National Museum, p. 69.

[149] Squier: Peru, p. 186.

[150] Bancroft: Native Races of the Pacific States, vol. IV., p. 37.

[151] Carr, in Tenth Annual Report Peabody Museum, p. 87.

[152] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 430.

[153] Schoolcraft: Notes on the Iroquois, p. 235.

[154] Kingsborough, Vol. III, pl. 22.

---

INDEX.

Abbott, C. C., describes bird totems [284]
Adair, James, describes shell tweezers [212]
Adair, James, on use of shell money [237]
Agricultural implements. (See [Implements].)
Amiantis shells, Manufacture of beads from [226]
Art, Antiquity of shell works of [187]
Art, Burial of shell works of [187]
Art, Evolution of [185], [192], [202], [210], [213], [225]
Art, Inception of [186]
Art, Materials employed in [185], [188]
Art, Preservation of shell works of [186]
Asphaltum used by California Indians [191], [209], [218]
Atwater, Caleb, describes shell necklace [231]
Atwater, Caleb, describes shell vessel [197]

Beads of other materials [219], [232], [235]
Beads of shell [219]
Beads, Classification of [219]
Beads discoidal in form [221]
Beads, Kinds of, used in belts [247]
Beads, Manner of stringing [234], [236], [244], [248]
Beads, Manufacture of [236]
Beads, Manufacture of, by whites [238]
Beads massive in form [223]
Beads, Mnemonic use of [240], [254]
Beads or "Runtees" [228]
Beads, Perforated [219]
Beads tubular in form [226]
Beads used as money [219], [233]
Beads used as ornaments [219], [230], [234]
Beatty, Charles, describes wampum belts [250]
Beauchamp, W. M., Beads sketched by [228]
Beauchamp, W. M., on belts of wampum [252]
Beauchamp, W. M., on strings of wampum [248]
Belts, wampum, Character of the patterns woven into [240], [246], [248]
Belts, wampum, Dimensions of [250], [253]
Belts, wampum, Keeper of the Iroquois [241], [244]
Belts, wampum made by Indian women [249]
Belts, wampum, Manufacture of [248]
Belts, wampum, Method of handling, in councils [241], [246]
Belts, wampum, Number of beads in [233], [251]
Belts, wampum, Profuse use of [242]
Belts, wampum, Rarity of, in collections [249]
Belts, wampum; the Penn belt [253]
Belts, wampum, Use of, as mnemonic records [240], [254]
Belts, wampum, W. A. Brice on use and repudiation of [242], [246]
Beverly, R., describes shell beads [229]
Beverly, R., describes shell money [237]
Beverly, R., describes shell pendants [256]
Beverly, R., describes shell spoon [201]
Beverly, R., mentions shell knives [202]
Beverly, R., mentions shell tweezers [212]
Bird; carving of eagle's head [285]
Bird, Embodiment of the, in art [280]
Bird engraved on bone [284]
Bird engraved on stone [284]
Bird engraved on shell gorgets [280]
Bird, Examples of the, engraved on shell gorgets [281]
Bird, Gold ornament representing head of [285]
Bird, Myths of the [280]
Bird, Significant character of the, in engraved designs [281], [284]
Bird, Species of, represented [282], [284]
Bird, Superstitions in regard to the [280]
Bird, The Dakotas' thunder [281]
Bird, Totemic use of the [284]
Bourke, Lieut. John G., on Moqui shell vessels [193]
Bowers, Stephen, Shell objects collected by [209], [226]
Brakebill mound [215], [275], [292], [296]
Brice, W. A., on repudiation of wampum [246]
Brice, W. A., on use of wampum belts [242]
Brinton, D. G., on the origin of the cross [270]
Busycon shells, Columellæ of, used as pendants [209], [258]
Busycon shells, Columellæ of, used as pins [213]
Busycon shells, Gorgets derived from [273], [276], [282], [290], [292], [294], [296]
Busycon shells, Pendants derived from [209], [259]
Busycon shells, Perforated plates derived from [265]
Busycon shells used as beads [220], [224]
Busycon shells used as celts [204]
Busycon shells used as vessels [194], [197]
Busycon shells used as weapons [211]
Busycon shells used in the arts [191]

Cabeça de Vaca on trade in shells [194]
Cabrillo, João, visits Island of Santa Rosa [260]
Calendars, Pictographic symbols of the Sioux [279]
Calendars, Probable use of shell disks as [268], [273], [278]
Calendars used by ancient Mexicans [279]
Calendars used by modern tribes [279]
Carr, Lucien, describes shell gorget [295]
Cassis shells used as vessels [191], [194], [196]
Catlin, George, describes shell adze [205]
Celts, Examples of [203]
Celts, Manufacture of [203]
Celts of shell [203], [205]
Clam shells used as implements [190], [205], [207]
Clam shells used as utensils [190]
Clam shells used in manufacture of ornaments [263]
Clam shells used in manufacture of wampum [190], [226], [238], [257]
Clark, J. S., Photographs made by [252]
Clavigero, F. X., on use of shell ornaments [256]
Clavigero, F. X., on use of shell vessels in Mexico [193]
Cleveland, F., describes shell vessels [197]
Columellæ, Manner of extracting, from shell [214]
Columellæ used in manufacture of heads [219], [223]
Columellæ used in manufacture of pins [213], [218]
Conant, A. J., describes shell gorgets [300]
Conant, A. J., mentions shell gorgets [287]
Cross design associated with others [270]
Cross design combined with spider design [288]
Cross design in Aztec paintings [285]
Cross design engraved on shell gorgets [268]
Cross design, Evolution or derivation of the [270]
Cross design, Examples of the, combined with birds [282], [283]
Cross design, Examples of the, from mounds [271], [273]
Cross design, Introduction of the Christian [269]
Cross design, Occurrence of the, in ancient Mexican art [270]
Cross design, Occurrence of the, in Yucatan [270]
Cross, Origin of the, among mound builders [269]
Cross, Prehistoric use of the, in America [268], [270]
Cross, Symbolic character of the [269]
Croswell, C., describes shell gorgets [286]
Curtis, Dr., Shell gorgets collected by [283]
Cyprea shells used as beads [219]
Cyprea shells used as ornaments [263]

Dall, W. H., use of pins [217]
Dall, W. H., Shells identified by [190]
Davis, W. H. H., mentions shell pendants [256]
Dentalium shells used for money [191], [220], [227], [239]
Dentalium shells used for ornament [191], [218], [220], [227]
Dentalium shells used in bushing [218], [227]
Disks, Scalloped, probably time symbols [273]
Disks, Scalloped, Relation of, to human remains [276]
Disks, Scalloped shell, from mounds [275], [278]
Disks, Scalloped, Shell gorgets in the shape of [268], [273], [279]
Disks, Scalloped stone [277]
Disks, Scalloped stone with engravings of knotted serpents [278]
Disks, Scalloped, Table of [280]
Disks, Scalloped, The sun suggested by [273]
Disks, Scalloped, Type example of [273]
Disks, Scalloped; use of sun symbols of similar shape [273]
Drake, Daniel, describes shell vessel [197]
Dunning, E. O., Shell ornaments collected by [272]
Dunning, E. O., Shell pins collected by [215]

Ely mound in Virginia [295]
Engraved gorgets. (See [Gorgets].)

Face, Human, Description of shell gorgets representing the [294]
Face, Human engraved and carved on shell gorgets [293], [297]
Face, Human modeled in clay [296]
Face, Human, Portions of shell used for representing [293]
Face, Human, Use or significance of shell gorgets representing [295]
Fain's Island mound [215], [272], [288]
Farquharson, B. J., describes shell vessel [197]
Fasciolaria shells, Columellæ of, used for pins [213]
Fasciolaria shells used as vessels [194]
Figure, Human. (See [Human figure].)
Fishing appliances, Shell [207]
Fishing appliances, Shell; hooks [208]
Fishing appliances, Shell, Manufacture of [210]
Fishing appliances, Shell; sinkers [208]
Fissurella shells used as ornaments [191], [220], [261], [263]
Frey, S. L., describes shell vessel [198]

Gilpin, H. D., on the use of wampum belts [246]
Gorgets, Engraved, Classification of [267]
Gorgets, Engraved design on, character of [267]
Gorgets, Engraved described by Beverly [256]
Gorgets, Engraved, Modern examples of [268]
Gorgets, Engraved of shell [267], [305]
Gorgets, Engraved, Significance of designs on [267], [274], [278], [282]
Gorgets, Engraved used as amulets [267]
Gorgets, Engraved used as insignia [267], [273]
Gorgets, Engraved used as symbols [268], [273]
Gorgets, Engraved used as totems [268]
Grave Creek mound [234], [264]
Gray's mound, Oldtown, Tenn. [283]
Gumilla, Joseph, concerning emblems in treaties [247]

Hafting of implements of shell [203], [205], [211]
Haldemann, S. S., describes shell beads [227], [230]
Haliotis shells used as vessels [189], [191]
Haliotis shells used in manufacturing beads [225], [227]
Haliotis shells used in manufacturing fish hooks [209]
Haliotis shells used in manufacturing pendants [209], [261]
Haliotis shells used in trade [191]
Heckewelder, Johann, describes shell tweezers [212]
Heckewelder, Johann, describes wampum belts [250]
Heckewelder, Johann, on the use of wampum belts [246]
Hennite shells used in manufacture of beads [225], [227]
Hilder, F. F., describes shell gorgets [286], [288], [303]
Hilder, F. F., photographs of gorgets procured by [286]
Human figure engraved on shell gorgets [297]
Human figure engraved on shell gorgets, Comparison of, with other examples [302]
Human figure engraved on shell gorgets, Comparison of, southern examples [301]
Hunter, J. D., concerning emblems in treaties [247]
Hutchinson, Thomas, on the antiquity of wampum [235]

Implements of shell, Agricultural [207]
Insignia or badges of shell [264], [266], [273]

Jones, C. C., describes shell pins [215]
Jones, C. C., describes shell vessel [196]
Jones, C. C., describes stone disks [277]
Jones, C. C., mentions shell gorgets [287], [293], [298]
Jones, Joseph, describes shell disk [276]
Jones, Joseph, describes shell gorgets [297]
Jones, Joseph, describes shell spoons [201]
Jones, Joseph, describes shell vessel [196]

Kalm, Peter, mentions shell knives [202]
Kalm, Peter, on shell money [238]
Kalm, Peter, on shell pendants [257]
Knight, E. H., describes shell weapons [211]
Knives of shell [201]
Knives of shell, rarity of, in collections [203]
Knives of shell used by Honda Indians [202]
Knives of shell used by Pacific Coast tribes [203]
Knives of shell used by Patagonians [203]
Kohl, J. G., on trade in shells [194]

Lafitau, J. F., on the use of shell pendants [256]
Lafitau, J. F., on the use of wampum [243]
Lafitau, J. F., on the use of wampum belts [250]
Lawson, John, on the use of shell money [237]
Le Moyne, d'Iberville, on the use of shell vessels [193]
Lewis and Clark describe shell ornaments [233]
Lewis and Clark on value of beads [239]
Lick Creek mound [215], [224], [272], [278], [296]
Lindström, P., on the use of shell money [236]
Lord, J. K., on shell money [239]
Loskiel G. H., gives an account of wampum [245]
Loskiel G. H., on the antiquity of use of wampum [235]
Loskiel G. H., on the manufacture of wampum [235]
Loskiel G. H., on the origin of the word wampum [239]
Loskiel G. H., on the wampum belts [250]
Low, C. P., Shell spoons collected by [200]
Low, C. P., Shell spoons described by [200]
Lyon, S. S., Shell spoons collected by [200]

McMahan mound [214], [292], [294], [298], [301], [303]
Manufacture of shell objects [204], [210], [212], [216], [218], [220], [228], [236], [255], [261], [263], [286], [293]
Marginella shells used as beads [219]
Matson, J. S. B., Beads discovered by [231]
Matson, J. S. B., describes shell plates [265]
Mnemonic records, Interpretation of [241], [244], [246]
Mnemonic records, Iroquois keeper of [241], [244]
Mnemonic records of Mexicans [240]
Mnemonic records of N. A. Indians [240]
Mnemonic records of Peruvians [240]
Mnemonic records, Origin of [240]
Mnemonic records, Use of materials other than shell for [245], [247]
Mnemonic records, Use of wampum for [240], [254]
Molina, G. I., concerning emblems in treaties [247]
Morgan, L. H., on the antiquity of wampum [235]
Morgan, L. H., on the origin of the word wampum [239]
Morgan, L. H., on the uses of wampum [235]
Morgan, L. H., on wampum belts [249]
Morgan, L. H., on wampum records [241]
Morton, Thomas, on the use of shell money [236]
Myth, Spider, obtained by J. W. Powell [286]
Mytilus, shells used as utensils [191], [212]
Mytilus, shells used in manufacture of fish hooks [210]
Mytilus, shells used in manufacture of ornaments [261]

Oliva shells used as beads [219], [222]
Olivella shells used as beads [220]
Ornaments of shell [213], [305]
Osgood, Kate C., Drawings made by [268]
Oyster shells used as utensils [191]

Pachydesma shells used as utensils [190]
Pachydesma shells used in manufacture of beads [226]
Pachydesma shells used in manufacture of ornaments [261]
Pachydesma shells used in manufacture of pendants [209]
Palmer, E., Collections by [303]
Parkman, Francis, on the use of wampum [247]
Pearls perforated for beads [225]
Pearls used by Powhatan [232]
Pecten shells used as implements [206]
Pecten shells used as ornaments [189], [261]
Pecten shells used as rattles [190], [206]
Pecten shells used as vessels [189]
Pecten shells used in art [189]
Pectunculus shells, Manufacture of rings from [263]
Pendants, Beads used as [230]
Pendants, Classification of [255], [207]
Pendants, Engraved [267], [305]
Pendants, Forms and sizes of [255], [258], [261], [263]
Pendants, Historic use of [255], [268]
Pendants illustrated by Lafitau [257]
Pendants illustrated in De Bry [257]
Pendants illustrated in Mexican paintings [257]
Pendants illustrated in sculptures of Mexico and Yucatan [258]
Pendants, Importance of, in evolution of art [255]
Pendants of shell [209], [255]
Pendants of the Atlantic coast [258]
Pendants, Origin of use of [255]
Pendants, Ornamental notching of edges of [262]
Pendants, Perforations of [255], [261]
Pendants, Plain, of the Pacific coast [260]
Pendants, Plain, of the Atlantic coast [258]
Pendants, Various uses of [255], [261], [267]
Penn, J. G., describes Penn belt [259]
Perforated tablets. See [Tablets].
Perforations of objects of shell [216], [220], [223], [227], [236], [262]
Perkins, G. H., Shell beads illustrated by [224]
Perrine, F. M., Shell gorgets belonging to [270]
Pins, cut from body of shell [216]
Pins, Examples of [213], [218]
Pins made from collumellæ of shell [213], [218]
Pins obtained from mounds [213], [218]
Pins of shell [213], [218]
Pins, Use of bone [217]
Pins, Use of, problematicals [213], [217]
Potter, W. B., Shell gorget owned by [299], [303]
Powell, J. W., Nose ornament collected by [227]
Powell, J. W., Shell disk collected by [273]
Powell, J. W., Shell spoon collected by [199]
Powell, J. W., Spider myth obtained by [286]
Powers, Stephen, describes shell beads [239]
Powers, Stephen, describes shell ornaments [233]
Pratt, H. W., on shell money [239]
Pratz, Lepage du, describes shell ornaments [232]
Putnam, F. W., describes bone pins [217]
Putnam, F. W., describes shell fish-hooks [209]
Putnam, F. W., describes shell gorgets [276], [282], [295]
Putnam, F. W., describes shell pins [218]
Putnam, F. W., describes shell spoons [195]
Putnam, F. W., describes shell vessels [196]
Putnam, F. W., on use of asphaltum [227]
Putnam, F. W., on value of Haliotis shells [191]

Rasle, Father Sebastian, on the use of shell beads [231]
Rau, Charles, describes gold ornament [285]
Rau, Charles, describes shell gorget [289]
Rau, Charles, describes shell vessel [196]
Rau, Charles, describes shell weapon [210]
Rau, Charles, on classification of perforated plates [266]
Rau, Charles, on cut of stone disk [278]
Records. (See [Mnemonic records].)
"Runtees," a variety of shell beads [228]
"Runtees, Manner of stringing [229]
"Runtees, Origin of [230]
"Runtees, Signification of figures engraved upon [228]
Ruttenber, E. M., on the Keeper of wampum [241]
Ruttenber, E. M., on the manufacture of shell money [238]

Scalloped disks. (See [Disks].)
Schoolcraft, H. R., describes shell beads [228]
Schoolcraft, H. R., describes shell ornaments [297]
Schoolcraft, H. R., describes shell pendants [260]
Schoolcraft, H. R., describes shell plates [264]
Schumacher, Paul, Shell objects collected by [209], [217]
Scrapers of shell [205]
Scrapers, Examples of [205]
Serpent characteristics that attract the savage [289]
Serpent design, Discovery of shell gorgets ornamented with [289]
Serpent design engraved upon shell gorgets [268], [289], [293]
Serpent design engraved upon stone disks [278]
Serpent design, Examples of gorgets ornamented with [290]
Serpent design of Mexico and Peru [293]
Serpent design; the rattlesnake [289]
Serpent, Embodiment of the, in art [289]
Serpent; rattlesnake species represented on shell [291], [293]
Serpent, Superstitions in regard to [289]
Serpent, Use of the, as a religious symbol [289]
Shells, Artificial distribution of [196], [205], [213], [230]
Shells, Trade in [188], [191], [193], [196], [236]
Shells used as models for the potter [198]
Shells used in natural state [187], [191]
Smith, Erminnie A., Wampum belt loaned by [251]
Smith, John, describes shell ornaments [232]
Spider characteristics that attract savages [286]
Spider design engraved upon shell gorgets [286], [289]
Spider design, Examples of, on shell gorgets [286]
Spider design in art [286]
Spider, Myths concerning the [286]
Spoons of shell deposited with the dead [199]
Spoons of shell, Examples of [199]
Spoons of shell, Manufacture of [198]
Spoons of the Unio shell [198], [201]
Squier, E. G., mentions spider myths [286]
Squier and Davis describe shell beads [225]
Stearns, R. E. C., on shell money [239]
Strachey, William, mentions shell knives [202]
Stratton, C. L., Shell pins collected by [215]
Strombus shells, Columellæ of, used in manufacture of beads [224]
Strombus shells, Columellæ of, used in manufacture of pendants [208]
Strombus shells, Columellæ of, used in manufacture of pins [213], [215]
Strombus shells used as vessels [191], [194], [197]
Strombus shells used in manufacture of celts [204]
Strombus shells used in manufacture of gorgets [295]
Swan, J. G., describes shell ornaments [233]

Tablets, Perforated, Forms of [264]
Tablets, Perforated, made of shell [264], [267]
Tablets, Perforated, Manner of burial of [265]
Tablets, Perforated, Method of attachment of [266]
Tablets, Perforated, Perforations of [265]
Tablets, Perforated, Theories of use of [264]
Tablets, Perforated, Undetermined character of [264]
Time symbols, Probable use of shell disks as [268], [273], [278]
Tomlinson, A. B., describes shell plate [264]
Trill, C. F., Drawings made by [251]
Troost, Dr. Gerard, Shell objects collected by [224]
Tweezers of shell [212]

Unio shells obtained from mounds [190]
Unio shells used as implements [190], [205]
Unio shells used as utensils [190], [199]
Unio shells used in manufacture of beads [223]
Unio shells used in manufacture of ornament [260]
Unio shells used in manufacture of spoons [199]

Velie, J. W., Shell pendants collected by [208]
Vessels, artificially shaped [192]
Vessels, Engraved shell [193]
Vessels in clay imitating shells [198]
Vessels, Manufacture of shell [194], [196]
Vessels, Natural shells [190]
Vessels of the Mound Builders [194], [196]
Vessels used by the Florida Indians [193]
Vessels used by the Moquis Indians [193]
Vessels used in Mexico [192]

Wampum, Antiquity of use of as currency. [234]
Wampum as currency [234]
Wampum, Derivation of the word [238]
Wampum in costumes [232], [234]
Wampum, Literature of [241], [248]
Wampum, Manufacture of [226], [236]
Wampum, Manufacture of, by whites [238]
Wampum, Mnemonic use of [240], [254]
Wampum, Modern use of [239], [252]
Wampum, Origin of mnemonic use of [240]
Wampum, Symbolic uses of [241], [248]
Wampum, Use of, in strings [243], [248]
Wampum, Use of, in treaties and councils [242]
Wampum, Use of, on Pacific Coast [239]
Wampum, Varieties of beads used as [247]
Weapons of shell [210]
Weapons, Manner of hafting [211]
Whipple, Lieut. E. W., Necklace obtained by [220]
Whiteley, Colonel, Shell gorgets procured by [303]
Whitney, J. L., describes shell plate [265]
Williams, C. F., Shell gorgets collected by [282]
Williams, Roger, on the name wampum [239]
Williams, Roger, on the use of shell money [236]
Wood, William, describes shell pendants [256]
Wood, William, mentions shell implements [205], [207]
Wood, William, mentions shell ornaments [232]
Wyman, Jeffries, describes shell celt [204]
Wyman, Jeffries, describes shell gorgets [289]
Wyman, Jeffries, describes shell pins [216]
Wyman, Jeffries, describes shell vessel [196]
Wyman, Jeffries, describes shell weapons [211]

---

Corrections:

page	original text	correction
[186]	curions	curious
[198]	ancient	an ancient
[199]	Fig. I	Fig. 1
[Plate XXVI]	pecten	Pecten
[n 36]	Ibid	Ibid.
[214], [294], [301], [303]	McMahon	McMahan
[217]	type	type.
[218]	collumellæ	columellæ
[Plate XXXI]	columela	columella
[219]	Maginella	Marginella
[222]	fig. 1	Fig. 1
[225]	Ills.	Ill.
[n 69]	View	A View of
[236]	Salvages	Savages
[236]	Sweeden	Sweden
[238]	wampum.	wampum."
[240]	assinged	assigned
[242]	and and	and
[242]	sachem	sachem,
[n 102]	Book 1	Book I
[246]	remontrances	remonstrances
[248]	Chippeway	Chippewa
[n 118]	Tome, II	Tome II
[251]	Irqouois	Iroquois
[252]	lost	lost.
[252]	Beauchamp,	Beauchamp
[252]	Fig 3	Fig. 3
[255]	phenominal	phenomenal
[264]	main land	main-land
[271]	Fig. 1.,	Fig. 1,
[282]	it	its
[282]	Missisippi	Mississippi
[286]	LX	LXI
[287] 2x	Crosswell	Croswell
[Plate LXII]	1.	2.
[Plate LXIV]	Mound	Mound.
[296]	tatooed	tattooed
[Plate LXIX]	Acquia	Aquia
[298]	againstthe	against the
[302]	many-featherd	many-feathered
[303]	LXIII	LXII
[304]	3	2

MODERN SPELLING OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF SHELL SPECIES MENTIONED:

original text	modern name	Pagenumbers
Cerrithidea	Cerithidea	[220]
Cyprea	Cypraea	[219], [220] 2x, [230], [Plate XLVIII], [263] 2x, [264]
Hennites	Hinnites	[225], [227], [Plate XXXV]
Lucupina	Lucapina	[264]
silignoidens	siligineoides	[200]
vericosus	verrucosus	[206]