Earth Features and Their Meaning / An Introduction to Geology for the Student and the General Reader

by William Herbert Hobbs

APPENDIX A

THE QUICK DETERMINATION OF THE COMMON MINERALS

Before one may gain a knowledge of rocks or the architecture of their arrangement within the earth’s crust, it is quite essential that some familiarity should be acquired with the appearance and properties of the commonest minerals, and particularly those which enter as essential constituents into the more abundant rocks. To be a competent mineralogist, one must have a rather extended knowledge both of inorganic chemistry and of the science of crystallography, which, fascinating as it is to study, involves some technical knowledge of mathematics and much laboratory experience. Though necessary to any one who contemplates making a career as a geologist, this special study is not essential to a cultural course like the present one. The attempt will here be made to bring together a body of fact, from the study of which the student may quickly learn to recognize the commonest minerals in their usual varieties. The tests he is to apply are mainly physical, and in place of an elaborate discussion of crystal symmetry, pictures only can be supplied.

To the beginner the usual textbook of mineralogy is difficult to read intelligently, for the reason that for each mineral species it sets before him a catalogue of each physical property in its turn, with little indication of those data which in the individual case have special diagnostic value. None the less, however, the student is advised to consider the several properties of each mineral in a definite order, and the following may serve as well as any: crystal or other form, cleavage, fracture, luster, color, streak, transparency, tenacity, hardness, magnetism, and specific gravity. In endeavoring to connect the specific values of these properties with individual mineral species, the chemical composition and the manner of occurrence are not to be forgotten. It is well for the student to be supplied with a small pocket lens and with a pocket knife the blade of which has been magnetized.

Crystal form.—Some mineral species generally occur in more or less definite crystals—are bounded by definite plane surfaces developed when the mineral was formed; others in groups of interfering crystals or aggregates, in which case the mineral is said to be crystalline; while still others are rarely found crystallized at all. Thus in a given case crystal form may, or may not, be important for the diagnosis of the substance. If a mineral species is usually to be found in crystals, the student should be aware of the fact, and if possible should have a mental picture of the common crystal shape or shapes. Without an extended knowledge of crystallography, this must be supplied him by drawings. Since crystals of most species are apt to be distorted, owing to the fact that some planes within the same group appear upon the crystal with a larger development than others, it is convenient to remember that markings, such as lines or etchings upon the crystal faces, are the same throughout the same group of planes, and in the text figures such groups of planes are indicated by the use of a common letter. For crystalline aggregates such terms as fibrous, radiating, massive, or granular have their usual meanings.

Cleavage.—It is characteristic of most crystals that they break or cleave along certain directions so as to leave plane or nearly plane surfaces, and the luster of the cleaved surface measures the perfection of the cleavage property. It is important always to note how many such directions of cleavage are present, and, roughly at least, at what angles they intersect—whether they are perpendicular to each other or inclined at some other angle. Further, it should be noted whether a given cleavage is perfect, that is, easy, which will be indicated by the thinness of the plates which can be secured. An extremely perfect cleavage is possessed by the mineral mica, whose plates are thinner than the thinnest paper. In the case of imperfect or interrupted cleavage, the fracture surfaces are not plane throughout, but interrupted, the surface “jumping” from one plane to a neighboring parallel one. It is especially important to note whether, in the case of several cleavages possessed by a crystal, all have the same degree of perfection, or whether they exhibit differences.

Fracture.—In minerals with poorly developed cleavage, the fracture surface is described as fracture. Fracture is thus perfect in proportion as cleavage is imperfect. The fracture is described as conchoidal when it shows waving spherical surfaces like broken glass. For fine aggregates the fracture is described as even, uneven, earthy, etc., names which are generally intelligible.

Luster.—This term is applied especially to the manner in which light is reflected from mineral surfaces. The most important distinction is made between those minerals which have a metallic luster and those which have not, the former being always opaque. Other characteristic lusters are adamantine (like oiled glass), vitreous (glassy), resinous, waxy, etc.

Color.—For minerals which possess metallic luster the color is always practically the same, and hence it becomes a valuable diagnostic property. Of minerals which have nonmetallic luster, the color may be always the same and hence characteristic, but in the case of many minerals it ranges between wide limits and sometimes runs almost the entire gamut of hues, yet without appreciable changes in the chemical composition of the mineral.

Streak.—This term is applied to the color of the mineral powder, and is usually fairly constant, even when the surface color of different specimens may vary within wide limits. In the case of fairly soft minerals the streak is best examined by making a mark on a piece of unglazed porcelain (streak stone).

Transparency (diaphaneity).—The terms “transparent”, “translucent”, “subtranslucent”, and “opaque” are used to describe decreasing grades of permeability by light rays. Through transparent bodies print may be read, while translucent bodies allow the light to be transmitted in considerable quantity through them, though without rendering the image of objects.

Tenacity.—This comprehensive term includes such properties as brittleness, flexibility, elasticity, malleability, etc.

Hardness.—Quite erroneous notions are held concerning the meaning of this very common word, which properly implies a resistance offered to abrasion. It is one of the most valuable properties for the quick determination of minerals, since minerals range from diamond upon the one hand—the hardest of substances—to talc and graphite, which are so soft as to be deeply scratched by the thumb nail. For practical purposes it is sufficient to make use of a rough scale of hardness made up from common or well-known minerals. If we exclude the gem minerals, this scale need include but seven numbers, which are: talc, 1; gypsum, 2; calcite, 3; fluor spar, 4; apatite, 5; feldspar, 6; and quartz, 7. A given mineral is softer than a mineral in the scale when it can be visibly scratched by a scale mineral, but will not leave a scratch when the conditions are reversed. If each will scratch the other with equal readiness, the two minerals have the same hardness.

Since it may often be desirable to test mineral hardness when no scale is at hand, the following substitutes may be made use of: 1, greasy feel and easily scratched by the thumb nail; 2, takes a scratch from the thumb nail, but much less readily; 3, scratched by a copper coin and very easily by a pocket knife; 4, scratched without difficulty by a knife; 5, scratched with difficulty by a knife, but easily by window glass; 6, scratched by window glass; 7, scratches window glass with readiness, but a grain of sand may be substituted to represent quartz in the scale.

Magnetism.—Though nearly all minerals which contain important quantities of the elements iron, cobalt, or nickel may be attracted to a strong electromagnet, there are but two common minerals, and these of widely different appearance, whose powder is lifted by a common magnet. Others are, however, lifted after strong heating in the air (ignition), and this is a valuable test.

Specific gravity.—Rough tests of relative weight, or specific gravity, may be made by lifting fair-sized specimens in the hand. Better determinations require the use of a spring balance.

Treatment with acid.—The carbonate minerals react with warm and dilute mineral acid so as to give a boiling effect (effervescence), since carbonic acid gas escapes into the air in the process.

PROPERTIES OF THE COMMON MINERALS

The more important common minerals fall into two classes according as they have large economic importance as ores, or enter in an important way into the composition of rocks.