The Student-Life of Germany

by William Howitt

THE ELEMENTARY, OR PROPER FOLK'S-SCHOOLS.

In matters of school economy, the Catholics in Germany continued far behind the Protestants, because they cherished the notion that diffusion of knowledge amongst the people was dangerous to the state; and therefore most carefully cut off all possible opportunities for advancing popular instruction; whereas the Protestants, on the contrary, from the last half of the eighteenth century, spared no sacrifice for the promotion of such an object. Such men as Campe, Salzmann, Trapp, rendered services to instruction in a more restricted sense, since they began to reduce the science of tuition to a system; but Rochou was the first who undertook, in the spirit of philanthropy, to work a genuine reformation in the Folk's-schools. Then appeared Pestalozzi, who grounded education on the natural developement of the powers and capacities themselves. His system, which proved its worth in the severe trials that it underwent in the hands of Tillich, Plaman, Schwartz, Ewald, Türk, Ladomus, Herbert, Zeller, Harnisch, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Jean Paul, Arndt, Pœlitz, Stephani, Dinter, and others, found, by degrees, general acceptance; and our present school system may with perfect justice be styled the Pestalozzian. But for the necessary preparatory education of teachers themselves, earnest care was soon taken, and a great number of school-teacher seminaries were founded, in which this class of men must study and qualify themselves, and which to them must stand in the same relation as the universities to the professors of scientific and general knowledge. By these means the general improvement of the business of education experienced only accelerating circumstances; and now even Catholic countries, particularly those in which many Protestants dwell, ceased to hang back, and there is now scarcely a place in Germany which does not possess a school; scarcely a state whose government has not thrown out a plan of education more or less adapted to its end. Yes; foreign nations themselves now acknowledge the preeminence of Germany in school economy.

On a closer inquiry into the organization of these proper Folk's-schools, the great variety of the same however strikes us, and we cannot here omit to notice a circumstance which is of the most essential importance. In many--yes, in most of the country schools, are the school establishments subdivided according to the different confessions of faith; and this circumstance extends itself even to the schools of the smallest villages. Although the greater part of these are placed under the jurisdiction of a High Board, and are formed, more or less, on a common plan, yet the disadvantage is not to be denied, which must necessarily result from such a system of subdivision. We have observed above how much all Catholic countries lay behind in popular enlightenment, which alone flourishes through popular instruction; and we must, we regret to say, remark that this sorrowful experience again manifests itself as an attribute of these aforesaid school institutions. How very different is it in the Protestant schools! If unlimited freedom of teaching is given to those as well as these, yet the opinions taught are very different, and the consequences of an all-too scrupulous observation of dogmatic forms, not the most agreeable, are seen in the Catholic schools. On the contrary, the Protestant schools follow, free from constraint, every direction of the mind, and the foundation of a philosophical system is here first discernible.

In strong contradistinction to both these, stand the so-called Communal-schools, as those which are intended for children of each denomination. These schools, wherever they exist, exert the most beneficent influence on the people. The foundation pillars of all human happiness. Tolerance and Intelligence, find here the securest guarantees for their enduring existence; since, however much men have striven or may strive to counteract them, it continues still incontestably true, that the first impressions on the minds of children are the most vivid and permanent, and the spirit in later years of life pursues its course in accordance with such impressions. It requires no demonstration to show how rich in blessings is such a school system; and the reader will excuse us turning now to a further pursuit of our theme.

It is particularly to be observed, that various attempts have been made to extend these school regulations so far as to allow boys and girls to be taught altogether in one and the same class. Such experiments were, however, for the most part confined to such places where the circumstances entirely permitted their trial, which was only here and there; and such school dispositions yet exist. But generally, the instruction is given to boys and girls in one building, but in separate rooms.

Before we cast a glance at the mode of school tuition, we will passingly remark, that in most German towns there are, besides the proper Folk's-schools, many establishments for boys and girls, as well for elementary as for more complete education. These stand, however, in no connexion with the Folk's-schools, and do not profess in the slightest degree to employ the same machinery. Yet these educational establishments in the present time deserve so much attention, that to say only what is barely necessary upon them would lead us too far.

The subjects of instruction in the Folk's-schools are these: reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, natural history, history; in the higher classes, mathematics, geometry; instruction in the German language;--extended also to a higher style of penmanship, drawing, and music, seldom more than choral singing, and instruction in religion, which last is not given by the teachers but by the pastors of the respective faiths.

When each branch of education has not its individual teacher appointed in these schools, the charge of such instruction is consigned to a teacher expressly qualified for it. Mistresses are also appointed for the girls, as well to teach them the ordinary school branches, as hand-work. Of this organization, however, the schools only of the larger cities can boast themselves. In most of the German towns, the parents are obliged to send their children into the schools from their sixth year. If they wish to give to their children an education in another place, more particularly if they would have them privately educated, or would send them to some particular institution, they must for that purpose ask permission of the proper Board. On the part of persons of high position, or of great property, this is very frequently the case, but they are seldom on this account exempt from the payment of the school impost, as this defrays part of the expense of the system, and has, therefore, to be well looked after by government.

The schools are divided into classes, according to the respective studies; that is, into systematic divisions, according to the circumstances of the increasing evolutions of the subjects of study. No age qualifies a child to advance into a higher class, but capacity and acquirement alone. And in order to give to the parents an account of the activity of the school system, as well as of the acquirements of the scholars in particular, annual examinations are held publicly, in which what has been taught and learned is brought forward with all possible despatch, and at which the parents are present, that they may convince themselves of the truth of the matter. These public examinations at the same time serve to excite the scholars to activity, as rewards for diligence and good conduct are distributed, and thus a moral value is added to the political one of these institutions. Whatever relates to the arrangement of these schools in their outward form, in their connexions and relations to the state, and the like, in a word, whatever belongs to the administration of the whole, may, in running our observations through them, be pronounced to be a good.

All the teachers are placed under the control of an upper teacher: in cities where there are at the same time gymnasia, commonly under the director or rector of the same; or they are under the special oversight of the principal clergymen of the respective faiths. These are, again, dependent on the school college, or Upper Council of Studies, which, in connexion with the Upper Consistorium, constitutes the highest Board. In how far this whole arrangement constitutes one complete and homogeneous scheme of education institutions, including the universities themselves, we will hereafter take an opportunity to point out; we now proceed to describe the higher institutions for instruction which are expressly intended for the people. The next in order are

THE REAL SCHOOLS;[^[27]]
CALLED ALSO MIDDLE SCHOOLS, HIGHER BÜRGER SCHOOLS, ETC.

The origin of these schools we owe, as we have said, to Bassedow, who transplanted the ideas of Rousseau to Germany, which found, by degrees, a complete introduction, especially amongst the tradespeople; yet the Real-schools of that period--the end of the last century, are by no means to be considered as synonymous with the present ones, although they then excited a general interest and acquired for themselves a tolerably high position. They agree entirely in this, that they were schools for those who were not intended to go forward to the universities, and yet whose future destinations demanded, in some measure a higher education than ordinary. The subjects of instruction in them were particularly--geography, history, the natural sciences, calculation, technology, etc. The first, however, in a more extended range than in the lower class of Folk's-schools; these, as they at present exist, and especially such as are organized on the most recent plans, are not merely higher Bürger-schools, but indeed such as might qualify for an academical course. People are, however, far from agreed upon the rights of these schools; upon the determination of their relations to the gymnasia, the universities, etc.; at least, in many German states, great debates have arisen upon this debatable point, and which are yet by no means brought to a conclusion.

The Real-schools divide themselves into Higher Gewerb[^[28]]--Polytechnical Institutions--and Provincial Real-schools, or Higher Bürger Schools.

Now it is evident, that in consequence of the assumption of the higher subjects of tuition, as foreign languages, the higher mathematics, physics, etc., by the first institutions, a disadvantage may occur to the Gymnasia, insomuch as all those who are expressly educated for branches of state official service, for offices of finance, of the forests, of general administration, etc., are educated in the Gymnasia. These, and other reasons which we will explain, in noticing the Gymnasia, have been, and probably will long continue to be the causes, that no result sufficiently satisfactory to both parties, however much desired, can be arrived at. But the decidedly advantageous influence which the collective body of Real-schools exert, and which it will more and more extend by still continually extending its sphere of action, is not, however, to be mistaken; and if this excites a spirit of hostility, there cannot be a more palpable reason assigned for it than that which is drawn from a rich experience by a great philologist, and thus expressed:--"What is new is not always wholesome; but even the necessary new, and which afterwards proves itself to be an actual advance, is certain in its commencement to be attacked."

Let us now glance at the internal arrangements of these schools; and indeed of the Higher Gewerb-schools--literally Trade schools--as the so-called provincial Real-schools are neither more nor less than better elementary schools, or rather schools preparatory to the Higher Gewerb-schools; and as so many of the real branches of education are undertaken in them. To these provincial or preparatory schools belong the teaching of physics, natural history, the elements of chemistry, modelling, book-keeping, etc.; instruction in the French, English, and Latin languages; drawing and singing; the former subjects, however, only in the higher classes. The subjects of tuition in the Higher Gewerb, or technical schools, are, on the contrary, mathematics, algebra, plane trigonometry, analytical geometry in all its branches and modes of practical application; higher algebra, differential and integral calculus, plan-drawing and machine-drawing, botany and zoology, and physiology of plants, geognosy, geology; experimental chemistry, technical chemistry, analytical chemistry, practical chemical operations; mineralogy; mechanics, statistic and dynamic, experimental physics, free hand-drawing, modelling in wood and metal, and instruction in German, French, English and Latin languages, and history.

It may easily be seen, from this glance at the subjects of instruction, how comprehensive these educational institutions are. To attempt to describe the advantages that they afford would lead us too far, and lies out of our track; but the subject deserves the attention of the whole civilized world, as its consequences must become continually more striking. The circumstances of our times demand a real education; that is, in the practical arts and sciences. One has long ceased to desire that every man shall be every thing; one wishes rather that every one should be qualified to fill with ability his particular post. The philosophical school compulsion which rules in the Gymnasia is here entirely nonexistent. The all-sided human accomplishment which the Gymnasia aim at, and ought to aim at more or less, is not arrived at in these schools, because it is contrary to their object and intention; but on the other hand, they afford the opportunity more thoroughly to throw the minds of the scholars on those subjects which are the most congenial to them, and which will consequently be most serviceable to them in their profession. We ourselves, far from being admirers of a too strict, and therefore forced and one-sided practical education, cannot help calling to mind the splendid proofs of the advantageous and excellent working of these praiseworthy schools, since they have impressed us with the conviction that in this manner able men have been educated not only for the state, but for science, notwithstanding the short time that these institutions have flourished.