"Forging" or "Clacking."

This is not an injury but an annoyance. It is the noise made by the striking of the hind shoe against the front as the horse is trotting. Horses "forge" when young and green, when out of condition or tired. As a rule, a horse that makes this noise is a slovenly goer, and will cease to annoy when he gets strength and goes up to his bit. Shoeing makes a difference, and in some cases at once stops it. The part of the front shoe struck is the inner border round the toe. ([Fig. 77]). The part of the hind shoe that strikes is the outer border at the inside and outside toe. ([Fig. 78]).

Fig. 77.—Toe of Fore Shoe. The arrows mark the place struck in "forging."

Fig. 78.—Toe of Hind Shoe showing the edge which strikes the Fore Shoe.

Fig. 79.—Toe of Fore Shoe with inner border bevelled off.

To alter the fore shoe, round off the inner border; or use a shoe with no inner border such as the concave hunting shoe To alter the toe of the hind shoe is useless, but by using a level shoe without calkins some advantage is gained. A so-called "diamond-toed" shoe has been recommended. It is not advisable as it does no good except by causing its point to strike the sole of the front foot. If by such a dodge the sound is got rid of it is only by running the risk of injuring the foot.

[CHAPTER IX.]
Shoeing Bad Feet.

Any average farrier can shoe without immediate harm a good well-formed foot that has a thick covering of horn, but when the horn is deficient in quantity or quality injury soon takes place if a badly fitted shoe be applied. There are feet which from disease or accident or bad shoeing have become, more or less, permanently damaged. Some are seriously altered in shape. Some are protected only by an unhealthy horn, and some show definite changes which cause weakness at a special part. These are the feet which really test the art of the farrier, for he must know just what to do and what not to do, and must possess the skill to practice what he knows.

Flat Feet. Some horses are born with flat feet, others acquire them as the result of disease. Too often the flat sole has another defect accompanying it—low weak heels. Such feet are best shod with a seated shoe so as to avoid any uneven pressure on the sole, and the shoes should always be fitted a little longer than the bearing-surface of the foot, so as to avoid any risk of producing a bruise at the heel—in other words, of causing a corn. The seated shoe is not advisable on a hunter. The concave shoe used for hunters has many distinct advantages and only one disadvantage for a flat foot, viz, that it has a wide flat foot-surface. It may cause an uneven pressure at the toe on a flat sole, but this is easily avoided by not making it too wide; perhaps the very worst thing to do with a flat foot is to try and make it look less flat by paring it down. The thinner the horn the greater the chance of injury to the sensitive parts under it, and every injury tends to make the sole weaker. Leaving the sole strong and thick, whilst fitting the shoe to avoid uneven pressure, is the principle of shoeing to be adopted with flat feet.

Convex Soles. The sole of the foot should be concave, but as the result of disease many feet become convex. This bulging or "dropping" of the sole varies in degree from a little more than flat to an inch or so below the level of the wall. When the under-surface of a horse's foot resembles in form the outside of a saucer, fitting a shoe becomes a work of art. Very often the wall is brittle and broken away and it is most difficult to find sufficient bearing-surface on the foot for a shoe. Many of these feet may be safely shod with a narrow shoe that rests only on the wall and the intermediate horn between the wall and sole. Such a shoe may, according to the size of the foot, be five-eighths or even three-quarters of an inch wide. Its thickness is to be such as will prevent the sole taking any direct bearing on the ground, and sometimes a shoe of this form is much thicker than it is wide. The advantage of this shoe is that it is so narrow that any bearing on the sole is avoided. The disadvantage is that on rough roads the sole may be bruised by the flint or granite stones. When the horn of a "dropped" sole is very thin, or when the horse has to work on roads covered with sharp loose stones, some cover for the sole is necessary and the narrow shoe is not practicable. To provide cover for the sole, the web of the shoe has to be wide, and, therefore, the foot-surface of the shoe must be seated out so as to avoid contact with the sole. Too often the seating is continued from the inner to the outer border of a shoe, so that no level bearing-surface is provided for the wall to rest on. This kind of shoe is like the hollow of a saucer, and when applied to a foot is certain to cause lameness soon or later. Each time the horse rests his weight on it the hoof is compressed by the inclined surface of the shoe, which instead of providing a firm bearing-surface affords only an ingenious instrument of torture.

Fig. 80.—Improper bearing surface.

Fig. 80.—A level bearing surface.

In even the worst of these deformed feet some good sound horn is to be found at the heels, where an inch or sometimes two can be utilised for level bearing. No matter how much seating is required at the toe and quarters, the heel of the shoe may always be made level.

It cannot be too strongly urged that in the preparation of feet with bulging soles no horn is to be removed from the sole. The toe is to be shortened, the heels lowered proportionately, and the bearing-surface of the wall made level with a rasp. At no place must the shoe rest on the sole. In nearly every case the toe is left too long and the bearing taken upon it by the shoe only increases the deformity. In many feet a large slice might be sawn off the toe with advantage, as the sensitive foot is separated from the wall by a mass of diseased horn which presses the wall at the toe forward. ([Fig. 81]).

Fig. 81.—Deformity resulting from Laminitis.

Fig. 81.—Section showing how front of wall is separated from sensitive laminæ.

Sandcracks. This is the name given to cracks in the wall which commence at the coronet and extend downwards. From their position at the toe, or at the side of the hoof, they are sometimes called respectively "toe-cracks" and "quarter-cracks." The crack may be very slight and may exist without causing lameness. It may appear suddenly, accompanied by great lameness and by the issue of blood from between the edges of the divided wall. These are grave cases which require surgical attendance. Sandcracks are most commonly seen in dry brittle feet, and the horses most subject to them are those employed in heavy draught work. Railway shunt-horses and omnibus horses are very liable to be troubled with sandcracks in the toe of the hind feet.

In shoeing for this defect there are two things to avoid, (a) not to place any direct pressure on the part; (b) not to fit a shoe which will tend to force the crack open. Following these lines it is well not to put a clip exactly over a crack. If at the toe place a clip each side of the crack, and never use calkins or high heels which throw the weight forward. If at the quarter avoid a spring-heeled shoe which permits the downward movement of the foot behind the crack and so forces it open. In all cases, after fitting the shoe level to the foot, remove a little more horn just below the crack so as to relieve the direct bearing on the part. ([Fig. 82]).

Fig. 82.
A—Horn removed to prevent pressure.
Bearing relieved at wrong place by "springing" the heel.

In the case of crack extending the whole space of the wall some provision should always be made to keep it from opening, because every step of the horse, especially when drawing a load, causes an outward pressure at the coronet. This pressure forces the hoof apart and the injury caused does not cease with the pain and lameness which follow, and which may be temporary. Doubtless the original cause of a sandcrack is some morbid condition of the coronary band—the band from which the wall grows. The sensitive laminæ are at first not affected further than by the inflammation consequent upon the direct tearing which occurs when the crack takes place. The continued irritation, kept up by a persistent fissure in the horn covering the laminæ, soon causes other serious changes which tend to make the sandcrack a permanent disease. Thus even the smallest crack should be attended to and measures adopted to prevent its enlargement or, when extensive, to limit all opening and shutting movement of the hoof.

Fig. 83.—French Clips in Position.

This is sometimes attempted by a simple leather strap tightly applied, or by binding the foot with string or tape. Tape is less liable to slip than string. When the hoof is sufficiently thick two nails may be driven in opposite directions transversely through the crack and clinched; or French sandcrack-clips ([Fig. 83]) may be used which are easily applied. The instruments necessary are shown below ([Fig. 84]). The iron (b) is made red-hot and pressed on the hoof over the crack so as to burn a groove each side of it. Into these grooves the clip (a) is put and the pincers (c) are then used to compress the clip firmly into its place. There is a strain upon the clips, and sometimes one breaks. It is therefore necessary always to use two, and for an extensive crack three may be employed.

Fig. 84.

All these appliances tend to keep the lips of the crack from separating, but they do not prevent the edges of a deep wide crack from being forced together and thus pinching the sensitive parts. To provide against this injury a slip of hard wood may be fitted into the crack, and then the nails or clips may be more safely drawn tight without fear of injury, and with a better chance of preventing any movement in the edges of the crack. To insert the wood, the crack is converted into a groove nearly as deep as the wall, about three-eights of an inch wide, with straight sides, or better still, with a little greater width at the bottom than at the surface. Into such a groove a piece of wood formed to fit it is gently driven from below and rasped off to fit exactly. Or, softened gutta-percha may be pressed firmly into the space and levelled off when cold.

To "cut out" a sandcrack except for the purpose of refilling it is bad practice as it favours movement and helps to make the defect permanent. To rasp away the horn so that only a thin layer is left is also injurious. No horn should be removed except for the fitting of a plug as above described or, under veterinary direction, for the purpose of giving vent to matter which has formed within the hoof.

In many European countries a shoe is used for toe-cracks which has two clips drawn on the inside border of the shoe at the heels. These clips catch the bars of the hoof and prevent the heels of the foot closing in. The idea is that when the wall at the heels contracts, there is a tendency for the wall at the toe, if separated by a crack, to open. [Fig. 85] shows the position of the clips which must be carefully fitted so as to rest on the inside of the bars. Mr. Willis, V.S., has tried these shoes and speaks well of their utility.

Fig. 85.—Shoe with Heel Clips for Sandcrack.

When the crack is in the quarters of the foot, it is not the tendency to expansion of the hoof that has to be guarded against. It is the downward motion of the heels that forces open a crack in this position. The farrier provides against this by taking care to have a firm bearing of the shoe on the hoof behind the crack as shown in A [figure 82].

Contracted Feet. Some diseases of the foot lead to contraction of the hoof, which is most noticeable round the coronet and at the heels. Any long continued lameness which prevents the horse placing the usual weight on the foot may be accompanied by contraction. Constant cutting away of the bars and paring the frog so that it takes no contact with the ground also leads to shrinking in of the heels. By lowering the heels and letting the frog alone many feet will in time widen out to their proper size, but no system of shoeing is so good for contracted feet as the use of tips, which leave the whole back part of the hoof to take direct bearing on the ground.

Many shoes have been invented for forcing open the heels of contracted feet. Some have had a hinge at the toe and a movable screw at the heel. Some have had the bearing-surface at the heels made with a slope outwards, (See [Fig. 53], [page 74]) so that the weight of the horse should constantly tend to force the heels apart. There is no necessity for any of these contrivances. A properly fitted tip (See [page 78]) will permit the hoof gradually to expand to its healthy size and form.

Seedy-toe. This is a condition of the wall usually found at the toe but not uncommon at the quarters. It is not common in hind feet but occurs sometimes. When the shoe is removed a separation is noticed between the sole and the wall, and this separation may extend up the wall nearly to the coronet. As a rule the space so formed is a narrow one, but it may be wide enough to admit three fingers of a man's hand. Probably all seedy toes result from some injury or disease of the coronary band from which the wall grows, and the first appearance is not a cavity but a changed and softened horn, which may be dry and crumbly, or moist and cheesy. The diseased horn may be scraped out and the cavity filled with tar and tow. The wall bounding the cavity should be relieved of all pressure on the shoe, and if a radical cure be desired all the unattached wall should be cut away. This, however, should be done under veterinary guidance.

Turning in of the Wall. By this expression, I mean those cases of weak low-heels in which the border of the wall turns inward. Such a form of horn offers no suitable bearing for a shoe, and if submitted to pressure by a shoe gets worse. Too often this condition is treated by paring away the sole within, which increases the deformity. The sole should not be cut but be left as strong as possible. The curled-in border of the wall should be cut down and all bearing taken off the shoe. In one or two shoeings the wall will resume its proper form. When both heels are so affected, and the horse has to remain at work, only one heel must be treated at a time. The extreme point of the heel is never affected, and affords a point for bearing when the border of wall in front of it is cut away so as not to touch the shoe.

[CHAPTER X.]
Leather and Rubber Pads.

In the days when farriers were driven by theoretical teachers to pare out the soles and otherwise rob the foot of its natural covering of horn, artificial protection had frequently to be given to the foot. A horse with a thin sole could not travel over rough roads, on which sharp loose stones were plentiful, without great risk of injury; consequently in those times plates of leather were often used to protect the foot. When a horse went "a little short" his owner not unnaturally concluded that he had bruised his foot and that the protection of a leather sole would be beneficial. In many cases the defective action was due to other cause than bruising, but still the leather was adopted, and it soon became an accepted theory that leather soles modified concussion and protected the foot from jar. This is more than doubtful, and I hold a very firm opinion that a plate of leather between the shoe and the foot has no such effect, whilst it interferes with the exactness of fit of the shoe. "Leathers" are useful on weak feet to protect a thin or defective sole from injury. When the under surface of a foot has been bruised, cut through, or when it is diseased, leather offers a useful protection, but when the sole is firm and sound it is quite unnecessary.

To apply leather properly, a square piece fully the size of the shoe is taken. A portion is then cut out where the clip has to fit and all protruding parts cut away level with the border of the shoe. If applied without more precautions, an open space would be left between leather and sole into which mud and grit would find their way and the leather would soon be cut through by resting on the irregular surface of the frog. To prevent this mischief the under surface of the foot is made level before the shoe is applied. The leveling is managed by spreading a paste of tar and oatmeal over the sole, and filling up the space at the sides of the frog with tow. Then the shoe with the leather is nailed on in the usual manner.

The belief in leather as an anti-concussive appliance has led to the use of what are called "ring-leathers." These are not plates covering the whole under surface of the foot but narrow bands fixed between shoe and hoof. They are absolutely useless, in fact their only possible effect is to spoil the fit of the shoe. Plates of india-rubber have been tried between the shoe and the foot as preventives of concussion. They invariably fail by reason of their effect upon the shoe. At each step when the weight of the horse comes on the foot the elastic rubber yields, the shoe is pressed closer to the foot, the nails are loosened, and when the foot is raised the rubber rebounds. The shoe soon becomes so loose that it is cast or torn off. Nothing elastic should be placed between shoe and foot. When an elastic or spring is applied it must be between the shoe and the ground.

Various arrangements have been adopted to supply the horse's foot with some provision against concussion. Injured and diseased feet may no doubt be benefitted by some elastic appliance which secures them from the jar of contact on a hard road. They may be protected against direct bruise. The healthy foot requires no such protection. Nature has covered it with a thick layer of horn and has provided against concussion by quite other means—by the co-ordinate action of muscles, by the oblique position of the pastern and by the construction of the back part of the foot.

Quite apart from any attempt to prevent concussion a valuable use has been found for india-rubber pads in connection with horse-shoeing. The improvement in modern road-surfaces has been accompanied by an increased facility for slipping, and it has been found that no material gives such security of foot-hold on smooth surfaces as india-rubber.

The earliest of these contrivances with which I am acquainted was formed so as to leave the frog uncovered whilst a bearing of rubber was given all round the inner circumference of the shoe. This pad had a wide flat border which fitted under the shoe, with which it was nailed on to the foot. Its great objection was that it could not be nicely fitted on many feet without first cutting away the bars.

Then we had rubber pads which were not nailed on with the shoe, but which fitted into the shoe and were removed at will. The objection to these was that they could only be used with a seated shoe and could not be applied with a narrow shoe or one possessing a flat foot-surface.

The next form to appear was a leather sole on which an artificial frog was fixed. Great difficulty was at first experienced in fixing this frog so that it remained firm. The difficulty has not yet been surmounted by all makers, but Mr. G. Urquhart, of London, makes a most reliable article. These "frog-pads" certainly give a very good foot-hold on all kinds of paved streets.

Fig. 86.—Frog-pad.

A pad of very elegant appearance is "Sheather's Pneumatic." It is not solid like the ordinary frog-pad but hollow and is compressed at each step but immediately resumes its prominent form on being relieved of pressure.

Fig. 87.—Sheather's Pad.

One of the simplest anti-slipping pads is "Balls & Keep's Wedge-pad." It possesses one advantage in not covering up the whole under-surface of the foot. When properly fitted it is firmly retained and does its work, but a careless farrier may so apply it that it shifts on the foot. To fit it exactly the wall of the back part of the foot must be lowered more than that in front, so that shoe, foot and pad may all be closely adjusted.

Fig. 88.—Wedge-Pad.

Fig. 89.—Pad with Shoe attached.

What is called the "Bar-pad" is a leather plate on which an india-rubber pad occupies the whole of the back portion and it is fixed to the foot with a short shoe. This pad is not only an anti-slipping agent, it is anti-concussive, and for some diseases and some injuries of the heels is a most valuable appliance. For long-standing "corns," for cases of chronic laminitis, and for horses that markedly "go on their heels" the bar-pad is without doubt the most efficient arrangement yet invented. The best are made by Mr. Urquhart.

Fig. 90.—Bar-pad with Shoe.

Fig. 91.—Without Shoe.

All these pads increase the cost of shoeing but what they save, by preventing falls and injuries to the horse and fear and anxiety to the driver, far more than balances the account in their favour. The cost however is an item, and inventors have turned their attention to the production of some other methods of applying rubber in connection with the shoe for the prevention of slipping.

Shoes have been manufactured into which cavities of different forms and sizes have been made. These are filled by correspondingly shaped pieces of rubber. The cavity must be so formed as to retain the rubber and this renders the manufacture very difficult except by the employment of malleable cast iron shoes. This is a great disadvantage.

Another plan is to make from rolled bar iron, a hollow shoe, section of which would be U-shaped but level to the foot. Into the groove so formed a thick cord of rubber is placed after the shoe is nailed on the foot. This wears well and affords good foot-hold but it entails the serious objection that the nails are difficult to drive and far from being so safe as in the ordinary shoe. If rubber is ever to be available in a grooved shoe it should be designed so that the nails and nail holes are not interfered with.

[CHAPTER XI.]
Shoeing Competitions.

The Agricultural Societies that have made Horse-shoeing Competitions a feature of their Annual Shows have distinctly done good to the art. In those districts which have had the benefit of these competitions for many years past, horse-shoeing is best done. In those districts where no competitions have been held shoeing is generally badly done. When the farrier takes a pride in his work he is more careful with details. Provided proper principles are adopted, no calling is more dependent upon care in details for the best results than that of the farrier. Competitions stimulate emulation amongst men. Public appreciation, as displayed by the prominence given to the art by the Show authorities and by the admiring crowd that generally assembles to see the men at work, encourages a feeling of responsibility and gratifies the natural and honest pride of the workman. Very few trades have suffered more from public neglect and indifference than that of the farrier.

The success of a shoeing competition depends almost entirely upon the secretary of a show, unless that officer has amongst his stewards an energetic horseman who has grasped the importance of good shoeing and who possesses some organising powers. In this connection I may perhaps offer a word of acknowledgement for the work done by Mr. Clay, to whose energy and skill the Royal Agricultural Society has for many years been indebted for the success of its valuable annual shoeing competition.

All the arrangements for the competition must be completed before the work is commenced, and upon their perfection depends the success of the whole thing. There should, if possible, be two classes—one for heavy horses and one for light horses. At large competitions there should also be a champion class. There are farriers who travel from show to show and generally appear in the prize list. This handicaps the local men, and is not encouraging to those who have not quite risen to front rank. The object of the competition is to improve the work of the district, and it is quite a question whether the rules should not exclude men who have taken, say, two first prizes at any large competition. The only argument in favour of letting the well known smith who has taken many prizes enter a competition is that his work may be seen, examined and imitated. By confining prize winners to the champion class this good would be attained; at the same time more encouragement would be given to local men.

The necessities for a competition include anvils, fires, tools, iron and horses.

For every five men there should be one anvil with its accompanying vice and forge. The anvil should be so placed that the sun is not full on the face of the workman. The exact relative position of anvil, vice and forge should be entrusted to a practical farrier, and the whole placed the night before they are wanted. Coal, nails and iron should also be provided. If competitors are allowed to bring their own iron or nails some poor man may be placed at a disadvantage, and the habitual competitor, versed in every detail, is given an advantage. Each man should bring all smaller tools he may want. In broken weather a canvas roof should be supplied both for horses and workmen. At all times a temporary wooden floor should be put down for the horses to stand upon. This should be a little longer than the line of anvils so that each man has his horse opposite his anvil. It should be at least twelve feet deep so that there is room enough behind and in front of the horses for men to pass. On the side farthest from the anvils a firm rail must be fixed to which the horses' halters may be tied, and outside of this—at least six feet distant—should be another line of post and rails to keep back spectators.

Horses have to be borrowed or hired, and one horse is sufficient for two competitors. Care should be taken not to have any horse with unusually bad feet. The most suitable horses are those with overgrown hoofs. Under no circumstances should a vicious or very fidgety horse be selected.

When time is not an object, the best test of a workman is to require him to make a fore and hind shoe and put them on the horse. At a one-day show, or at a competition when the entries are large, it is sufficient to require the making of a fore and hind shoe and the fitting and nailing on of the front one. A reasonable time should be fixed, and undue haste should be deprecated.

There should always be two judges, who should be supplied with books in which each division of the operation of shoeing should be separately marked. There are only three important divisions of the subject: (1) Preparation of the Foot, (2) Making the Shoes, and (3) Fitting and nailing on.

Sometimes these operations are marked separately for fore and hind feet. I consider this quite unnecessary. There is not sufficient difference either in principle or detail to require each foot to be specially marked. The judge of course notes every thing in his mind, and it is sufficient for him to estimate and mark the value of the work under the three different operations. The great fault I find with most competitions is that "the preparation" of the foot for the shoe is not more strictly defined. The competitors are permitted to mix up the "preparation" and the "fitting." Some of them do nothing to the foot until they commence to fit the shoe. This is wrong, and every foot should be properly prepared—the bearing-surface formed and the proportions of the hoof attended to—before the fitting is attempted. A rule to this effect should be added to the conditions in the schedule of the competition. Each judge may perhaps be permitted to fix his own standard of marking but a uniform system would be useful for comparison. If the maximum be indicated by too small a figure difficulty often arises in exactly determining the merits of men who have come out equal in the totals, and there is too often, in a large class, a number whose marks are about equal. The three operations—preparing the foot, making the shoe, fitting and nailing on—are about equal in value. A maximum of five points in each is too small a number to make distinctive marking easy, but there is nothing gained by adopting a higher maximum than ten. A marking sheet for the judges of a shoeing-competition may be something in this form:

Class——

No. of
Competitor.		Preparation
of Foot.		Making
Shoe.		Fitting and
Nailing on.		Total.Remarks.

The stewards should see that each competitor has a number, and that the same number is attached to the side of the horse on which he works. The steward also should take the time at which each batch of competitors commence and see that none exceed it.

Excessive rasping of shoes should be prohibited, and the men should see the sizes and kinds of nails provided so that they may make their "fuller" and nail holes accordingly.

Shoeing competitions are almost entirely confined to country districts. It is a great pity that they are not attempted in large towns. The only difficulty is the expense. It would well repay large horse-owners to subscribe and support this method of improving the art.

In conclusion I must say that the best of all ways to improve the art is by giving practical instruction at the anvil. A few lessons from a competent practical teacher are worth more than all books or lectures, as the work has then to be done, errors are pointed out and corrected, and reasons given for each step as it is attempted.

The Berkshire County Council has adopted a travelling forge—the suggestion of Mr. Albert Wheatley, V.S., of Reading—which is accompanied by an instructor and passes from town to town and village to village. In this way is supplied the tuition which used to be obtained by apprenticeship to a good workman. Other County Councils should adopt this method.

THE END.

[INDEX.]

GRIP (Regd.)
FROG
PATENT BAR
RING.

URQUHART'S
Patent Horse-Shoe Pads

Prevent Slipping, Cure Corns, Contracted and Diseased Feet.

Economise the wear and tear of legs through absence of concussion.

Developes the healthy functions of the feet.

Cure Bent Legs, Sprained Tendons—a great saving in horse flesh.

SIZES—FROG AND BAR 0 to 6; GRIP AND RING 1 to 5.

Hind Shoe Pads kept in stock to order.
Pads made to any size required at shortest notice.

"India-rubber pads on leather enable many horses, whose feet are not sound, to work free from lameness; they also tend to prevent slipping. This is especially the case with Urquhart's 'bar pads,' respecting which my veterinary friends at Manchester, where they are largely used, inform me that they prevent slipping quite as much if not more, than the Charlier plan of shoeing horses."—Mr. T. D. Broad, F.R.C.V.S., of Bath.

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7/8-in.
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