General Anatomy, Applied to Physiology and Medicine, Vol. 3 (of 3)

by Xavier Bichat

VOLUME FIRST.

	PAGE.
Preface by the Translator.	5
Preface by the Author.	ib.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Of Animate and Inanimate Beings.—Of their Laws.—Of the Sciences which treat of their Phenomena.	9
I. General Remarks upon the Physiological and Physical Sciences.
The differences between these sciences are derived from the properties which preside over the phenomena.—The necessity of always connecting the second with the first.—Periods at which this progress commenced in the physical sciences. False applications made to the physiological sciences.—The necessity of following in these the same course as in the others.	9
II. Of the Vital Properties, and their influence upon the phenomena of the Physiological and Physical Sciences.
Vital properties considered in the series of living beings.—Of those which animate plants.—Consequences in regard to their diseases.—Of those which belong to animals.—Consequences in regard to their diseases.—Examination of each vital property under the relation of the diseases over which it presides.—Necessity of referring to these properties the action of medicines.—Uncertainty of the Materia Medica.—Each vital property has a particular class of medicines which act upon it.—Proofs.—Inconveniences of describing morbid phenomena and those of medicines in too general a manner.—Consequences of the preceding remarks.	13
III. Characters of the Vital Properties, compared with the characters of the Physical Properties.
Extreme variableness of the first, invariableness of the second.—Consequences of this principle as it regards the phenomena.—There can only be diseases where there are vital properties.—Why.—The progress of the physiological and physical sciences wholly different in this respect.—Differences between animate and inanimate solids and fluids.—The vital properties become exhausted, the physical do not.—Consequences.—The latter are inherent in matter, the others are not.—General remarks upon the enumeration of the differences of animate and inanimate bodies.—Particular remark relative to sympathies.—Their general phenomena.	23
IV. Of the Vital Properties and their Phenomena considered in relation to the Solids and the Fluids.
Division of the fluids into those of composition and those of decomposition.—The vital properties are seated essentially in the solids.—These are the seat of almost all the morbid symptoms.—The fluids however may be affected.—Different attributes of the fluids of composition and of those of decomposition in diseases.—How the alterations of the first may take place.—Of those of the second.—Of the cases in which the solids and the fluids are primarily affected.—Division of diseases in this view.—The question must necessarily be considered in many points of view.—What is true on one side is not so on another.—Of the vitality of the fluids.—What it is.—Their alterations affect their vitality.—New proofs of these alterations.—How the fluids are assimilated and altered.	29
V. Of the Properties Independent of Life.
Properties of texture.—Of contractility by the horny hardening.—Of the agents which put it into action.—It is of two kinds.—Characters of each.—Their differences.—Almost all the solids undergo the horny hardening.—Condition which it requires.—Of the horny hardening during life and after death.—Difference of this contractility from the others.—General remarks.	38
VI. General Observations upon the Organization of Animals.
Of the simple systems.—Necessity of considering them abstractedly.—Their difference of forms.—Their variety of organization, 1st, in the peculiar texture; 2d, in the common parts.—Manner of knowing these differences.—Differences of the vital properties and of texture.—Of the peculiar life.—It cannot be understood of the compound organs, but of the simple systems.—Examples which prove this assertion in the different organs.	44
VII. Consequences of the preceding Principles relative to Diseases.
Each texture can be separately affected in an organ.—This even almost always happens.—Various proofs of this assertion.—Observations upon different diseases.—Sympathies do not take place in an organ as a whole, but in some one texture of this organ.—Why.—Of sympathetic fevers.—The different inflammations vary in each texture.—Phenomena of the different kinds of virus variable from the same cause.—Yet the different textures of the same organ have a certain dependance upon each other.—Proofs.—Diseases chronic and acute.—Differences of diseases in each simple system.—Two classes of symptoms in the local affections.—Their difference.—Varieties of the pain, heat, &c. according to the systems.—What should be understood by acute and chronic affections in the simple systems.—Influence of these considerations upon morbid anatomy.—Defects of the old divisions.—New manner of considering morbid anatomy.	49
VIII. Remarks upon the Classification of the Functions.
Table of this classification.	60
SYSTEMS COMMON TO ALL THE APPARATUS.
General Observations.
Division of the systems.—Systems common to all the apparatus.—Theircharacters.—They form the nutritiveparenchyma of the organs.—Remarks upon nutrition.—Diversity of the nutritive substances.	77
CELLULAR SYSTEM.
General Remarks.—Division.	87
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE ORGANS.
I. Of the Cellular System exterior to each Organ.
Division of the organs in relation to the neighbouringtexture.	88
Of the Cellular System which adheres only to one side of theorgans.
Sub-cutaneous cellular texture.—Arrangement of this texture,1st, upon the median line; 2d, in the differentregions of the body.—Varieties of density and laxity.Uses of the sub-cutaneous texture.—Its fluids.	88
Sub-mucous cellular texture.—Difference of this texturefrom the preceding.—The density of that.—Consequences.
Sub-serous cellular texture.—It is in general loose andabundant.—Why.—Place where it is dense.	92
Cellular texture exterior to the arteries.—Its peculiar natureis analogous to that of the sub-mucous texture.—Its relationswith the arterial fibres.
Cellular texture exterior to the veins.—It is analogous to thepreceding, only less thick.—Remarks.
Cellular texture exterior to the excretory ducts.—The samestructure and arrangement as in the preceding.	96
Of the cellular system considered in relation to the organsthat it surrounds on all sides.—Cellular atmosphere.—Fluidsof this atmosphere.—Insulation of the vitality ofthe organs.—Of this atmosphere considered as a meansfor the propagation of diseases.—It favours the motionof the parts.	96
II. Of the Internal Cellular System of each Organ.
Arrangement of this texture.—Its uses.—Its different proportions.	102
ARTICLE SECOND.
OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM CONSIDERED INDEPENDENTLY OF THEORGANS.
I. Of the Cellular System of the Head.
Cellular texture of the cranium.—It is almost nothing within.—Itscommunications.—Consequences of these communications.—Itis more abundant without.
Cellular texture of the face.—It is very abundant.—Itsuses.—Its communications, &c.	104
II. Of the Cellular System of the Trunk.
Vertebral cellular texture.—It is not abundant in the cavityof the canal.—On the exterior, there is but little behind,and more in front.—Consequences.
Cervical cellular texture.—It is abundant.—Its communications.—Consequences.
Pectoral cellular texture.—It is found especially upon themedian line.—Its communications.—External texture.
Abdominal cellular texture.—Of the parts in which it ismost abundant.—Its communications.
Cellular texture of the pelvis.—It is very abundant.—Why.—Consequences.—Itscommunications.	108
III. Of the Cellular System of the Extremities.
Its different proportions in the superior and the inferior.	112
ARTICLE THIRD.
OF THE FORMS OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM, AND THE FLUIDS ITCONTAINS.
I. Of the Cells.
Their form.—Their capacity.—Their communication.—-Experiments.—Ofthe cellular permeability.—In whatsense it should be understood.	114
II. Of the Serum of the Cellular Membrane.
Proof of its existence.—Its evaporation.—It varies inthe different regions.—Method of ascertaining the proportionsof it.—Experiments.—Nature of this fluid.—Experiments.	117
III. Of the Cellular Fat.
Natural proportions of the fat.—Varieties of its proportionsaccording to the regions, organs, systems, &c—Itspeculiar arrangement in childhood.—Varieties accordingto the other ages.	119
Unnatural proportions of fat.—Its preternatural abundanceindicates weakness.—Different proofs.—Of the causesof the diminution of fat.—Remark upon this diminution.	121
Different states of the fat.—Its degree of fluidity is notduring life in proportion to temperature.—Its consistencein young animals.—Consequences.—Its alterationsby age, diseases, &c.	125
Exhalation of fat.—Different opinions.—The fat is exhaled.—Proofs.—Natureof this fluid.—Relation of itsuses with the places where it exists and with those inwhich it is wanting.	127
ARTICLE FOURTH.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the organization of the Cellular System.
Filaments and layers from which it results.—Method ofseeing them to advantage.—Their nature.—Essentialdifference in the cellular organization.—There are twospecies of cellular texture.	129
Composition of the cellular texture.—Experiments uponthis texture.—Action of the air, water, caloric and thegastric juices.—Experiments.—Of the gases sometimesextricated in the cellular texture.	132
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Cellular Texture.
Blood vessels.—The inaccuracy of injections in demonstratingthem.
Exhalants.—Of the cellular exhalations.—Proofs and phenomenaof these exhalations.
Absorbents.—Cellular absorptions.—Proofs.—The cellulartexture is not wholly formed of absorbents.
Nerves.	136
ARTICLE FIFTH.
PROPERTIES OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—Examples of the different distensions.—Distinctivecharacter of the cellular extensibility.—Itsphenomena.—It becomes nothing in inflammation, chronicengorgements, &c.
Contractility.—Different examples of this property broughtinto action.—Its varieties according to the ages.—Generalremarks.	140
II. Vital Properties.
The animal ones are inconsiderable.—The organic aregreater, except sensible contractility, which howeverexists to a certain extent.
Sympathies.—It is necessary to distinguish them from thephenomena of juxta-position.—Various examples.—Generalobservations.—Vital properties put in actionby the sympathies.
Character of the vital properties.—The vital activity is veryconsiderable in the cellular texture.—Various proofs.—Remarksupon the species.—Difference of vitality inthe two species of cellular texture.	143
III. Properties of Reproduction.
Influence of the cellular texture upon the formation of cicatrices.—Divisionof the periods of the cicatrices.
First period.—Inflammation.—How it takes place.—Its advantages.
Second period.—Fleshy granulations.—Experiments.—Provisionalmembrane of the cicatrices.—Its uses.—Generalphenomena of the internal cicatrices.—Cellularnature of this membrane and of the granulations.—Differentopinions.
Third period.—Suppuration.—What corresponds to it inthe internal cicatrices.—Analogy of these cicatriceswith the external.
Fourth period.—Contraction of the fleshy granulations.—Adhesions.—Consequencesof the preceding principles.—Ofunion by the first intention.	148
Influence of the cellular texture in the formation of tumours.—Cellularnature of all tumours which grow and increase.—Proofs.—Modeof development of these tumours.—Howthey differ from various engorgements,acute and chronic.	157
Influence of the cellular texture in the formation of cysts.—Whatis a cyst.—Its analogy with the serous surfaces.—Itscellular structure.—Mode of its development.	160
ARTICLE SIXTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELLULAR TEXTURE.
I. State of the Cellular System in the First Age.
Mucous mass represented by the cellular texture of thefœtus.—Superabundance of fluid.—This is then thecellular fluid.—Difficulty of emphysema in the fœtus.—Stateof the cellular texture in infancy and youth.—Itsvital energy.—Consequences.	164
II. State of the Cellular System in the After Ages.
Arrangement of the cellular texture in the adult.—Differencesarising from sex.—Degeneracy of this texturein old age.—Withering that it experiences.—Consequences.	167
NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
Division of the nerves into two systems.—Differences ofthese two systems.—General arrangement of that ofanimal life.—Its symmetry.—Relation of size betweenthe nerves and the brain.	169
ARTICLE FIRST.
EXTERNAL FORMS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Origin of the Cerebral Nerves.
In what sense this origin must be understood.—It takesplace, 1st, in the brain; 2d, in the tuber annulare andits dependancies; 3d, in the spinal marrow.—Manner ofthis triple origin.—Of the crossing of the nerves.—Phenomenaof paralysis in regard to this.—Peculiararrangement of the cerebral membranes at the originof the nerves.—Extent, direction and form of the nervesat this origin.	171
II. Course of the Cerebral Nerves.
Communications of the cerebral nerves at their exit from theirosseous cavity.—There are none between the nerves ofthe brain properly called.—The communications beginin those of the tuber annulare.—They are very numerousin those of the spinal marrow.—Arrangement ofthe plexuses which result from them.—Consequencesas it regards descriptive neurology.
Internal communications of the nervous cords.—Manner ofthese communications.—Internal plexus to each nerve.—Consequences.—Differencefrom anastomoses.
Nervous Trunks.—Their course.—Their form.—Theirlength, &c.
Nervous branches, smaller branches, ramifications, &c.—Modeof origin.—Length.—Course, &c.	176
III. Termination of the Nerves.
What is to be understood by it.—Triple mode of termination.
Anastomoses with the same system.—What is to be understoodby anastomoses.—They are rare in this system.—Theycan be referred to three classes.
Anastomoses with the system of organic life.—Terminationin the organs.—Manner of this termination.—Divisionof the organs in this respect.	182
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
Arrangement of the nervous cords.—Their varieties.—Eachnerve has its peculiar organization.—Of the structureof the nervous filaments.
Of the nervous coat and its origin.—How this origin may beseen.—Its triple arrangement at the brain, the tuberannulare and the spinal marrow.—Particular arrangementof the optic nerve.—Remarks upon the pia mater.—Courseof the nervous coat.	185
Action of certainsubstances upon the nervous coat; its resistance,&c.—Action of the acids, water, caloric, and thealkalies.—Resistance of the nervous coat.
Medullary substance; its origin, arrangement and proportions.
Comparison between the medullary substance of the brain andthe nerves.—Effect of desiccation upon each.—Putrefactionand its phenomena.—Absence of the horny hardeningin both.—Action of water upon both.—Action ofthe acids, the alkalies, neutral salts and the digestivejuices.—Difference of the nervous pulp in each part.	190
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Nervous System ofAnimal Life.
Cellular texture.—It is wanting in the nerves, in the craniumand the spine. Elsewhere it is found betweentheir filaments and cords.—Cellular fat.
Blood vessels.—Their arrangement.—Remarks upon theveins.—Of the blood.—Of the nerves.—Action of thisfluid upon them.
Exhalants and Absorbents.—Examination of the opinionupon the exhalation of the nervous coat.—Differentobservations.
Nerves.	199
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Properties of Texture.
They are but very slightly marked.—Remarks upon thenervous distensions.	204
II. Vital Properties.—Properties of Animal Life.
Animal sensibility inherent in the nerves.—Various experimentsupon this sensibility.—Remarks upon that ofthe brain.—Phenomena of the experiments upon thenerves.—Character of the animal nervous sensibility.—Of neuralgias.—Another character of this sensibility.—Experiments.—Consequences.	206
Influence of the nerves upon the animal sensibility of all theorgans.—Distinction of the sensations, in this respect,into external and internal.—Subdivision of the externalinto general and particular.—Part which the nervesperform in each.—Internal sensations.—Uncertaintyrespecting the nervous influence in sensations.—Differencesbetween animal sensibility and contractility.—Ofthe nervous atmosphere.—Uncertainty of this opinion.	211
Animal contractility.—Influence of the nerves upon that ofthe other parts.—How the nerves are the agents of thisproperty.—Different opinions upon the action of thenerves.—Uncertainty of these opinions.—General observations.
Properties of organic life, considered in the nerves.—Theyare slightly marked.—Increase of the size of the nervesin the affections of some parts.—Various experimentsand observations.
Influence of the cerebral nerves upon the organic propertiesof the other parts.—They are foreign to these properties.—Theyhave not there any known influence, 1st,upon the capillary circulation; 2d, upon exhalation;3d, upon secretion; 4th, upon absorption; 5th, uponnutrition.—Different proofs of these assertions.—Remarkson the diseases which affect animal life andthose which affect organic.—Uncertainty of the termnervous influence.	216
Sympathies.—Sympathies peculiar to the nerves.—Differentphenomena of these sympathies.—Sympathies, 1st, betweentwo nerves of the same pair; 2d, between twonerves of the same side; 3d, between the branches ofthe same pair; 4th, between the nerves and differentorgans.—Different examples of these sympathies.	224
Influence of the nerves upon the sympathies of the otherorgans.—Different opinions upon sympathies.—Uncertaintyof these opinions.—Division of sympathies foundedupon that of the vital properties.—Different influenceof the nerves upon each species of sympathy.—Casesin which it is real and those in which it is nothing.	226
III. Properties of Reproduction.
Phenomena of nervous cicatrizations.—Their analogywith other cicatrizations.	233
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
It is much developed.—General remarks.—Inactivity ofthe brain, notwithstanding its development.—Its softness.—Actionof the alkalies upon this organ.—The cerebralnerves are developed in proportion.—Peculiar phenomenonof their development.—This phenomenon isopposite to that of the arteries.—Consequence whichresults from it.	235
II. State of the Nervous System during Growth.
Phenomena at birth.—Influence of the red blood.—Predominanceof the nervous system during childhood.—Consequencesrelative to the sensations, motions andvarious affections.	240
III. State of the Nervous System after Growth.
Phenomenon of puberty.—Phenomena of the followingages.	244
IV. State of the Nervous System in Old Age.
Its action is slight.—State of the brain at this period.—Influenceof this state upon sensibility.—Phenomena ofsensation and motion in old age.	244
NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
GENERAL REMARKS.
How this system should be understood.—The great sympatheticdoes not exist.—Each ganglion forms an insulatedsystem.—This system belongs to organic life.—Itexhibits many irregularities.—The mode of describingit.	249
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE GANGLIONS.
I. Situation, Forms, Relations, &c.
Ganglions that are constant.—Those that are accidental.	253
II. Organization.
Colour.—Difference of the texture of the ganglions fromthat of the brain.—Comparative experiments.—Thistexture is not fibrous.—It differs essentially from thatof the nerves.—Its organic lesions are rare.—Commonparts of this texture.	255
III. Properties.
The ganglions have the organic ones.—The animal appearto be slightly marked in them.—Experiments.—Sympathies.—Nervousaffections of the ganglions.—Thekind of pain of this system.—General remarks.	260
IV. Development.
It does not follow that of the brain.—Influence of thisfact upon the diseases of childhood.—Another differencebetween the ganglions and the brain.	263
V. Remarks upon the Vertebral Ganglions.
Their arrangement.—Obscurity which they throw uponthe functions of this system.	264
ARTICLE SECOND.
OF THE NERVES OF ORGANIC LIFE.
I. Origin.
Manner of this origin.—Method of seeing it.	265
II. Course, Termination, Plexuses.
Of the branches which go to the cerebral nerves.—Ofthose which go to the neighbouring ganglions.—Ofthose which go the muscles.—Of those which form theplexuses.—Arrangement of these last.—Of the filamentswhich go from them.—Their double arrangement uponthe arteries.	267
III. Structure, Properties, &c.
Analogy with the preceding nerves as to texture.—Animalsensibility appears to be less in them.—Experiments.—Sympathiesof these nerves.—General remarks.	271
VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
ARTICLE FIRST.
GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE CIRCULATION.
I. Division of the Circulation.
Circulation of red blood.—General organs.—Direction.
Circulation of black blood.—General organs.—Direction.
Difference of the two circulations.—Their separation is complete.—Oppositionof the lungs to all the parts.
General mechanical phenomena of the two circulations.—Conicalform of the circulatory apparatus.—There are twocones for each circulation.—The heart is placed attheir union as a double agent of impulse.—Its inequalityin this respect.	275
II. Reflections upon the General Uses of the Circulation.
General uses of the circulation of the red blood.—It furnishesthe materials of secretion, exhalation, absorption, &c.—Allthe great phenomena of the economy are derivedfrom it.
General uses of the circulation of black blood.—It repairs thelosses made by the preceding, by the substances whichit receives.—General and opposite attributes of the two—sanguineoussystems.	282
ARTICLE SECOND.
SITUATION, FORMS, AND GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE VASCULARSYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
Of the two portions of this system.—Of their union.—Positionof the agent of impulse compared to the wholebody.	285
I. Origin of the Arteries.
Origin of the aorta.—Peculiar anatomical arrangement ofthis origin.	287
Origin of the trunks, branches, smaller branches, &c.—Numberof the arterial divisions.—Angles of origin.—Proportionof the divisions.	288
II. Course of the Arteries.
Course of the trunks and branches.—Their position, relationand direction.—Motions which they communicate.	291
Course of the smaller branches, ramifications, &c.—Position.—Relations.—Curvatures.—Thesecurvatures have noinfluence upon the motion of the blood.—Proofs.—Usesof these curvatures.	293
Anastomoses of the arteries in their course.—Of the twomodes of anastomoses.—Triple mode of those in whichtwo equal trunks terminate.—Anastomoses with unequaltrunks.—General remarks upon anastomoses.	296
Forms of the arteries in their course.—In what direction theyare conical.—Relation of capacities.	299
III. Termination of the Arteries.
It takes place in the capillary system.—Its varieties accordingto the organs.	300
ARTICLE THIRD.
ORGANIZATION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
Two principal membranes form it.	301
Peculiar membrane of the arteries.—Thickness.—Colour.—Experiments.—Varietiesin the cerebral arteries.—Arterialfibres.—Arrangement of these fibres at theorigin of the branches.—Their nature is not muscular.—Their brittleness.—Their resistance.—General consequences.	302
Action of different agents upon the arterial texture.—Desiccation.—Putrefaction.—Maceration.—Stewing.—Actionof the acids, the alkalies, &c.	308
Membrane common to the system with red blood.—Its differencesin the different regions.—Of the fluid which moistensit.—Its relations.—Its nature.—Its singular dispositionto ossification.—Peculiar phenomena and laws ofthis ossification.—Pathological consequences.	311
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Vascular Systemwith Red Blood.
Blood vessels.—Their arrangement.—They do not appearto go to the internal membrane.	317
Cellular texture.—There are two species of it.—Of thatwhich unites the artery to the neighbouring organs.—Ofthat which is peculiar to it, and which has a peculiarnature.—The arterial fibres are remarkable forhaving none of this texture between them.—Consequences.	318
Exhalants and absorbents.—There does not appear to beabsorption in the arteries.—Experiments.	321
Nerves.—Of the cerebral ones.—Of the organic ones.—Theirproportion.—Their course, &c.	324
ARTICLE FOURTH.
PROPERTIES OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
I. Physical Properties.
Remarkable elasticity.—Its use.—Its differences from contractilityof texture.	322
II. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—1st, of that in the axis; 2d, of that in thediameter.	324
Contractility.—Of that in the axis.—Of that in the diameter.—Itsdifferences from irritability.—Remarks uponthis contractility.—Practical consequences.	326
III. Vital Properties. Properties of Animal Life.
Sensibility.—Experiments upon this property.	329
Contractility.—It is nothing.	ib.
Properties of organic life.—Sensible organic Contractility.—Itis nothing.—Different experiments to prove it.—Mistakesconcerning this property.	330
Insensible organic contractility.—How its influence must beunderstood.—Vital activity is but slightly marked in thearteries.—General consequences.	332
Remarks upon the causes of the motion of the red blood.—Thesecauses appear to be foreign to the arteries.	335
Influence of the heart in the motion of red blood.—Differentproofs of this influence.—Morbid phenomena.—Differentexperiments.—Observations.—General Consequences.	336
Of the limits of the action of the heart.—They appear tobe at the place of the change of the red blood intoblack.—Increasing influence of the arteries upon thered blood in the neighbourhood of the capillaries.	342
Phenomena of the impulse of the heart.—The motion of thered blood is sudden and instantaneous.—Proofs.—Thecontraction of the arteries does not push the blood.—Fromwhat it arises.—The causes of delay are nothing.—Generalremarks.	334
Remarks upon the pulse.—The arterial locomotion has agreat part in it.—Of the accessory causes.—Of thevarieties of the pulse.—General reflections.	348
Sympathies.—They are in general rare in the arteries.—Why.	352
ARTICLE FIFTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
The two systems are then confounded.—There is but onespecies of blood.—How the fœtus can live with blackblood alone.—Peculiar mode of circulation in the fœtus.—Consequenceswhich result from it.—Insensiblechange of this mode of circulation.—How it takes place.—Greatdevelopment of the arteries in the fœtus.	354
II. State of the Vascular System with Red Blood during Growth.
Sudden formation of the red blood at birth.—Changes inthe course of this fluid.—Phenomena and causes ofthese changes.—Predominance of the arteries duringyouth.	364
III. State of the Vascular System with Red Blood after Growth.
Influence of the genital organs.—Varieties of the influenceof the red blood according to the ages.	371
IV. State of the Vascular System with Red Blood during old Age.
Diminution of the arterial ramifications.—The red bloodis less abundant.—The arteries are condensed.—Phenomenaof the pulse.—Of the pulse in the last momentsof life.—Experiments upon this subject.	373
V. Accidental Development of the System with Red Blood.
There are two kinds of it; 1st, Dilatation from an obstacle.2d, Dilatation from any tumour.	377
VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
SITUATION, FORMS, DIVISION AND GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THEVASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
I. Origin of the Veins.
Manner of this origin.—Two orders of veins.	380
II. Course of the Veins.
Examination of this course on the exterior and the interior.	381
III. Proportion of the capacity of the two systems with Blackand Red Blood.
Remarks upon the varieties of venous capacity.—Parallelbetween the two vascular apparatus with red and blackblood in this respect.—General consequences.—Thevelocity is in an inverse ratio of the capacity, &c.
382
Ramifications, small branches, branches, angles of union, &c.—Formsof the Veins.—In what direction these vesselsare conical.—Relations between the branches and theirdivisions.	388
Anastomoses.—They are very frequent.—Why.—Communicationbetween the external and the internal order.—Consequences.—Differentmodes of anastomoses.—Theirnecessity from the numerous obstacles to the course ofthe blood.—Of these obstacles.	392
IV. Termination of the Veins.
Mode of termination in the heart.—Of the two venouscones, the superior and the inferior.—Of their communicationby the azygos.	396
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
Membrane peculiar to the veins.—Manner of seeing it.—Itslongitudinal fibres.—Varieties of these fibres.—Theirnature.—Peculiar arrangement of the cerebral sinuses.	399
Common membrane of the black blood.—Its differences fromthat of the red blood.—More extensibility.—Less thickness.—Nodisposition to ossify.—Consequences.	403
Of the valves of the veins.—Their form.—Their situation.—Veinswhich they occupy.—Their size.—Remarksupon their relations with the caliber of the veins.—Theirvariety.—Their number.	404
Action of reagents upon the venous texture.—Action of theair, water, caloric, the acids, &c.	407
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Vascular Systemwith Black Blood.
Blood vessels. Cellular texture.—Of that which unites theveins to the neighbouring parts.—Of that which ispeculiar to them.	408
Exhalants and Absorbents.—Experiments upon venous absorption.
Nerves.—There are but very few of them.	409
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—It is very evident.—Venous ruptures howevertake place.—Various examples.—Their causesare but obscurely known.	411
Contractility—Of this property in the longitudinal andthe transverse direction.	413
II. Vital Properties.
Properties of Animal Life.—Result of the experimentsupon sensibility.—There is no contractility.	414
Properties of organic life. Sensible Contractility.—It appearsto be but slight.—General remarks.	415
Of the venous pulse.—Of its cause.—It is a reflux.—Doublecause which produces it.	416
Insensible Contractility.—It appears to exist.—The vitalactivity is greater in the veins than in the arteries.—Consequences.	419
Observations on the motion of the black blood in the veins.—Thereis no pulse analogous to that of the arteries.—Agentof impulse of the venous blood.—Causes of delay—Accessorycauses of motion.—Resemblance betweenthe motion of the veins and that of the arteries.	420
Sympathies of the veins.—They are very obscure.	424
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
The veins are less developed in proportion than the arteries.—Why.—Remarks.	425
II. State of this System during Growth and afterwards.
Various phenomena of childhood, adult age, &c.	427
III. State of this System in Old Age.
The veins are much developed in old age.—This developmentis only a dilatation.—Its varieties according todifferent circumstances.	428
IV. Accidental Development of the Veins.
It must be considered, 1st, in tumours; 2d, in the distensionsof the different parts.	430
ARTICLE FIFTH.
REMARKS UPON THE PULMONARY ARTERY AND VEINS.
Though the two kinds of blood are separate, yet themechanical phenomena of their courses are analogousin the aorta and the pulmonary artery, and in thegeneral and the pulmonary veins.	ib.
ARTICLE SIXTH.
ABDOMINAL VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD.
Situation, forms, general arrangement, anastomoses, &c.—Originand termination in the capillaries.—Abdominalportion.—Hepatic portion.—Differences between them.	433
Organization, properties, &c.—Analogy with the veins inthis respect.—Peculiar arrangement in the hepaticportion.—Absence of valves.—Why.	436
Remarks upon the motion of the black abdominal blood.—Comparisonbetween the liver and the lungs.—Theirdifference as it regards the blood that goes to them.—Mechanismof the circulation of this system.—Influenceof the accessory causes.	438
Remarks upon the liver.—It performs another function besidesthe secretion of bile.—Proofs.—We are ignorantof this function.—It must be extremely important.—Variousproofs.—The liver exhibits phenomena that noother gland does.—It is not certain that the black abdominalblood serves for the secretion of bile.—Proofs.—Generalobservations.—Experiments.	440
Remarks upon the course of the bile.—Course of this fluidduring abstinence and during digestion.—Cystic bile.—Hepaticbile.—Reflux towards the stomach during vacuityand fulness.—Experiments.	446
Development.—There is only one vascular system in thefœtus.—It is divided into three at birth.—State of theumbilical vein and the vena porta in the fœtus.—Relativesize of the liver at this period.—Phenomena atbirth.—Different influences of this system in the followingages.	450

END OF CONTENTS TO VOL. I.

---

[VOLUME SECOND.]
CAPILLARY SYSTEMS.

	PAGE.
There are two of them.—Their general arrangement.—Theiropposition.	3
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE GENERAL CAPILLARY SYSTEM.
General arrangement of this system.	4
I. General division of the Capillaries.
Of the organs in which the capillaries contain only blood..	6
Of the organs in which the capillaries contain blood and fluidsdiffering from it.—Serous system taken for an example.—Experimentsby injections.—Various other systemspresent analogous facts.—Proportion of the blood andthe fluids differing from it. ib.
Of the organs in which the capillaries do not contain blood.	8
II. Difference of Organs in respect to the number of theirCapillaries.
There are many classes of organs in this respect.—Whythe capillaries are very much developed in some.—Consequencesas it regards diseases.	9
Remarks upon injections.—Their insufficiency in makingus acquainted with the small vessels.	10
III. Of the proportions which exist in the Capillaries between theBlood and the Fluids that differ from it.
Continual varieties in the proportion.—Cause of thesevarieties.—They are very numerous.	12
Different proportions of blood in the capillaries, according asthe secretions and exhalations are active or passive.—Ofactive and passive exhalations.—Of secretions of thesame nature.—Examination of each.—Proofs thatwherever there is activity, blood enters the capillaries.—Oppositearrangement in the passive phenomena.	13
Consequences of the preceding Remarks.	17
IV. Of the Anastomoses of the General Capillary System.
Mode of these anastomoses.—The capillaries considered inrelation to the vessels with which they communicate.—Influenceof these communications.—Important observationin regard to the examination of dead bodies.—Howacute inflammations disappear at death.	17
V. How, notwithstanding the general communication of the CapillarySystem, the Blood and the Fluids differing from it, remainseparate.
This depends on the different modifications of the organicsensibility.—Proofs.—General remarks.	21
VI. Consequences of the preceding principles, in relation to Inflammation.
Every thing arises, in this affection, from the alterationof the organic sensibility.—Proofs.—Varieties of intensityand nature in inflammations.—Terminations of inflammations.—Ofputrefaction.—Of death.—Of induration.—Ofthe blood which stops in inflamed parts.	24
Differences of inflammation according to the different systems.—Eachhas a peculiar one.—Of those which arethe most disposed to it.—It has peculiar modificationsin each.—Same observation in regard to its terminations.	30
VII. Structure and Properties of the Capillaries.
We cannot ascertain completely the structure.—It hashowever varieties.	33
VIII. Of the Circulation of the Capillaries.
Motions of the fluids in the Capillary System.—The blood isindependent of the action of the heart in the capillaries.—Variousproofs of this assertion.—The bloodcirculates by the influence of the forces of the part.—Varietiesof the motions.—Causes of these varieties.—Influenceof the atmosphere upon the capillary circulation.—Ofthe two kinds of bleeding in relation to thecapillaries and to the trunks.—Circulation of otherfluids than the blood in the capillaries.	34
Phenomena of the alteration of the fluids in the CapillarySystem.—Change of the red blood to black.—Phenomenaof this change.	41
IX. Of the Capillaries considered as the seat of the production ofHeat.
Different hypotheses.—Phenomena of animal heat.—Howit is produced.—Analogy of the production of heatwith exhalation, secretion, &c.—Influence of the differentvital forces.—Explanation of the phenomena ofanimal heat in the state of health and disease.—Sympatheticheat.—Sympathies of heat.—Difference betweenthe two.	43
ARTICLE SECOND.
PULMONARY CAPILLARY SYSTEM.
I. Relation of the two Capillary Systems, Pulmonary and General.
How all the blood of the general system can go throughthe pulmonary.—Difference of one from the other as itrespects the course of this fluid.	55
II. Remarks upon the Circulation of the Pulmonary Capillaries.
Peculiar character of pulmonary inflammations.—Phenomenato which they give rise.—Of the pulmonarycirculation in various other diseases.	58
III. Alteration of the Blood in the Pulmonary Capillaries.	63
IV. Remarks upon the state of the Lungs in Dead Bodies.
Their proportions very various from engorgement.—Theyare hardly ever in the natural state.—Why.—Consequences.	64
EXHALANT SYSTEM.
General Remarks upon the differences of exhalations andabsorptions.	67
ARTICLE FIRST.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE EXHALANTS.
I. Origin, Course and Termination.
Different hypotheses respecting these vessels.—What observationshows us concerning them.	69
II. Division of the Exhalants.
They can be referred to three classes.—Table of theseclasses and their division.	71
III. Difference of the Exhalations.	73
ARTICLE SECOND.
PROPERTIES, FUNCTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXHALANTSYSTEM.
I. Properties.
We are ignorant of those of texture.—The organic arevery evident in it.	74
Characters of the Vital Properties.—They vary in each system.—Consequencesas it regards functions.	ib.
II. Of Natural Exhalations.
They are all derived from the vital properties.—Theyvary consequently like these properties.—Proofs.—Ofsympathetic exhalations.	75
III. Of Preternatural Exhalations.
Sanguineous exhalation.—Hemorrhage of the excrementitiousexhalants.—Hemorrhage from the skin.—Hemorrhagesfrom the mucous surfaces.—They take place by exhalation.—Proofs.—Experiments.—Ofactive and passivehemorrhages.—Differences between hemorrhages byrupture and by exhalation, between those of the capillariesand those of the great vessels.	78
Hemorrhages of the recrementitious exhalants.—Hemorrhagesof the serous surfaces.—Observations concerning deadbodies.—Cellular hemorrhages.—Other hemorrhagesof the exhalants.	85
Preternatural exhalations, not sanguineous.—Varieties of theexhaled fluids, according to the state of the vital forcesof the exhalants.—Different examples of these varieties.	87
IV. Of the preternatural development of the exhalants.
It is especially in cysts that it takes place.—The secretedfluids are never preternaturally poured out like the exhaled.—Why.—Ofthe natural emunctories.	88
ABSORBENT SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE ABSORBENT VESSELS.
I. Origin of the Absorbents.
Table of absorptions.—Of external absorptions.—Of internalabsorptions.—Of the nutritive absorptions.—It isimpossible to know the mode of origin of the absorbents.—Interlacingof the branches.	91
II. Course of the Absorbents.
Their division into two layers, superficial and deep-seated.—Theirarrangement in the extremities and the trunk.	95
Forms of the absorbents in their course.—They are cylindrical,full of knots, &c.—Consequences of these forms.—Theabsorbents have not as great capacity during lifeas in the dead body.	97
Of the capacity of the absorbents in their course.—Mannerof ascertaining it.—Extreme varieties which it exhibits.—Capacityof the absorbents compared with that ofthe veins.	99
Anastomoses of the absorbents in their course.—Differentmodes of these anastomoses.—Remarks upon the lymphaticcirculation.	102
Remarks upon the difference of dropsies that are producedby the increase of exhalation, and those that are the effectof a diminution of absorption.—Cases that may be referredto one or the other cause.	104
III. Termination of the Absorbents.
Trunks of termination.—Their disproportion with thebranches.—Consequences.—Difficulties in regard to themotion of the lymph.—Remarks upon venous absorption.	105
IV. Structure of the Absorbents.
Exterior texture.—Vessels.—Peculiar membrane.—Valves.—Usesof these last.	109
ARTICLE SECOND.
LYMPHATIC GLANDS.
I. Situation, Size, Forms, &c.
Varieties of their number and situation in the differentregions.—Relation with the cellular texture.—Varietiesfrom age, sex, &c.	111
II. Organization.
Colour.—Its varieties.—Particular arrangement about thebronchia.	114
Common parts.—External cellular texture.—Cellular membrane.—Vessels.	115
Peculiar texture.—Density.—Cells.—Contained fluid.—Propertiesand phenomena of this texture.—Interlacingof the absorbents.	116
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.	118
II. Vital Properties.
Animal sensibility.—Its phenomena in the vessels and theglands.—Organic properties.—Their duration afterdeath.—Remarks upon the absorbent faculty of deadbodies.	119
Characters of the vital properties.—Life is very evident inthis system.—Its disposition to inflammation.—Characterwhich this affection has in it.	122
Differences of the vital properties in the absorbent vesselsand their glands.—These differences are remarkable.—Theirinfluence upon diseases.	123
Sympathies.—Sympathies of the glands.—Sympathies ofthe vessels.—Remarks upon the engorgements of thelymphatic glands.	124
ARTICLE FOURTH.
OF ABSORPTION.
I. Influence of the Vital Forces upon this Function.
All depends on the organic properties.	128
II. Varieties of Absorption.
Different examples.—Of resolution.—Of the absorptionof morbific principles.	129
III. Motion of the Fluids in the Absorbents.
Laws of this motion.—It is not subject to any reflux.—Why.	132
IV. Of Absorption in the different Ages.
It appears that the internal and external absorptions areopposite at the two extreme ages.—Remarks.	134
V. Preternatural Absorption.
Absorption of certain fluids different from those naturallyabsorbed.—Absorption in the cysts.	138
SYSTEMS PECULIAR TO CERTAIN APPARATUS.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Differences of the systems peculiar to certain apparatus,from those common to all.—Characters of the first.—Theirdistribution in the apparatus.	139
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. DIVISION OF THE BONES.
I. Of the Long Bones.
Relation of their position with their general uses.—Externalforms of the body and the extremities.—Internalforms.—Medullary canal.—Its situation, extent andform.—Its use.—It disappears in the first periods ofcallus.—It is shorter in proportion in childhood.	144
II. Of the Flat Bones.
Relations of their situation and external forms with thegeneral use of forming the cavities.—Internal forms.	147
III. Of the Short Bones.
Position.—Internal and external forms.—General uses.	149
IV. Of the Bony Eminences.
Their division into those, 1st, of articulation; 2d, of insertion;3d, of reflection; 4th, of impression.—Remarksupon each of these divisions.—Relations of the secondwith the muscular force.—How these last are formed.	150
V. Of the Osseous Cavities.
Their division into those, 1st, of insertion; 2d, of reception;3d, of sliding; 4th, of impression; 5th, of transmission;6th, of nutrition.—Particular remarks uponeach division.—Of the three kinds of canals of nutrition.	153
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
I. Texture Peculiar to the Osseous System.
Common division of this texture.
Texture with cells.—How it is formed.—When it is formed.—Ofthe cells and their communications.—Experiments.	156
Compact texture.—Arrangement of its fibres.—Their formation.—Experimentsto ascertain their direction.—Theosseous layers do not exist.—Proofs.—Influenceof rickets upon the compact texture.	158
Arrangement of the two osseous textures in the three kinds ofBones.—Arrangement of the compact texture.—Twokinds of texture with cells in the long bones.—Proportionof the common texture with cells and the compacttexture in the short and broad bones.—The same proportionexamined in the cavities and the osseous eminences.	161
Of the composition of the osseous texture.—There are twoprincipal bases.—Of the saline calcareous substance.—Experiments.—Natureof this substance.—Experimentsto ascertain the gelatinous substance.—Different relationsof each of these substances with vitality.	164
II. Common Parts which enter into the organization of theOsseous System.
Three orders of blood vessels.—Arrangement of each.—Experiments.—Proportionsaccording to age.—Communication.—Proofsof the existence of the cellulartexture.	167
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
I. Physical Properties.
Elasticity.—It is in the inverse ratio of the age.	171
II. Properties of Texture.
Different examples of contractility and extensibility.—Charactersof these properties.	171
III. Vital Properties.
They are obscure.	173
Characters of these properties.—Slowness of their development.—Theirinfluence upon diseases.	174
Sympathies.—Their character is always chronic.—Generalremark upon sympathies.	175
Seat of the vital properties.—They are not seated in the calcareoussubstance.—They exist only in the gelatinous.—Experimentwhich proves it.	177
ARTICLE FOURTH.
OF THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
I. Division of the Articulations.
Moveable Articulations.—Observations upon their Motions.—1st.Opposition; it is extensive or confined.—2d. Circumduction;a motion composed of all those of opposition.—3d.Rotation; a motion upon the axis.—4th.Sliding.	180
Immoveable articulations.—They are on surfaces in juxta-position,inserted into each other or implanted.	182
Table of the Articulations.	183
II. Observations upon the Moveable Articulations.
First genus.—Situation.—Form of the surfaces.—Rotationand circumduction are inversely in the humerus andthe femur.—Why.	184
Second genus.—Form of the surfaces.—Motions.	186
Third genus.—Diminution of the motions.—Direction inwhich they take place.	187
Fourth genus.—Motions still less.	189
Fifth genus.—Remarkable obscurity of the motions.	190
III. Observations upon the Immoveable Articulations.
Situation, forms of each order.—Relation of the structureto the uses.	191
IV. Of the means of Union between the Articular Surfaces.
Union of the immoveable Articulations.—Cartilages of union.	193
Union of moveable articulations.—Ligaments and musclesconsidered as articular bands.	194
ARTICLE FIFTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
Remarks.	195
I. State of the Osseous System during Growth.
Mucous State.—What should be understood by it.	195
Cartilaginous State.—Period and mode of its development.—Ofthis state in the broad bones.	197
Osseous State.—Its phenomena.—Its period.	198
Progress of the osseous state in the long bones; 1st, in themiddle; 2d, in the extremities.	200
Progress of the osseous state in the broad bones.—Varietiesaccording to the bones.—Formation of the ossa wormiana. ib.
Progress of the osseous state in the short bones.	202
II. State of the Osseous System after its Growth.
Increase in thickness.—Composition and decompositionafter the termination of growth in thickness.—Experiments.—Stateof the bones in old age.	203
III. Peculiar Phenomena of the Development of the Callus.
1st. Fleshy granulations.—2d. Adhesions of these granulations.—3d.Exhalation of gelatine and then of phosphateof lime.	206
IV. Peculiar Phenomena of the Development of the Teeth.
Organization of the teeth.—Hard portion of the teeth.—Enamel.—Experimentwhich distinguishes it frombone.—Its thickness.—Its nature.—Reflections uponits organization.—Osseous portion.—Its form.—Cavityof the tooth.	209
Soft portion of the tooth.—Its spongy nature.—Its acutesensibility.—Remarks upon its different sympathies.	211
First dentition considered before cutting.—Follicle.—Membraneof this follicle analogous to the serous membranes.—Albuminousnature of the fluid which lubricatesit.—Mode of development of the osseous toothupon the follicle.—Number of the first teeth.	213
First dentition considered at the period of cutting.—Modeof cutting.—Accidents.—Their causes.	216
Second dentition considered before cutting.—Formation ofthe second follicle.	217
Second dentition considered at the period of cutting.—Fallof the first teeth.—Appearance of the second.
Phenomena subsequent to the cutting of the second teeth.—Growthin length and thickness.—Fall of the teethearlier than the death of the bones.—Why.—State ofthe jaws after the fall of the teeth.	219
V. Particular Phenomena of the Development of the SesamoidBones.
General arrangement of the sesamoid bones.—Situation.—Forms.	221
Fibro-cartilaginous state.—Osseous state.—Phenomena ofthe patella.—Use of the sesamoid bones.	222
MEDULLARY SYSTEM.
Division of this system.	225
ARTICLE FIRST.
MEDULLARY SYSTEM OF THE FLAT AND SHORT BONES, AND THEEXTREMITIES OF THE LONG ONES.
I. Origin and Conformation.
It is an expansion of the vessels of the second order.	225
II. Organization.
There is no medullary membrane.—Vascular interlacing.	226
III. Properties.
There are only organic ones.—Experiments.	227
IV. Development.
There is no medullary oil in infancy.—Proofs.—Experiments.	227
ARTICLE SECOND.
MEDULLARY SYSTEM OF THE MIDDLE OF THE LONG BONES.
I. Conformation.
It is like the cellular.	229
II. Organization.
The medullary membrane is not an expansion of the periosteum.—Itsvessels.	230
III. Properties.
Properties of texture.—Vital properties.—Animal sensibility.—Vitalitymore active than in the bones.	231
IV. Development.
How the medullary membrane is formed.—The marrowof the infant is wholly different from that of the adult.—Proofs.	233
Functions.—The marrow is exhaled.—Its alterations.—Itsrelations with the nutrition of the bone.—Necrosis.—Themarrow is foreign to the synovia.	234
CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
What must be understood by cartilage.	237
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Forms of the Cartilages of the Moveable Articulations.
Internal and external surfaces.—Relations of the two correspondingcartilages.—Peculiar characters of thesecartilages in each kind of moveable articulations.	238
II. Forms of the Cartilages of the Immoveable Articulations.	241
III. Forms of the Cartilages of the Cavities.	242
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the Cartilaginous System.
Fibres.—Remarkable resistance of the cartilaginous textureto putrefaction, maceration, &c.—Stewing and desiccationof this texture.—Its various alterations.
243
II. Parts common to the Organization of the CartilaginousTexture.
Cellular texture.—Means of seeing it.—Absence of bloodvessels.—White vessels.—Their colour in jaundice.	245
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Physical Properties.
Elasticity.—It appears to be owing to the superabundanceof gelatine.—Proofs.	247
II. Properties of Texture.
They are very obscure.	248
III. Vital Properties.
They are inconsiderable, as well as the sympathies.	249
Character of the Vital Properties.—All the phenomena overwhich they preside have a chronic progress.—Generalobservations upon the reunion of the parts.	250
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. State of the Cartilaginous System in the First Age.
Predominance of gelatine in the early periods.—Propertywhich the cartilages then have of becoming red bymaceration.—Vascular layers between the cartilageand the bone.—Cause which limits ossification in thecartilage.—Development of the cartilages of the cavities.	252
II. State of the Cartilaginous System in the after Ages.
Different character which the gelatine assumes.—Ossificationof the cartilages in old age.—Those of the cavitiesare the soonest ossified.	255
III. Preternatural Development of the Cartilaginous System.
Tendency of the membrane of the spleen to become theseat of it.—Preternatural cartilages of the articulations.	257
FIBROUS SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS AND DIVISIONS OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.
The fibrous forms are either membranous or in fasciæ.	259
I. Of the Fibrous Organs of a Membranous Form.
Fibrous membranes.—Fibrous capsules.—Fibrous sheaths.—Aponeuroses.	260
II. Of the Fibrous Organs in the form of Fasciæ.
1st. Tendons.—2d. Ligaments.	262
III. Table of the Fibrous System.
Analogy of the different organs of this system.—Theperiosteum is the common centre of these organs.	262
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.
I. Of the Texture peculiar to the Organization of the FibrousSystem.
Peculiar nature of the fibrous texture.—Its extreme resistance.—Phenomenaof this resistance.—It can beovercome.—Difference of the fibrous and muscular textures.—Experimentsupon the fibrous texture subjectedto maceration, ebullition, putrefaction, the action ofthe acids, the digestive juices, &c.	264
II. Of the Common Parts which enter into the Organizationof the Fibrous System.
Cellular texture.—Blood vessels.—Their varieties accordingto the organs.	270
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.
I. Physical Properties.
II. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—Peculiar law to which it is subjected there.Contractility.—It is almost nothing.—When it is manifested.	272
III. Vital Properties.
Animal sensibility.—Singular mode of putting it in actionby distension.—Consequence of this peculiar phenomenonto the fibrous texture.	274
Character of the vital properties.—The vital activity is moreevident in this system than in the preceding.—It appearsthat the fibrous texture does not suppurate.	277
Sympathies.—Examples of those of the animal and the organicproperties.	279
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.
I. State of the Fibrous System in the First Age.
The fibres are wanting in most of the fibrous organs ofthe fœtus.—Softness of these organs at this age.—Varietiesof development.—Remarks upon rheumatism.	281
II. State of the Fibrous System in the After Ages.
Phenomena of the adult.—General stiffness in old age.	283
III. Preternatural Development of the Fibrous System.
Various tumours exhibit fibres analogous to those of thissystem.	284
ARTICLE FIFTH.
OF THE FIBROUS MEMBRANES IN GENERAL.
I. Forms of the Fibrous Membranes.
Their double surface.—These membranes are like mouldsof their respective organs.—Researches respecting thatof the corpus cavernosum.—Experiments which showthat it differs essentially from the subjacent spongy texture.—Otherresearches upon that of the testicle.	285
II. Organization of the Fibrous Membranes.	288
III. Of the Periosteum. Of its Form.
Its two surfaces.—Their adhesion to the bones.	289
Organization of the periosteum.—Preternatural developmentof its fibres in elephantiasis.—Its connexions withthe fibrous bodies in infancy.	291
Development of the periosteum.
Functions of the Periosteum.—In what way it assists ossification.—Itrelates as much to the fibrous organs as tothe bones.	292
IV. Perichondrium.
Experiments upon this membrane.	294
ARTICLE SIXTH.
OF THE FIBROUS CAPSULES.
I. Forms of the Fibrous Capsules.
They are very few.—Arrangement of the two principalones.—Canal between them and the synovial capsule.	295
II. Functions of the Fibrous Capsules.	296
ARTICLE SEVENTH.
OF THE FIBROUS SHEATHS.
Their division.	297
I. Partial Fibrous Sheaths.
Their form.—Their arrangement.—Why the flexor tendons arealone provided with them.	297
II. General Fibrous Sheaths.	299
ARTICLE EIGHTH.
OF THE APONEUROSES.
I. Of the Aponeuroses for Covering.
Their division.	299
Aponeuroses for general covering.	300
Forms.—They are accommodated to the extremities, &c. ib.
Tensor muscles.—Organization.—Examples of the tensormuscles.—Their uses relative to the aponeuroses.—Analogywith the tendons and difference from them.—Arrangementof the fibres.	301
Functions.	302
Aponeuroses for partial covering.—Examples.—Generaluses of these aponeuroses.	303
II. Of the Aponeuroses of Insertion.
Aponeuroses of insertion with a broad surface.—Their origin.—Theiruses.—The identity of their nature withthat of the tendons.—Experiments.	304
Aponeuroses of insertion in the form of an arch.—They arerare.—They exist where vessels pass through.—Theydo not compress them.	305
Aponeuroses of insertion with separate fibres.	306
ARTICLE NINTH.
OF THE TENDONS.
I. Form of the Tendons.
Relation of the uses with the forms.—Union with thefleshy fibres.	307
II. Organization of the Tendons.
Method of seeing their fibres advantageously.—They appearto be destitute of blood vessels.—Their tendencyto be penetrated with the phosphate of lime.	309
ARTICLE TENTH.
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
I. Ligaments with, Regular Fasciæ.
General arrangement.	311
II. Ligaments with Irregular Fasciæ.	312
FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
Organs which compose it.	315
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
Division into three classes of the organs of this system.—Charactersof each class.	315
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the Organization of the Fibro-CartilaginousSystem.
It arises, 1st, from a fibrous substance; 2d, from a cartilaginousone.—It owes its resistance to the first and itselasticity to the second.—Action of caloric, air andwater upon the fibro-cartilaginous texture.—It reddensby maceration.—Absence of the perichondrium uponmost of the fibro-cartilages.	317
II. Parts common to the Organization of the Fibro-CartilaginousSystem.	320
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. Physical Properties.
Elasticity and suppleness united.	320
II. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—It is quite evident in it.—Contractility.—Differencefrom elasticity.	321
III. Vital Properties.
They are inconsiderable.—Influence of the obscurity ofthese forces upon the properties of the fibro-cartilages.	322
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the First Age.
Mode of development of the three classes.	323
II. State of this System in the after Ages.
General rigidity of these organs.—Consequences.—Ossificationof the fibro-cartilages rare.	325
MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
Difference between the muscles of the two lives.—Observationsupon those of animal life.	327
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE FORMS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
Division of these muscles into long, broad and short.	327
I. Forms of the Long Muscles.
Place which they occupy.—Their division.—Their separationand reunion.—Peculiar forms of the long musclesof the spine.	328
II. Forms of the Broad Muscles.
Where they are situated.—Thickness.—Peculiar formsof the broad pectoral muscles.	330
III. Forms of the Short Muscles.
Where they are found.—Their arrangement.—Remarksupon the three species of muscles.	331
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
Arrangement of this texture into fasciculi.—Its divisioninto fibres.—Length of the fleshy fibres compared withthat of the muscle.—Their direction.—Their figure.—Theirsoftness.—Ease of their rupture in the deadbody.—Difficulty in the living.	332
Composition of the muscular texture.—Action of the air indesiccation and putrefaction.—Action of cold water.—Macerationand its products.—Ease with which thecolouring substance is removed.—Analogy of the remainingtexture with the fibrin of the blood.—Relationof the forces with this texture.—Action of boilingwater.—Some peculiar phenomena of common boiledflesh.—Roasting of the fleshy texture.—Singular affinityof the digestive juices to this sort of texture.—Generalobservations.—Influence of sex and the genital organsupon the fleshy texture.	336
II. Parts common to the Organization of this System.
Cellular texture.—Manner in which it envelops the fibres.—Itsuses for muscular motion.—Experiment.—Fattymuscles.	343
Blood vessels.—Arteries.—Of the blood of the muscles.—Oftheir colour.—Free and combined state of the colouringsubstance.—Veins.—Remarks upon the injection ofthem.	346
Nerves.—There are hardly any but those of animal life.—Theirdifference in the extensors and the flexors.—Mannerin which the nerves penetrate the muscles.	348
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. Properties of Texture. Extensibility.
This property is continually in action.—It is in proportionto the length of the fibres.—Its exercise in diseases.	350
Contractility of texture.—Phenomena of the antagonists.—Distinctionin these phenomena of that which belongsto the vital properties from that which belongs tothose of texture.—Of the contractility of texture indiseases.—Extent and quickness of the contractions.—Theycontinue after death.—Essential differences betweenthe contractility of texture and horny hardening.Their parallel.	352
II. Vital Properties.
Properties of animal life.—Sensibility.—Most of the ordinaryagents do not develop it.—It is put into action byrepeated contractions.—Of the sensation of lassitude.—Sensibilityof the muscles in their affections.	359
Animal Contractility.—It should be considered in three relations.	361
Animal contractility considered in the brain.—The principleof this property exists in this organ.—Proofs drawnfrom observation.—Proofs derived from diseases.—Proofsborrowed from experiments upon animals.—Casesin which the brain is foreign to the muscles.	362
Animal contractility considered in the nerves.—Influence ofthe spinal marrow upon this property.—Observationsand experiments.—Influence of the nerves.—Observationsand experiments.—All the nerves do not transmitequally the different irradiations of the brain.—Directionof the propagation of the nervous influence.	367
Animal contractility considered in the muscles.—Necessaryconditions in the muscle for it to contract.—Obstaclesto contraction.—Various experiments.	374
Causes which bring into action animal contractility.—Divisionof these causes.—Of the will.—Of the involuntarycauses.—Direct excitement.—Sympathetic excitement.—Influenceof the passions.—Remarks upon the motionof the fœtus.	374
Duration of the animal contractility after death.—Variousexperiments.—Consequences relative to respiration.—Varietyof the duration of this property.—How it isextinguished.	379
Organic Properties.—Organic sensibility and insensibleorganic contractility.—Sensible organic contractility.—Variousexperiments upon this last property.—Phenomenaof irritations.—In order to study this contractilitythe animal contractility must be destroyed.—How thisis done.—Various modes of contraction.	382
Sympathies.—The animal sensibility is the property especiallybrought into action by them.—General Remarks.—Sympathiesof animal sensibility.—The organic propertiesare rarely brought into action.	386
Characters of the vital properties.—Different remarks uponthese characters.	388
ARTICLE FOURTH.
PHENOMENA OF THE ACTION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMALLIFE.
I. Force of the Muscular Contraction.
Difference according as it is put into action by stimuli orby the cerebral influence.—Experiments.—Influence ofmuscular organization upon contraction.—The laws ofnature the reverse of those of mechanics in the productionof motions.—Multiplication of forces.—Uncertaintyof calculations upon this point.	390
II. Quickness of the Contractions.
Varieties according as the contractions are, 1st, fromstimuli; 2d, from nervous action.—Different degrees ofquickness in different individuals.—Influence of habitupon this degree.	395
III. Duration of the Contractions.	397
IV. State of the Muscles in Contraction.
Different phenomena which they then experience.—Essentialremark upon the different modes of contraction.	398
V. Motions imparted by the Muscles.
Simple Motions.—1st. In the muscles with a straight direction.—Howwe determine the uses of these muscles.—2d.In the muscles with a reflected direction.—3d.In those with a circular direction.	400
Compound Motions.—Almost every motion is compound.—How.—Differentexamples of compound motions.—Antagonistmuscles.	403
VI. Phenomena of the Relaxation of the Muscles.
They are opposite to the preceding.	406
ARTICLE FIFTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
It contains but little blood.—Slight contractility at thisage.—Influence upon these phenomena, of the bloodwhich then penetrates the muscles.—These organs arethen slender and weak.	407
II. State of this System during Growth.
Sudden effect of the red blood which penetrates the muscles,and of the other irritations which are connectedwith it.—Colour of the Muscles.—Period of the brightestcolour.—Varieties of the action of reagents on thefleshy texture of young animals.	410
III. State of this System after Growth.
The thickness constantly increases.—The external formsare more evident.—Colour in the adult.—Innumerablevariety.	413
IV. State of this System in Old Age.
Increase of density.—Diminution of cohesion.—Phenomenaof the vacillation of the muscles.—Atrophous muscles.	416
V. State of the System at Death.
Relaxation or stiffness of the muscles.	419
END OF CONTENTS TO VOL. II.

---

[VOLUME THIRD.]
MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
FORMS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
	PAGE
Curved direction of the fibres.—They do not arise fromthe fibrous system.—Varieties of the muscular forms,according to the organs.	4
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
General difference of organization from the precedingmuscles.	[5]
I. Peculiar Texture.
General arrangement of the muscular fibre.—Analogywith the preceding and difference.	[6]
II. Common Parts.
Cellular Texture.—Blood vessels.—Nerves of the ganglionsand of the brain.—Proportion of each class.	8
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—Particular character of this property inthe organic muscles.—In aneurisms of the heart and inpregnancy, it is not the extensibility that is brought intoaction.—Remarks upon this subject.	[10]
Contractility.—It is in proportion to extensibility.—Thesubstances contained in the hollow muscles are theirantagonists.—Remarks.	[14]
II. Vital Properties.
Sensibility.—Of the lassitude of the organic muscles.—Remarksupon hunger.	[15]
Animal Contractility.—It is nothing in these muscles.—Different,experiments.—Observations.—Of the musclesin part voluntary and in part organic.—Experiments.—Remarksupon the bladder, rectum, &c.—Absence ofthe nervous influence upon the organic muscles.	[17]
Organic Properties.—General Remarks.	[24]
Of sensible organic contractility considered under the relationof the stimuli.	[25]
Natural stimuli.—Different observations.—Remarks uponthe fluids and solids.—Influence of the quality andquantity of the fluids upon the hollow muscles. ib.
Artificial stimuli.—Action of these stimuli.—Differentmodes of action.—Limits of the horny hardening andvital contraction.	[28]
Of sensible organic contractility, considered in relation tothe organs.	[31]
First variety. Diversity of the muscular texture.—Eachmuscle is particularly in relation with some determinatesubstance.—Application of this principle to thenatural and foreign fluids. ib.
Second variety. Age.—Vivacity of the contractility in infancy.—Consequences.—Oppositephenomenon in old age.	[33]
Third Variety. Temperament.—Difference of individualsin regard to organic muscular force.—This force is notalways in relation to the animal muscular force.—Itcannot be increased like it by habit.	[34]
Fourth Variety. Sex.	[35]
Fifth Variety. Season and climate.	[36]
Sensible organic contractility considered in relation to the actionof stimulants upon the organs.—The constant existenceof an intermediate organ for this action.—Natureof this intermediate organ. ib.
Sensible organic contractility considered in relation to its durationafter death.—Difference of this duration accordingto the kind of death.—Remarks.	[38]
Sympathies.—Sympathies of the heart.—Sympathies ofthe stomach.—Remarks upon bilious vomitings.—Generalobservations.—Sympathies of the intestines, thebladder, &c.	[40]
Character of the vital properties.—Vital energy very considerablein this system.—Its affections act upon itspredominant vital force.—The infrequency of the affectionswhich suppose a derangement of the organicproperties.	[44]
ARTICLE FOURTH.
PHENOMENA OF THE ACTION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANICLIFE.
I. Force of Contractions.
Difference from the force of contraction of the precedingsystem.—It is greater in the vital phenomena than inexperiments.—Inaccuracy of calculations.	[46]
II. Quickness of the Contractions.
In experiments.—During life.—Comparison with thequickness of the preceding muscles.	[49]
III. Duration of the Contractions.	[50]
IV. State of the Muscles in Contraction.
Difference in this respect between the heart and the gastric muscles.	ib.
V. Motions imparted by the Organic Muscles.	[51]
VI. Phenomena of the Relaxation of the Organic Muscles.
Differences of this relaxation from the active dilatation ofthe muscles.—Proofs of the phenomena of this dilatation.	[52]
ARTICLE FIFTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
Predominance of the heart.—State of the other muscles.—Weaknessof the organic contractility at this age.	[55]
II. State of the Organic Muscular System during Growth.
General increase of action at birth.—Of the growth inthickness and of that in length.—Their differences.	[58]
III. State of the Organic Muscular System after Growth.	[61]
IV. State of the Organic Muscular System in Old Age.
This system outlives, if we may so say, the preceding.—Phenomenonresulting from its weakness.	[62]
MUCOUS SYSTEM.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE DIVISIONS AND FORMS OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.
I. Of the two general Mucous Membranes, the Gastro-pulmonaryand the Genito-urinary.
Difference of these two membranes.—Their relation.	[66]
II. Adhering Surface of the Mucous Membranes.
Its relations.—It is everywhere subjacent to the muscles.—Sub-mucoustexture.—Experiments.	[69]
III. Free surface of the Mucous Membranes.
Of the folds it exhibits.—1st. Of those which comprehendall the membranes.—2d. Of those which are permanentupon the mucous surface.—3d. Of those which areowing to a state of vacuity of the hollow organs.—Differentexperiments.—The extent of the mucous surfacesis always nearly the same, whatever may be thestate of their organs.—Relation of their free surfacewith external bodies.—Their sensibility is accommodatedto this relation.—The term foreign body is merelycomparative.	[70]
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to this Organization.
What it presents for consideration.
Mucous Corion.—Its variable thickness.—Mucous natureof the membrane of the ear.—Pathological consequences.—Softnessof the mucous texture.—Action ofthe air, water, caloric, the acids and the digestive juicesupon the mucous texture.	[76]
Mucous papillæ.—Their varieties of form.—Their nervousnature.—Proofs of this nervous nature.—Their influenceupon the sensibility of the mucous organs.	[83]
II. Common Parts.
Of the mucous glands and the fluids which they secrete.—Situation.—Forms.—Size.—Texture.	[86]
Mucous fluids.—Physical properties.—Action of differentagents upon them.—Their functions.—Parts in whichthey are most abundant and those in which they areless so.—Susceptibility of being increased by any irritationmade upon their excretories.—Consequences.—Remarksupon the excitement of the mucous surfacesin diseases.—Uses of the mucous membranes in relationto the habitual evacuation of their fluids.—Generalremarks upon the secreted fluids.—Singular sensationarising from the continuance of the mucous fluidsupon their respective surfaces.	[88]
Blood vessels.—Their varieties of proportion.—Theirsuperficial position.—Consequence.—Redness of themucous system.—It often loses it.—Experiments uponthe state of the mucous vessels in the fulness and vacuityof their hollow organs.—Other experiments uponthe influence of the gases upon the colour of the mucoussystem.—Causes of its redness.—Colouring substancecombined and free.	[96]
Exhalants.—Is there exhalation upon the mucous system?—Pulmonaryexhalation.—A great part of the pulmonaryperspiration arises from the solution of the mucousjuices.—Other mucous exhalations.—Hemorrhages.	[105]
Absorbents.—Proofs of the mucous absorption.—Irregularityof this absorption.—Cause of this irregularity.	[107]
Nerves.—Those of the brain.—Those of the ganglions.—Theirrespective distribution upon this system.	[108]
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
They are less than they at first seem to be.—They arehowever real.—Their variety.—The mucous ducts arenot obliterated by the contractility of texture whenthey are empty.	[109]
II. Vital properties.
Properties of animal life.—Acute sensibility of the mucoussystem.—Influence of habit upon this property.—Consequencesof this remark.—Mucous sensibility in inflammations.	[111]
Properties of organic life.—Organic sensibility and insensiblecontractility are very evident here.—Why.—Consequencesas it respects diseases.—Varieties of theseproperties.-Species of sensible organic contractility inthe mucous texture.	[114]
Sympathies.—How we shall divide them.	[117]
Active Sympathies.—Example of these sympathies foreach vital property.	[118]
Passive Sympathies.—The predominant ones are those ofinsensible organic contractility.—Why.	[120]
Character of the vital properties.—Vital activity of this system.—Itsvarieties.—Consequences as it regards diseases.—Remarksupon the stomachic sympathies.	[123]
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.
I. State of the Mucous System in the First Age.
It follows the state of the organs to which it belongs.—Delicacyof the papillæ.—The mucous redness is thendeeper.—Sudden change at birth.—Why.—Phenomenonof puberty.	[125]
II. State of the Mucous System in the After Ages.
Its phenomena in the adult.—Its phenomena in old age.	[129]
SEROUS SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE EXTENT, FORMS AND FLUIDS OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.
General arrangement of its membranes.—Of the seroussurface considered in general.—Every serous membraneis a sac without an opening.	[131]
I. Free Surface of the Serous Membranes.
It is smooth and polished.—This attribute is foreign tocompression.—This surface insulates the organs towhich the serous surfaces belong.—Its influence uponthe motion of these organs.—Adhesions of the seroussurfaces.—Their division.	[134]
II. Adhering Surface of the Serous System.
Means of union.—The serous membranes often change relationswith their organs.—This is owing to the laxityof the adhesions.—Adhesions more close.	[140]
III. Serous Fluids.
Their quantity.—Varieties of this quantity.—Experiments.—Morbidvarieties.—Nature of these fluids.	[142]
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.
The serous membranes have but one layer.—Its colour.—Itsthickness.	[144]
I. Cellular nature of the Serous Texture.
Proofs of this cellular nature.—Experiments by maceration,ebullition, desiccation, stewing and putrefaction.—Differencesbetween the cellular and serous textures.	[145]
II. Parts common to the organization of the Serous System.
Exhalants.—Various proofs of serous exhalation.	[149]
Absorbents.—Proofs of serous absorption.—Experiments.—Modeof origin of the absorbents.	[150]
Blood vessels.—The serous membranes have but very fewof them.—Those which are subjacent do not belong tothem.—Proofs.	[151]
III. Varieties of Organization of the Serous System.
Different examples of these varieties.—Consequences inregard to diseases.—Remarks upon the pericardium.—Commoncharacters.	[153]
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
Extensibility.—It is less than it at first seems to be.—Why.—Useof the folds of the serous membranes.—Of theirdisplacement.—Pain from these displacements in inflammation.	[155]
Contractility.—Less than it appears to be.—It is howeverreal.	[156]
II. Vital Properties.
They enjoy but little animal sensibility.—Why.—Experiments.—Theorganic properties are very sensible.—Consequences.	[157]
Sympathies.—Various examples.—Remarks upon sympatheticexhalations.—Remark upon the serum of dead bodies.	[158]
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the First Age.
Extreme tenuity of the surfaces.—Quantity of the fluids.—Quality.—Changesat birth.—Experiments.	[161]
II. State of the Serous System in the After Ages.
The serous surfaces obey the laws of their respectiveorgans.—Increased density in old age.—Ossificationrare.	[162]
III. Preternatural Development of the Serous System.
Various observations.	[164]
SYNOVIAL SYSTEM.
Points of resemblance between this system and the preceding.—Itsdivision.	[165]
ARTICLE FIRST.
ARTICULAR SYNOVIAL SYSTEM.
I. How the Synovia is separated from the mass of blood.
There are three ways in which fluids may be separatedfrom the blood.
Is the Synovia transmitted by secretion to the articular surfaces?—Negativeproofs.—Of the pretended synovialglands.—Experiments.
Is the Synovia transmitted by transudation to the articular surfaces?—Negativeproofs.—Another opinion.
Is the Synovia transmitted by exhalation to the articular surfaces?—Positiveproofs.—Analogy between the exhaled fluids and the synovia.—Consequences.	[167]
II. Remarks upon the Synovia.
Its quantity.—It varies a little.—Rare alterations of thisfluid.—Its difference from the serous fluids.	[173]
III. Of the Synovial Membranes.
Forms.—They represent sacs without an opening.—Differencefrom the fibrous capsules.—These capsulesare wanting in the greatest number of articulations.—Experiments.—Proofsof the synovial membrane whereit adheres.	[175]
Organization.—Analogy with the serous surfaces.—Structureof the pretended synovial glands.	[180]
Properties.—Properties of texture.—Vital properties.—Experiments.—Thesynovial system is foreign to mostdiseases.	[182]
Functions.—They are foreign to the solidity of the articulation.—Theyhave relation only to the synovia.	[183]
Natural Development.—State of the synovial membrane ininfancy, adult and old age.	[184]
Preternatural Development.—Remarks upon this development.	[185]
ARTICLE SECOND.
SYNOVIAL SYSTEM OF THE TENDONS.
It is often confounded with the preceding.	[186]
Forms; relations; synovial fluid.—Forms of sacs withoutan opening.—Varieties of these forms.—Smooth andadhering surface.—Relation with the tendon.—Preternaturalincrease of the fluid.	[186]
Organization, properties, development.—Their phenomenaare analogous to those of the preceding system.—Remarksupon the affections of this kind of synovial membranes.	[189]
GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
General observations.—What a gland is.	[193]
ARTICLE FIRST.
SITUATION, FORMS, DIVISION, &c. OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
Sub-cutaneous and deep position.—Relation of the positionof the glands with their excretion.—Varieties of theglandular forms.—Distinction of these varieties.—Externalsurface of the glands.	[194]
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the Organization of this System.
The fibrous arrangement is foreign to the glands.—Thereis but little resistance in the glandular texture.—Triplearrangement of this texture.—Uncertainty of the researchesupon its nature.—Different experiments uponthis texture.—Desiccation.—Peculiar effect of stewing.—Roasting.—Maceration.—Actionof the acids, gastric juice, &c.	[198]
Of the excretories, their origin, divisions, &c. of the glandularreservoirs.—Origin.—Course.—Division of the glandsinto three classes, in regard to the termination of theirexcretories.—Of the reservoirs.—What supplies theirplace when they are wanting.—Motion of the fluids inthe excretories.	[204]
Size, direction and termination of the excretories.—All theexcretories open upon the mucous or cutaneous systems.—Observationsupon the intestinal canal.	[206]
Remarks upon the secreted fluids.—They can re-enter thecirculation.—Various experiments on this subject.—Consequences.	[208]
Structure of the excretories.—Internal membrane.—Externaltexture.	[213]
II. Parts common to the Organization of the GlandularSystem.
Cellular Texture.—Division of the glands into two classes,in regard to this texture.—Serum and fat of this texture.—Fattylivers.	[214]
Blood vessels.—Different ways in which they enter theglands, according as they are or are not surroundedwith membranes.—Course of the arteries in the glands.—Veins.—Theypour their blood into the general blackblood.—Reflux from the heart to the glands.	[216]
Of the blood of the glands.—Division of the glands intothree classes, as it regards the fluid which penetratesthem.—Great quantity of blood contained in the liverand the kidney.—Variety as it respects secretion.	[219]
Nerves.—Of those of the ganglions and of the cerebralones.—Their proportion.—How they enter the glands.—Secretionis independent of nervous influence.	[221]
Exhalants and absorbents.	[223]
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
They are inconsiderable.—Proofs.—New remarks uponthe reflux of the black blood in the glands.	[224]
II. Vital Properties.
Properties of animal life.—Experiments upon animal sensibility.—Varietiesof the results.	[226]
Properties of organic life.—The insensible contractilityand the corresponding sensibility are the predominantones.—Their influence upon secretion.—Varieties ofthe secreted fluids.—Organic affections of the glands.—Remarks.	[227]
Sympathies.	[230]
Passive sympathies.—Various examples.—Sympathies thecauses of which act at the extremity of the excretories.—Influenceof the passive sympathies of the glandsin diseases.—Remark upon that of each gland.
Active Sympathies.—Various remarks.
Characters of the vital properties.	[235]
First character.—Life peculiar to each gland.—Proofs ofthis peculiar life.—Of its influence in a state of healthand disease.
Second character.—Remission of the glandular life.—Theglands have a species of sleep.—Various examples.	[238]
Third character.—The glandular life is never simultaneouslyraised in the whole system.—Application of this remarkto the digestive order.—Advantage of the artificial excitementof the glands in diseases.	[239]
Fourth character.—Influence of climate and season uponthe glandular life.—The sweat and many secreted fluidsare opposite to each other in this respect.	[241]
Fifth character.—Influence of sex upon the glandularlife.	[242]
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
The glands are very conspicuous at this age.—Yet thesecretions are not great.	[243]
II. State of this System during Growth.
Suddenly increased activity at birth.—Yet it is not theglandular system which predominates in the first age.—Remarksupon its diseases.—The mucous and lachrymalglands are the most frequently in action in infancy.	[244]
III. State of this System after Growth.
Period of puberty.—Its influence upon the glands.—Influenceof the glands of digestion at the adult age.	[247]
IV. State of this System in old Age.
Of the change in the texture of the glands from theeffect of age.—Many glands still secrete much fluid inold age.—Relation of this phenomenon with nutrition.	[249]
DERMOID SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
FORMS OF THE DERMOID SYSTEM.
I. External Surface of the Dermoid System.
Various folds of this surface.—Their different nature.	[254]
II. Internal Surface of the Dermoid System.
Its relations.—Absence of the fleshy pannicle in man.—Consequences.	[256]
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE DERMOID SYSTEM.
I. Texture peculiar to the Organization.
Chorion.—Its thickness in the different regions.—Its structure.—Methodof seeing it.—Variety of this structureaccording to the regions.—Small spaces of the chorion.—Fibres.—Theirnature.—It approximates that of thefibrous texture.—Yet it differs from it.—The chorion isforeign to the functions of the skin relative to animaland organic life.	[258]
Of the reticular body.—Idea that has been formed of it.—Whatit is.—Vascular net-work.—Colouring substance.—Analogyamong the diversity of races.—How thisdiversity should be considered.—Of the cases in whichthe blood enters the reticular body.—Singular propertyof the vessels of the face of receiving more than theothers.—Cause of this phenomenon.—Triple means ofexpression of the passions.—Relation between thetendency of the facial capillary system to receive bloodand diseases.—Double state of the reticular body.—Phenomenaat the instant of death.—Experiments.	[266]
Papillæ.—Situations.—The cutaneous prominences mustnot be taken for them.—Experiments to prove the natureof these prominences.—Their varieties.—Formsand nervous structure of the papillæ.	[273]
Action of different bodies upon the dermoid texture.	[276]
Action of light.—Men whiten like plants.—Examples. ib.
Action of caloric.—Effects which it produces on the skinduring life according to its different degrees.—Effect ofcold.—General remarks upon gangrene and antiseptics.—Falseopinions of authors.	[277]
Action of the air.—Remarks upon the influence of thisfluid upon the evaporation of the transpiration.—It isforeign to this function itself.—Desiccation of the skinby the air.—Its putrefaction.	[282]
Action of water.—General uses of baths.—Their use isnatural.—Maceration of the skin.—Pulpy state.—Stewingof the skin.—Mode of horny hardening.—Vesiclesthat arise the instant it takes place.—Other phenomenaof stewing.	[285]
Action of the acids, alkalies, and other substances.—Variousexperiments with reagents.—Remarks.	[290]
II. Parts common to the Organization of the DermoidSystem.
Cellular texture.—Manner in which it is distributed.—Remarksupon biles.—Sometimes it is wholly destroyed.—Appearancewhich the skin then has.—Remarks uponleucophlegmasia.	[291]
Blood vessels.—Manner in which they are distributed.—Dilatationof the veins in some cases.	[293]
Nerves.—Mode of their distribution.	[294]
Absorbents.—Proofs of cutaneous absorption.—Absorptionof virus.—Table of this absorption.—Varieties it experiences.—Absorptionof medicines.—Experiments.—Characterof irregularity of the cutaneous absorptions.—Towhat this character is owing.—Influence of weaknesson this absorption.	[294]
Exhalants.—Mode of distribution.—Cutaneous exhalations.—Uncertaintyof calculations upon this point.—Relationof this exhalation with the secretions.—Relationwith the pulmonary exhalation.—Experiment upon thislast exhalation.—Remarks upon the causes of manycoughs.—Defect of evaporation of the fluid depositedupon the bronchia.—The cutaneous exhalants vary.—Arethey under the nervous influence?—This does notappear probable.	[299]
Sebaceous Glands.—Oily fluid of the skin.—Its quantity.—Itsvarieties.—Its sources.—We have but few data as itregards the sebaceous glands.	[305]
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE DERMOID SYSTEM.
I. Properties of Texture.
They are very evident.—They are often less than theyseem to be.—Phenomena of extensibility and contractility.	[308]
II. Vital Properties.
Properties of animal life.—Sensibility.—Of the feeling.—Ofthe touch.—Its characters.—Its differences from theother senses.—Seat of cutaneous sensibility.—The mode.—Painpeculiar to the skin.—Influence of habit uponthis sensibility.—Various reflections.—Diminution ofthe cutaneous sensibility.	[311]
Properties of organic life.—They are especially organicsensibility and insensible contractility.—Phenomenaover which they preside.—Division of cutaneous diseases.—Excitantsof the cutaneous organic sensibility.—Sensibleorganic contractility is but slightly apparent.	[318]
Sympathies.—Passive Sympathies.—Different examples andremarks upon the sympathies of heat.—General remarksupon the sensations of heat and cold.—Influenceof sympathies upon the sweat.	[322]
Active Sympathies.—These sympathies are relative to eachof the classes of diseases pointed out above.—Variousexamples.—General remarks.	[326]
Characters of the vital properties.—First character.—Thecutaneous life varies in each region.—Varieties of animalsensibility.—Varieties in the organic properties.	[331]
Second character.—Intermission in one relation, continuity inanother.—The peculiar life of the skin is intermittentas it respects the functions of relation.—Its continuityas it respects its organic functions.	[332]
Third character.—Influence of sex.	[333]
Fourth character.—Influence of temperament.	[334]
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DERMOID SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the Fœtus.
A gluey covering in the first periods.—Absence of certainwrinkles in the fœtus.—Laxity of adhesion.—State ofthe vital properties of the skin of the fœtus.—Its functionsat this age.	[335]
II. State of this System during Growth.
Sudden revolution at birth.—Entrance of the red bloodinto the skin.—Consequences.—State of the cutaneousvital forces in infancy.—State of the cutaneous texture.	[337]
III. State of the Dermoid System after Growth.
Increasing proportion of the fibrous substance, and decreasingproportion of the gelatinous.—Remark uponthe diseases and affections of the skin.	[341]
IV. State of the Dermoid System in Old Age.
State of the cutaneous texture.—Phenomena which arisefrom it.—State of the vital forces.—State of the functions.	[344]
EPIDERMOID SYSTEM.
General Observations.—Division.	[349]
ARTICLE FIRST.
OF THE EXTERNAL EPIDERMIS.
I. Forms, Relations with the Dermis, &c.
Wrinkles.—Pores.—Adhesion to the skin.—Means of destroyingthis adhesion.—Arrangement.	[350]
II. Organization, Composition, &c.Uniform thickness in most parts.—Remarkable thicknesson the foot and the hand.—Consequences of this thickness.—Experimentsupon the colour of negroes.—Epidermoidtexture.—Its peculiar nature.—Action of theair, water, caloric, the acids, the alkalies, &c. upon theepidermoid texture.		[353]
III. Properties.
Extensibility.—The animal properties are foreign to theepidermis.—It appears to be destitute also of organicproperties.—Continual destruction of the epidermis.—Itsreproduction when it is removed.	[360]
IV. Development.
State of the epidermis in the fœtus, the adult and the oldperson.	[364]
ARTICLE SECOND.
INTERNAL EPIDERMIS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS UPON THIS EPIDERMIS.
I. Epidermis of the origin of the Mucous Surfaces.
It is very distinct.—Proofs of its existence.—Its reproduction.—Itsnature.	[366]
II. Epidermis of the deep Surfaces.
Uncertainty of its existence.—Experiments.—Membranesthat are sometimes thrown off.—It appears that it is notthe epidermis.	[367]
ARTICLE THIRD.
OF THE NAILS.
I. Form, Extent, Relations, &c.
Of the habit of cutting the nails.—Anterior, middle andposterior portions of the nail.—Superior and inferiorsurfaces.—Of the texture which supports the nail.	[369]
II. Organization, Properties, &c.
Of the laminæ which form the nails.—Of their arrangement.—Theiranalogy with the epidermis.—Obscurityof the vital properties.—Facility with which the nails,epidermis, &c. are coloured.	[373]
Development.—State of the nails in the fœtus, the adult,and the old person.	[376]
PILOUS SYSTEM.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
ARTICLE FIRST.
EXAMINATION OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM IN THE DIFFERENT REGIONS.
I. Pilous System of the Head.
General observations.	[379]
Of the Hair.—Its length, situation, limits, influence onphysiognomy, variety according to sex, uses, thickness,fundamental colours, shades, and influence on temperament.	[381]
Eyebrows.—Their general arrangement.—Their motions.	[386]
Eyelashes.—Their form, arrangement, &c.	[387]
Beard.—It is the attribute of the male.—Its relations withstrength.—Of our habits in relation to the beard.	[388]
II. Of the Pilous System of the Trunk.
Its varieties according to the regions.	[390]
III. Pilous System of the Extremities.
Its varieties.—It is wanting on the palms of the hands andthe soles of the feet.	ib.
ARTICLE SECOND.
ORGANIZATION OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM.
I. Origin of the Hairs.
Of the membranous canal which encloses this origin.—Relationof the hair with this canal.—Organization ofthis.—Swelling of the hair and its origin.—Its courseto the exterior.	[391]
II. External Covering of the Hairs.
Analogy of this covering with the epidermis.—Its differences.—Actionof the different agents upon this covering.—Itsexternal arrangement.	[394]
III. Internal Substance of the Hairs.
We are ignorant of its nature.—Capillaries of the hairs ofthe head.—Their colouring substance.—The internalsubstance of the hairs of the head is essentially subjectedto the influence of the vital phenomena.—Proof ofthis assertion.—This distinguishes it from the externalcovering.	[396]
ARTICLE THIRD.
PROPERTIES OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM.
It undergoes but little horny hardening.—Of curling.—Theproperties of texture slightly marked.—The animalones are nothing.—The organic are a little moreevident.	[401]
ARTICLE FOURTH.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM.
I. State of this System in the First Age.
Of the down of the fœtus.—The growth of the hairs isthen the reverse of that of the other parts.—Theirgrowth after birth.—Their colours are a little deeperin infancy.	[403]
II. State of the Pilous System in the following Ages.
Revolution at puberty.—Of the hairs which then appear.—Thereare but few changes in the following ages.	[404]
III. State of the Pilous System in Old Age.
Of the hairs which die first.—Of the whiteness whichthey then assume.—They grow in this state.—Why.—Dothey grow after death.—General differences of animateand inanimate bodies in their decay.	[405]
IV. Preternatural Development.
Development upon the mucous surfaces, upon the skinand in cysts.	[408]

END OF THE THIRD AND LAST VOLUME.