The origins of art; a psychological & sociological inquiry

by Y. Hirn

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, Helsingfors, 1896. A summary in German of this book can be read in Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, Bd. xvi. pp. 233-235.

[2] Baumgarten, Aesthetica, pp. 1, 3, 6 sq.

[3] Bosanquet, History of Æsthetic, pp. 173, 187.

[4] Cf. e.g. Hanslick, Vom musikalisch Schönen, p. 3.

[5] Kant, Kritik der Urtheilskraft, p. 147, to be compared with Kant’s chapters on beauty.

[6] Schiller, Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen, passim.

[7] Spencer, Principles of Psychology, ii. pp. 628, 632. Cf. also the extracts from a letter written by Mr. Spencer to M. Guyau, quoted in Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, p. 18.

[8] Hennequin, La critique scientifique, pp. 26-28.

[9] Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, pp. 46, 47.

[10] Grant Allen, Physiological Æsthetics, pp. 32, 33.

[11] Cf. Kant, l.c. p. 66.

[12] Guyau, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, livre i.

[13] Cf. Stolpe, Utvecklingsföreteelser i naturfolkens ornamentik, i.-ii. in Ymer, 1890-1891. An English translation by Mrs. H. C. March is published in Transactions of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society, 1891. Read, “On the Origin, etc., of Certain Ornaments of the S. E. Pacific,” in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxi. Cf. also March, “Polynesian Ornament, a Mythography,” in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxii.

[14] Catlin, Illustrations, etc., i. pp. 127, 128, Mandan buffalo dance. A similar dance among the Iroquois has been described by Morgan (Iroquois, p. 287), who does not, however, speak of any magical purpose. Although somewhat differently explained by Catlin, the Sioux bear dance (l.c. i. p. 245) is no doubt as magical in its intention as the buffalo dance. The same interpretation holds good also, we believe, with regard to the gorilla dance of the Negroes (Reade, Savage Africa, pp. 195, 196) and the hunting pantomimics of the Koossa Kaffirs (Lichtenstein, Travels, i. p. 269).

[15] Wallace, Darwinism, pp. 467, 468.

[16] For a direct opposition to Mr. Wallace’s views on this point see Wallaschek, Primitive Music, pp. 278, 279. Cf. also Ritchie, Darwinism and Politics, pp. 110-114.

[17] Cf. Guyau, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, pp. 15, 24.

[18] For this characteristic term I am indebted to Professor J. M. Baldwin.

[19] Cf. chap. ix. in the sequel.

[20] Some brilliant and suggestive remarks on this point may be found in Guyau, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, p. 12; and in Havelock Ellis, The New Spirit, pp. 234-236.

[21] Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 508, 509.

[22] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, vol. iii. pp. 201-231.

[23] This view, viz. that the æsthetic cravings are a “racial” possession of mankind, has been clearly and consistently maintained by Marshall, cf. Æsthetic Principles, p. 70; Pain, Pleasure and Æsthetics, pp. 100, 101.

[24] Vischer, Ästhetik, vol. i. p. 53; vol. iii. pp. 3-10.

[25] Taine, Philosophie de l’art, pp. 57-70.

[26] Engel, Ideen zu einer Mimik, i. p. 97.

[27] Cf. as to the significance of this process, and its connection with the imitative process, Baldwin, Mental Development, p. 264.

[28] Marshall, Æsthetic Principles, p. 62; cf. Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 104.

[29] Cf. chapters xiv.-xvi. in the sequel.

[30] Cf. Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 104. (“Nor can we with Kant and Schiller hold that the ‘art-impulse’ is especially connected with the ‘play-impulse’ through lack of end, if I am right that an end for art-work is discernible in attraction through the pleasing of others.”)

[31] Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 151; cf. pp. 150, 152.

[32] Schiller, Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen, esp. Brief 15.

[33] Ibid. Brief 27, quoted in Groos, The Play of Animals, p. 2.

[34] Spencer, Principles of Psychology, vol. ii. pp. 629, 630.

[35] Spencer, “The Origin of Music,” in Mind, xv. 452, 453; reprinted in the last edition of Essays, ii. pp. 430, 431; Wallace, Darwinism, pp. 281, 284, 287, 292; Hudson, The Naturalist in La Plata, pp. 280-286.

[36] Wallaschek, “Natural Selection and Music” in International Congress of Experimental Psychology, second session, 1892, p. 74; Primitive Music, pp. 271, 272. These utterances of Wallaschek ought to be quoted as expressing his views, and not the earlier passage in Mind, 1891, p. 376, from which Groos concludes that Wallaschek agrees with Spencer. Cf. Groos, The Play of Animals, p. 6. As early as 1891, Wallaschek pointed out the importance of music and dances as preparations and not only representations of the most important actions in life. Cf. l.c. p. 74.

[37] Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 18-24.

[38] Groos, l.c. p. 21.

[39] Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 216-356.

[40] Guyau, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, p. 9: “On pourrait donc, en continuant la pensée de M. Spencer, aller jusqu’à dire que l’art, cette espèce de jeu raffiné a son origine ou du moins sa première manifestation dans l’instinct de la lutte, soit contre la nature, soit contre les hommes.” Cf. also Guyau, L’art au point de vue sociologique, p. 14, where Guyau in a brilliant passage shows how an element of passionate struggle and conquest enters even in the most abstract reasoning. To be compared with the chapters of Groos on Kampfspiele.

[41] Féré, Sensation et mouvement, pp. 34, 64; cf. The Pathology of Emotions, p. 206.

[42] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze des menschlichen Gefühlslebens, pp. 89, 95.

[43] Féré, Sensation et mouvement, p. 64.

[44] Gratiolet, De la physionomie, pp. 47, 53; Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions, pp. 80, 207; Bain, The Emotions and the Will, pp. 11, 12; Bouillier, Du plaisir et de la douleur, pp. 50, 51; Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression, pp. 114, 115.

[45] Amiel, Journal, i. p. 208.

[46] Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions, p. 81.

[47] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, pp. 298-301.

[48] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, p. 214.

[49] Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, pp. 222, 223.

[50] Dumont, Théorie scientifique de la sensibilité, pp. 67, 68; Delbœuf, Éléments de psychophysique, pp. 182, 191.

[51] Marshall, l.c. p. 174.

[52] Cf. Stout, Manual of Psychology, pp. 236-239.

[53] Cf. Spencer, Principles of Psychology, i. p. 273.

[54] Hamilton, Lectures, ii. p. 478; cf. also Bouillier, Du plaisir et de la douleur, pp. 52-62.

[55] Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 213; cf. Dr. Stout’s keen criticism of this explanation, Analytic Psychology, ii. pp. 294, 295.

[56] Féré, The Pathology of Emotions, pp. 275, 276; Lombroso, The Man of Genius, pp. 151, 152; Ribot, The Psychology of the Emotions, p. 46 (“Observations on the beneficial effects created on melancholic patients by physical pain”).

[57] Goncourt, Journal des, ii. p. 250.

[58] Cf. Fechner, Vorschule der Aesthetik, ii. p. 265; cf. also Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 187.

[59] Bain, The Emotions and the Will, pp. 5, 6; cf. also The Senses and the Intellect, p. 290; Ribot, The Psychology of the Emotions, pp. 97, 112; Féré, The Pathology of Emotions, p. 44; Paulhan, Les phénomènes affectifs, p. 37; Godfernaux, Le sentiment et la pensée, p. 66.

[60] Stout, Manual of Psychology, p. 296.

[61] A treatment in detail of this point has been given in my Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 57-59.

[62] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, pp. 308, 309.

[63] Spencer, Essays, ii. p. 457.

[64] Cf. James, Principles of Psychology, ii. p. 466; Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions, p. 76.

[65] Spencer, l.c. ii. pp. 456, 457.

[66] For the convenience of treatment we here restrict our attention to those emotional processes the initial stages of which are accompanied by changes of activity in the voluntary muscles.

[67] These linguistic facts might have afforded Professor Mantegazza a further argument in favour of his physiognomical thesis that the expression of injured self-esteem is similar to that of gustatory pain. Cf. Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression, p. 130.

[68] James, Principles of Psychology, ii. p. 463: “Sit all day in a moping posture, sigh, and reply to everything in a dismal voice, and your melancholy lingers.”

[69] Spencer, Principles of Psychology, ii. pp. 590, 591. Cf. also with regard to the enjoyment which can by reflection be derived from sorrow, fear, and other pain-emotions, Paulhan, Les phénomènes affectifs, pp. 119, 120; Hamilton, Lectures, ii. pp. 481-484; Bouillier, Du plaisir et de la douleur, pp. 62-72.

[70] Spencer, l.c. ii. pp. 623-626.

[71] James, Principles of Psychology, ii. pp. 462, 463.

[72] James, l.c. pp. 444, 445. It is to be remarked, however, that in the more elaborate statement of his theory, which Professor James has given in The Psychological Review, 1894, he pays due attention to the influence by which “expression” may change the tone of an emotion. Cf. especially p. 519 about fear: “when the running has actually commenced, it gives rise to exhilaration by its effects on breathing and pulse, etc., in this case, and not to fear.”

[73] The interesting contributions to the psychology of acting, which have been brought together by Mr. William Archer in his Masks or Faces, do not give us much reliable information as to the part which the “expressional movements” play in a deliberate stirring up of an emotion. Even if we were to accept all the testimonies of actors and actresses as a testable evidence, we could scarcely decide whether the emotional state of an actor who plays his part in perfect sincerity is chiefly a result of his losing himself in the fictitious situation, or whether this state follows as a retroaction exercised by the artificial performance of weeping, laughing, sobbing, etc. Cf. Archer, Masks or Faces, pp. 133-136. Some interesting remarks on this point can also be found in Dugald Stewart’s Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 168, 185.

[74] James, Principles of Psychology, ii. p. 444.

[75] Cf. Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, pp. 107-111, where the pain-element of anger is emphasised in opposition to Professor Lange’s description of this emotion.

[76] A detailed account of the various stages of anger has been given by me in Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 73-77. Cf. also Lange, Nydelsernes fysiologi, pp. 16-19, and Lange, Ueber Gemuethsbewegungen, pp. 28-35.

[77] Cf. Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 246; Sully, The Human Mind, ii. p. 91; Hamilton, Lectures, ii. p. 483. It cannot be denied, however, that terror often becomes intensified as a painful feeling in proportion as the heart-beatings, the quiverings, and all the other active manifestations increase.

[78] Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 226; cf. Sully, The Human Mind, ii. p. 34.

[79] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, pp. 195, 196.

[80] Taylor, Te Ika A Maui, p. 175, on the Tangi feasts in New Zealand; Welcker, Kleine Schriften, i. pp. 26-31; Sittl, Gesch. d. griech. Literatur, i. p. 24. For a sympathetic interpretation of such feasts of sorrow see Réclus, Les primitifs, pp. 239, 240. Cf. also the remarks of Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. pp. 688-690, and Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, p. 38.

The above adduced instances show us that even the art of primitive man does not bear out the views recently brought into prominence by Herckenrath and Faguet (Faguet, Drame ancien, drame moderne, pp. 2, 7, 12), and so ably stated by Mr. Walkley (Frames of Mind, pp. 1-7), according to which the enjoyment of tragedy as well as that of comedy can be reduced to a malevolently pleasurable consciousness of our own security in contrast to the sufferings of others. Comparative psychology tends far more to support those authors who contend that in tragedy we enjoy that pleasure which inherently exists in sorrow itself. Cf. Shelley, A Defence of Poetry, p. 35.

[81] Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. p. 688. “De hoc universo genere dicere licet id quod res habet, hominis naturae quodam instinctu ut laetandi ita lugendi causas sibi fingere; unde est, quod aliena funera sequuntur, quod ignotis sepulchris adsident, quod praeteritorum malorum memoriam refricant.”

[82] Lessing, Gelehrter Briefwechsel, pp. 145, 146, quoted in Bernays’ Zwei Abhandlungen, p. 144. Cf. also Scherer, Poetik, p. 112. Scherer, who thinks that the phrase “Bewusstsein unserer Realität” is too abstract in its wording, proposes in its place “Freude an uns selbst” (delight in ourselves).

[83] Helvetius, De l’esprit, discours iii. ch. v.

[84] Jefferies, The Story of My Heart, especially p. 128; Bashkirtseff, Journal, ii. pp. 126, 531, 532; cf. also i. pp. 66, 67; ii. pp. 115, 290.

[85] The purely pathological motives of the self-woundings of Christian fanatics appear with unmistakable clearness from the instances that have been collected in medical literature, cf. especially Calmeil, De la folie, ii. pp. 327, 328, 375-380, 384, 404, 405; Figuier, Hist. du merveilleux, i. pp. 372, 373, 376, 379; Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus, pp. 362-365. We need not dwell in this connection upon the sexually exciting effects which may be created by flagellation. This point has been sufficiently elucidated by the above-mentioned authors.

[86] Lange, Gemüthsbewegungen, pp. 33, 34.

[87] Wundt, Philosophische Studien, vi. pp. 351, 352 (Zur Lehre von Gemüthsbewegungen).

[88] Brinton, The Pursuit of Happiness, p. 18.

[89] Kierkegaard, Enten Eller, i. pp. 23, 24.

[90] Ribot, The Psychology of the Emotions, p. 376.

[91] On the self-woundings of the Maenads cf. Preller, Griechische Mythologie, i. 2. p. 656; Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. p. 672.

[92] Cf. Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 259.

[93] For a copious collection of instances see Joest, Tätowiren, pp. 34, 35; Schneider, Die Naturvölker, i. pp. 111-113; cf. also Smyth, Victoria, i. p. 112 (The Narrinyeri); Cranz, Historie von Grönland, ii. p. 331; Dall, Alaska, p. 417 (The Kygani); Schoolcraft, Information, iv. p. 66 (Dacotas); v. p. 168 (Kenistenos); Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. p. 410 (Tahiti); Cook. (1st) Voyage, p. 104 (Tahiti); Taylor, Te Ika A Maui, p. 102 (Maoris).

[94] It cannot be denied, however, that in many cases the self-wounding is executed as a traditional, superstitious, or sacrificial rite. The Maori funeral ceremonies, in which the apparently impulsive and exalted cutting is “done with considerable method and regularity, so as to make the scars ornamental rather than otherwise,” can thus scarcely be adduced as a genuine instance of emotional expression. Cf. Robley, Moko, p. 46. Still less are we entitled to speak in this connection of those Polynesian funeral ceremonies in which the survivors lacerate themselves and allow the blood to drop on the face of the corpse or under its bier. Cf. the instances of such superstitious self-woundings collected in Hartland, The Legend of Perseus, ii. pp. 241, 321-325.

[95] On woundings in medical cures, cf. esp. Bartels, Medicin der Naturvölker, pp. 267-271; Curr, The Australian Race, ii. pp. 69, 70 (The Dieyerie Tribe, by Gason); Ling Roth, Tasmania, pp. 75, 76; Man, Journ. Anthr. Inst. xii. p. 85 (Andamanese); Mouat, Andaman Islands, p. 307; Bourke, Rep. Bur. Ethn., 1887-88, p. 471 (Medicine-men of the Apache. Scarification resorted to in order to relieve exhaustion); Keating, Narrative of an Expedition, i. p. 226, quotes the interesting conceptions entertained by the Sauks and Foxes as to the result of lacerations. The wounds are inflicted at funerals, “not for the purpose of mortification, or to create a pain, which shall, by dividing their attention, efface the recollection of their loss, but entirely from a belief that their grief is internal, and that the only way of dispelling it is to give it a vent through which to escape.” There seems to be no doubt that similar notions have led to the curing of bodily pain by bleeding.

As to laceration as a means of overcoming humiliation see Curr, l.c. ii. p. 70 (Dieyerie). Even joy, when abnormally strong, seems often to express itself in this way. Ellis, Pol. Res. i. p. 410 (Tahiti); Pritchard, Pol. Rem. p. 138 (Samoa); Péron, Voyage, i. p. 227 (Tasmanians, who scratch themselves in the face and tear the hair in their enthusiasm, when hearing the Marseillaise performed); Bernier, L’art du comédien, p. 310.

As connected with the emotion of joy we may also explain the occurrences of self-woundings at meetings between friends. Cf. esp. Lumholtz, Among Cannibals, pp. 224, 225. It is not to be overlooked that in many tribes friends express their delight at meetings by a ceremonial weeping and wailing. Cf. Man, Journ. Anthr. Inst. xii. p. 147; Day, Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, 1870, p. 157, both on the Andamanese; Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 105; Taylor, Te Ika A Maui, p. 103; Angas, Savage Life, ii. pp. 32, 73, 109, all on New Zealand; Freycinet, Voyage, ii. p. 589 (The Sandwich Islands); Lander, Journal, i. pp. 148, 149 (Yoruba Country); and the instances quoted in Spencer, Principles of Sociology, ii. pp. 20, 70, 71. As this apparently paradoxical expression can be explained in many cases as a conventional ceremony, which is not accompanied by any genuine feeling, so the self-wounding may often be a purely ritual observance. But although some of the above adduced instances can thus be considered as spurious, we nevertheless feel right in assuming that an impulsive creation of pain is generally to be derived from the psychical conditions accompanying high-strung emotion. This is also the conclusion at which Mr. Brinton and Mr. Andrew Lang have arrived. Cf. Brinton, Religion of Primitive Peoples, p. 213; Lang, The Making of Religion, p. 310.

[96] We need only refer to such periods as the fifteenth century and the time of the great revolution. As to the abnormally exaggerated craving for amusement during these unhappy times, cf. especially the remarks of Michelet, Histoire de France, iv. pp. 406, 407; Champfleury, Hist. de la caricature sous la république, pp. 275, 279; Hecker, Volkskrankheiten, pp. 152, 153; Goncourt, Journal des, ii. pp. 180, 181; and the Introduction to Boccaccio’s Decamerone.

[97] Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, pp. 4, 5. Cf. the important elaboration of this theory in Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 171, 174.

[98] Cf. especially the works of Tarde, Schmidkunz, Baldwin.

[99] Cf. Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 72, 76 sq. 182.

[100] There can be no question, in this connection, of entering upon the debate between the adherents of Robert Vischer, Groos, and others, and the associationists, Lipps and Stern, who wish to put other notions, such as recognition or “Verschmelzung” instead of the imitation. Whatever reason Dr. Stern may have to criticise the formulation of the German æsthetic theories of visual intuition, we do not see that he has been able to refute them in their fundamental points. Cf. Stern, Einfühlung und Association, passim.

[101] Jouffroy, Cours d’esthétique, pp. 29, 256, 259, 261.

[102] Vernon Lee and Anstruther Thompson, “Beauty and Ugliness,” in the Contemporary Review, vol. xxii. 1897; cf. especially pp. 357, 544, 548, 550, 554.

[103] Home, Elements of Criticism, i. pp. 178-181.

[104] Cf. Hogarth, Analysis of Beauty, pp. 26-28.

[105] Dugald Stewart, Philosophical Essays, pp. 402-404, 408 (“On the Sublime”).

[106] Spencer, Essays, ii. p. 386 (“Gracefulness”).

[107] Cf. Vernon Lee and Anstruther Thompson, l.c. pp. 550, 686, 687; cf. also Fouillée, Psychologie des idées-forces, ii. pp. 59-64.

[108] Prof. Lipps, who does not believe in an “internal imitation,” says that the anthropomorphic interpretation of outward reality “rückt uns die Dinge näher, macht sie uns vertrauter und damit zugleich vermeintlich verständlicher” (“brings the things nearer to us, makes them more familiar, and thereby produces an illusion that they are more comprehensible”). According to the view which we have adopted above, the gain in comprehensibility is real, and not only illusory. Cf. Lipps, Raumaesthetik, p. 6.

[109] Cf. with regard to the above argument the chapter on movement-perception in Stricker’s Die Bewegungsvorstellungen, especially pp. 20, 21. Cf. also the remarks in Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 10, 11, 157.

[110] Cf. the often-quoted story of Campanella’s device to divine the thoughts of people by imitating their behaviour, as told, for example, in Burke’s The Sublime and the Beautiful, pp. 98, 99. Mr. Stanley quotes one of Poe’s tales, in which the same trick is used by a detective (Evolutionary Psychology of Feeling, p. 364).

[111] Cf. Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, p. 430.

[112] An almost simian tendency to imitation has been noticed among several primitive races, such as the Australians (Spencer, Descr. Soc. Div. i. No. 3, p. 5, quoting Sturt) and the Fuegians (Spencer, ibid. quoting Weddel).

As is well known, imitation is in tribes of a hysterical disposition, such as the Malays and the Lapps, apt to become an endemic disease. Cf. with regard to the Malays, Swettenham, Malay Sketches, pp. 70-82; Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus, p. 74; with regard to the Lapps, Düben, Lappland, p. 192; Schmidkunz, Psychologie der Suggestion, p. 199. Instances of contagious mental diseases and pathological imitation among civilised nations are too familiar to be enumerated.

[113] Cf. Baldwin, Mental Development, p. 403.

[114] Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes, p. 228; cf. Harless, Lehrb. d. plast. Anatomie, p. 125, and Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 6, 7, 193, 194.

[115] Goncourt, Journal des, i. p. 281:—Hier j’étais à un bout de la grande table du château. Edmond à l’autre bout causait avec Thérèse. Je n’entendais rien, mais quand il souriait, je souriais involontairement et dans la même pose de tête.... Jamais âme pareille n’a été mise en deux corps.

[116] Cf. especially Binet, Le fétichisme dans l’amour, p. 248.

[117] For a treatment of the interindividual transmission of feeling, in which the chief points of modern theories on mob-mind are anticipated, see Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 208-211.

[118] Féré, The Pathology of Emotions, p. 212.

[119] Lancet, 1886, i. pp. 312, 313, quoted in Aubry, La contagion du meurtre, pp. 220-223; Le Bon, Psychologie des foules, p. 46.

[120] We need scarcely remark, in this connection, that every unhappy experience awakens the craving for assistance and consolation, and therefore indirectly gives rise to an effort to create sympathy. This point must, however, be passed over when treating of impulsive, purely emotional manifestations. As to the pleasures and consolations of mutual sympathy, compare, moreover, Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, pp. 10-13, especially p. 12.

[121] Espinas, Des sociétiés animales, p. 328.

[122] Brehm, Thierleben, i. pp. 204, 205, 208.

[123] Van Ende, Hist. nat. de la croyance, I. L’animal, p. 218; Brehm, l.c. p. 87.

[124] Wallaschek, Primitive Music, pp. 230, 231; Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, p. 219. Cf. also Schlegel, A. W., Sämmtl. Werke, vii. pp. 149, 150 (Briefe über Poesie, Silbenmasz und Sprache), where a similar theory is advanced.

[125] Bücher, Arbeit und Rhythmus, passim.

[126] Bücher, l.c. passim. Compare, however, p. 306 as to the difference between labour in the modern sense and the working activity of primitive man.

[127] Cf. Souriau, L’esthétique du mouvement, p. 70.

[128] Bourgoing, Modern State of Spain, ii. pp. 299, 300.

[129] Vernon Lee and Anstrather Thompson, “Beauty and Ugliness,” in the Contemporary Review, vol. lxxii. 1897, p. 559: “To this quality of mere complexity of surface, pattern adds by its regularity the power of compelling the eye and breath to move at an even and unbroken pace. Even the simplest, therefore, of the patterns ever used have a power akin to that of march music, for they compel our organism to a regular rhythmical mode of being.”

[130] The expression “gymnastic,” as distinguished from pantomimic dance, is borrowed from Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst.

[131] That the dances of salutation and homage in most cases really are to be derived from the expression of joy has been shown by Spencer, Principles of Sociology, iii. p. 201, and might be corroborated by instances referring to all the details of complimentary ceremonialism.

[132] Carver, Travels, pp. 180-182 (Lake Pepin); Martin, Molukken, p. 57 (Lectimor); Polack, The New Zealanders, i. p. 88 (Maoris). Cf. also Rienzi, Océanie, iii. p. 170, on the frequent quarrels between Europeans and Maoris that have arisen from a misunderstanding of these kinds of salutation. Johnstone, Maoria, p. 49: “The war dance was practised both as a martial exercise and as an amusement, and was considered equally adapted to give honourable reception to friendly visitors or to intimidate an enemy on the field of battle.”

[133] Cf. the instances collected by Féré, Pathology of Emotions, pp. 360-390; and Godfernaux, Le sentiment et la pensée, pp. 65 sq. A powerful description of the mythogenic justifications by which anxiety creates to itself a reason is given in Maupassant’s poem “Terreur” in Des Vers, pp. 19, 20.

[134] Cf. on the infectious influence of dramatic performances, Cahusac, La danse, i. pp. 166, 167; ii. pp. 61, 62; Jacobowski, Anfänge der Poesie, pp. 127-129; Tarde, “Foules et sectes,” in Revue des deux Mondes, vol. cxx. (1893), especially p. 368. It is scarcely necessary to point out to how great an extent the emotional conveyance by means of dramatic action must have been strengthened by the chorus, which, by its laughter or wailing, affords a kind of model expression to the spectator. Possibly, indeed, the Greek chorus developed from a ceremonial in which chorus and audience were not distinct but identical—a ritual of wailings or rejoicings provoked by the recital of a traditional story. This view, curiously in advance of his times, is suggested by Brown, an eighteenth century philosopher (History of the Rise of Poetry, pp. 126-128): “How came it to pass that in the more barbarous periods the number [of the chorus] should be so much greater? Manifestly because that rude age bordered on the savage times, when the whole audience had sympathised with the narrative actor, and became as one general choir.”

[135] Engel, Ideen zu einer Mimic, i. pp. 86-88; cf. also Seckendorff, Vorlesungen über Declamation und Mimik, ii. p. 5; Sully-Prudhomme, L’expression dans les-beaux arts, pp. 96, 97.

[136] Lichtenberg, Briefe aus England, Vermischte Schriften, iii. p. 262.

[137] Lange, Nydelsernes fysiologi, pp. 168, 169. As to the importance of imitative reaction for our enjoyment of sculpture, cf. Vernon Lee and Anstruther Thompson, The Contemporary Review, vol. lxxii., pp. 677-679.

[138] Sully-Prudhomme, L’expression dans les beaux-arts, pp. 4, 5.

[139] Nietzsche, Die Geburt der Tragödie, p. 8.

[140] Goethe, Dichtung und Wahrheit, iii. p. 132. This instance has been adduced by Professor Julius Lange in support of his emotionalistic art-theory; Om Kunstvœrdi, pp. 72-84.

[141] Wallaschek, Mind, N.S. iv. p. 34, “On the Difference of Time and Rhythm in Music;” Bücher, Arbeit und Rhythmus, p. 306.

[142] Cf. Emmanuel, La danse grecque antique, p. 127.

[143] Cf. Creuzer, Symbolik und Mythologie, iii. p. 155; Ruskin avails himself of the same allegory in The Queen of the Air, pp. 66-70.

[144] Revue Critique, 1896, ii. pp. 386, 387; cf. also Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 110, 476.

[145] Spencer, Essays, ii. 460.

[146] Cf. Charcot and Richer, Les démoniaques dans l’art, p. 37; Emmanuel, La danse grecque antique, pp. 102, 196-198, 302, 303.

[147] Michelet, La Sorcière, p. 80.

[148] Cf. for example, Dyer, Gods in Greece, pp. 114-117.

[149] Cf. Brown, The Fine Arts, pp. 22-35, 41-70; and Hill in Pop. Sc. Monthly, vol. xlii. pp. 734-749.

[150] Rapp, Rheinisches Museum, xxvii. p. 2 (“Die Mänade im griechischen Cultus”).

[151] Rohde, Psyche, pp. 331, 343.

[152] Nietzsche, Die Geburt der Tragödie, pp. 6, 7.

[153] A detailed treatment of gracefulness in art and life has been given by the author in Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 132-147.

[154] Cf. Holz, Die Kunst, p. 117. It is only fair to add that in their own novels the authors of this school have involuntarily failed to support their theoretical principles.

[155] Cf. chap. i.

[156] Cf. Taine, Philosophie de l’art, pp. 72, 73.

[157] Ibid. pp. 52, 53.

[158] Hemsterhuis, Œuvres, i. pp. 14-18, 24, 66 (Lettre sur la sculpture, Lettre sur les désirs). A similar thought was applied by Poe to the fundamental principles in poetic composition and has exercised a great influence on recent literary movements. Cf. Poe, Works, vi. pp. 3-6 (The poetic principle). For a further elaboration of this notion cf. Bourget, Études et portraits, i. pp. 225, 226; Hansson, Kåserier i mystik, pp. 140, 141; Symons, The Symbolist Movement, p. 137 (Stéphane Mallarmé).

[159] Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, p. 180.

[160] Wagner, Ges. Schriften, iv. p. 39 (Oper und Drama).

[161] Cf. chap. ii. in the preceding.

[162] Cf. the quotations adduced by Harnack, Die klassische Ästhetik, pp. 124, 143, 161, 164, 165. Cf. also von Stein, Goethe und Schiller, Ästhetik der deutschen Klassiker, pp. 25, 27.

[163] Taine, De l’idéal dans l’art, pp. 19, 50, 130, 175.

[164] For an interesting comparison between French and English ideals of art, compare the aphorisms of Mr. Quilter in Sententiæ Artis, pp. 7, 121, with the views of Taine, as expressed, for example, in L’idéal dans l’art, p. 148.

[165] Cf. Ruskin, Modern Painters, 1, i. ii. § 8; iii. iv. 3, §§ 21, 24, 28.

[166] Tolstoy, What is Art? Julius Lange, Om Kunstværdi. Cf. also the remarks in Carpenter, Angels’ Wings, the poetic theory of Holmes, as set forth in What is Poetry? and the definition of March, “Evolution and Psychology in Art,” Mind, N.S. v. p. 442.

[167] Taine, Philosophie de l’art, p. 50. For a just appreciation of the part of feeling in art see also De l’idéal dans l’art, p. 152; Ruskin, The Laws of Fésole, chap. i. pp. 1-7; Modern Painters, iii. iv. i. §§ 13, 14; Lectures on Art, pp. 80, 81.

[168] Hirth, Aufgaben der Kunstphysiologie, pp. 14-16.

[169] Cf. von Stein, Goethe und Schiller, Ästhetik der deutschen Klassiker, p. 32.

[170] Cf. the quotations from Schiller’s letters to Goethe, adduced by Harnack in Die klassische Ästhetik der Deutschen, pp. 89-92.

[171] Leconte de Lisle, Poèmes barbares, p. 221.

[172] Van Dyke, Principles of Art, p. 281.

[173] Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 327, 328.

[174] Cf. especially March, “Evolution and Psychology in Art,” in Mind, N.S. v. (1896); Balfour, The Evolution of Decorative Art; Haddon, Evolution in Art, and the papers of Holmes in Rep. Bur. Ethn. iii. iv. vi., and in The American Anthropologist, iii.

[175] For a recent defence of this theory see Tarde, La logique sociale, pp. 445, 446.

[176] Cf. chap. vi. in the preceding.

[177] Cf. Mallery in Rep. Bur. Ethn. i. pp. 283, 284, 347; Sayce, Introd. to the Science of Language, i. pp. 92-94, 105-107; ii. pp. 306-308. It is to be remarked that in maintaining the priority of pantomimic language Mr. Mallery always emphasises the “instinctive” character of this means of communication. Cp. Rep. Bur. i. pp. 340, 347. Professor Sayce seems to conceive gesture-language as consisting only of dramatically imitating “moves” or sounds, (l.c. i. p. 107). Professor Tylor, on the other hand, who takes up a critical position with regard to the theory of gesture-language as an intermediate stage of evolution, speaks of gesture-language as made up by delineations and indications (Early Hist. of Mankind, pp. 15, 16). In a theoretical discussion it is evidently necessary to maintain a strict distinction between these different kinds of pantomimic thought-conveyance, which are no doubt accompanied by different degrees of intention. Cp. Romanes, Mental Evol. in Man, pp. 86, 103.

[178] Cf. Kussmaul in Ziemssen’s Cyclopædia, p. 14, esp. p. 587 (Disturbances of Speech.)

[179] Cf. Romanes, l.c. pp. 113, 148, 149, on the influence exercised by the constructions of spoken language on the gesture-language of deaf-mutes.

[180] Cf. Tylor, l.c. pp. 74-79, on the improbability of the stories about tribes who cannot make themselves understood by each other without the help of gestures. Dr. Tylor’s criticism of Captain Burton’s statement that the Aropahos “can hardly converse with one another in the dark” has been amply confirmed by the subsequent researches of Mallery. Cf. Rep. Bur. Ethn. i. pp. 314, 315. Naturally, therefore, one feels inclined to adopt a sceptical attitude with regard to Miss Kingsley’s assertion that the language of the Bubis “depends so much on gesture that they cannot talk in it to each other in the dark” (Travels in West Africa, p. 439). Cf., however, with regard to the element of gesture in West African languages, Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 237.

[181] Wood, Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 266 (Bushmen); Cranz, Historie von Grönland, i. p. 279. As to the Australians the statements are somewhat contradictory. Mr. Curr (The Australian Race, i. p. 93) says that “some tribes express a few things by signs made with their hands; but, on the whole, the Australian is very little given to gesticulation.” This statement, however, has been expressly encountered by Mr. Stirling, who describes a very extensive system of signs. Rep. Horn Exped. iv. Anthropology, pp. 111-125. Cf. also Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 500.

[182] Stirling, l.c. p. 112.

[183] Roth, W. E., N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines, pp. 71 sq.

[184] Fraser, Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 25.

[185] Roth, W. E., N.W.C. Queensland, p. 71. Cf. a remark in the same direction by Mallery, Rep. Bur. Ethn. i. p. 312.

[186] See Tylor, Primitive Culture, i. p. 187; Mallery, l.c. pp. 295, 307; Sayce, Introd. Science of Lang. i. p. 93. Compare also the classic instance of Sicily, meeting-ground of so many peoples.

[187] Fraser, Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 25; Roth, l.c. p. 71.

[188] Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens, p. 72; Mallery, l.c. p. 307.

[189] Mallery, l.c. pp. 311, 312. That the gesture-language of the North American Indians is to be explained as a result of peculiar geographical conditions was remarked already by Dugald Stewart, Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 19-22.

[190] Cf. the interesting descriptions of Maori political meetings in Earle, New Zealand, p. 91; Shortland, Traditions of the New Zealanders, p. 171.

[191] Home, Elements of Criticism, i. p. 435.

[192] For an appreciation of pantomimic action as means of conveying religious feelings see Mr. Tylor’s description of the service in the deaf-dumb institution of Berlin, Early History of Mankind, p. 33.

[193] Mallery in Rep. Bur. Ethnol. i. p. 370.

[194] Von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens, p. 244.

[195] Mallery in Rep. Bur. Ethnol. i. p. 370. Cf. also Mallery, l.c. x. (1888-89), (Picture-writing of the N.A. Indians). That the pictographic elements to a large extent have been influenced by the manual signs was remarked already in 1836 by Rafinesque. Cf. Brinton, The Lenape, p. 152, where the merits and the priority of this peculiar author are vindicated.

[196] Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, p. 406.

[197] For examples of pictorial art subservient to such purely practical purposes see Mallery, l.c. x. pp. 329-375.

[198] Im Thurn, Primitive Games, pp. 273, 275.

[199] Roth, N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines, pp. 117, 118. Oldfield (“The Aborigines of Australia,” in Trans. Ethnol. Soc. N.S. iii. p. 257) describes a Watchandie pantomime, imitating the proceedings of the white man in hunting whales, and composed by an old native who had some time before visited the coast.

[200] Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, ii. p. 45. For imitations of the white man in dramatic dances see also Lander, Clapperton’s Last Expedition, i. pp. 120, 121; Cook, Voyage Towards the South Pole (2 Voy.), i. p. 368.

[201] Cook, Voyage Towards the South Pole (2 Voy.), i. p. 356 (Huaheine).

[202] Levertin, Fars och farsörer, p. 78, especially the quotation from Chappuy’s “L’avare cornu” (1580).

[203] For songs describing the incidents in a travel see Batchelor, The Ainu, pp. 123, 124; Chamisso, in Kotzebue’s Reisen, iii. p. 67 (Radack); Woods, Native Tribes, pp. 38, 39 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”); Grey, Journals, ii. p. 253; Polack, New Zealanders, ii. pp. 167, 168. On current events as subjects of primitive poetry cf. Bonwick, Tasmanians, p. 29; Kingsley, Travels, p. 66, (Bubis); Curr, Australian Race, iii. p. 169 (Mathew, Mary River Natives); Metz, Neilgherry Hills, p. 30 (Todas); Ahlqvist, Acta Soc. Scient. Fenn. xiv. (“Wogulen und Ostjaken”); Day, Proceedings of the As. Soc. 1870, p. 157 (Observ. on the Andamanese); Ehrenreich in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xix. p. 32 (Botokudos); Erman, Travels in Siberia, ii. pp. 42, 43 (Ostyak songs and pantomimes).

[204] Cf. Bonwick, Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians, p. 29; Lenz, Skizzen aus West Afrika, pp. 110, 111 (Abongos); Schneider, Die Naturvölker, ii. p. 235, 236 (Interior Africa).

[205] Cf. Eyre, Expeditions into Central Australia, ii. p. 240; Cruickshank, Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast, ii. p. 266.

[206] St. John, Far East, i. p. 114 (Kayans of Baram); Petherick, Egypt, p. 130 (Hassanyeh Arabs); Mollien, Travels, p. 74 (Joloffs).

[207] Woods, l.c. pp. 38, 39 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”). Cf. the solos in the Atiu canoe-song, describing the guns of Captain Cook. Gill, From Darkness to Light, p. 263. On the song of the Marshall Islanders describing the ships of the Russian expedition, the dresses of the sailors, etc., see Rienzi, Océanie, ii. p. 196.

[208] Varigny, Quatorze ans aux Iles Sandwich, pp. 18-23, particularly p. 19. A short reference to the same song can be found in Fornander, The Polynesian Race, ii. p. 171.

[209] Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 244 sq., 248, 249.

[210] Hyades, in Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, vii. p. 253.

[211] Martial, ibid. i. p. 214.

[212] Mr. Bridges’ unpublished work, quoted by Hyades, l.c. vii. p. 377.

[213] Cranz, Historie von Grönland, i. p. 292.

[214] Cranz, l.c. p. 229.

[215] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 47, 48; cf. Romilly, My Verandah in New Guinea, p. 87.

[216] Kleinschmidt, in Journal des Museum Godeffroy, xiv. 1879, p. 268. (“Reisen auf den Viti Inseln. Insel Vatu Lele”). Williams, Fiji, pp. 99, 142; Spencer, Descriptive Sociology, Division I. Nr. iii. p. 60.

[217] Letherman, in Smithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 295, 296 (The Navajo tribe).

[218] Cf. Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 22-26, where the assertions of Dr. Letherman are quoted and opposed.

[219] Cook. (1st) Voyage, p. 388; Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, p. 426; Spencer, Principles of Sociology, iii. p. 78.

[220] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, ii. p. xii.

[221] Schoolcraft, l.c. i. p. 18.

[222] Lubbock, l.c. p. 426.

[223] Kane, Wanderings, p. 179.

[224] See infra, p. 175.

[225] With regard to the traditional art of the Australian natives compare Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, pp. 220 sq. 473, 485; Lloyd, Tasmania and Victoria, p. 466.

[226] Cf. e.g. Steinen, Durch Central Brasilien, pp. 266, 267, on a Yuruna dance.

[227] Cf. Bourke, Scatologic Rites, p. 25.

[228] Bourke, “The Medicine-men of the Apache,” in Rep. Bur. Ethnol. ix. 1887-88.

[229] Cf. Bourke, Scatologic Rites, pp. 6, 7, 64, and the author’s Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 114, 119.

[230] Bourke, The Snake-Dance of the Moquis, pp. 178, 179.

[231] Cf. the author’s Skildringar ur Pueblo folkens konstlif (The Art-life of the Pueblo-Indians), passim.

[232] Cf. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. p. 797.

[233] Cf. especially Fewkes, “The Snake Ceremonials at Walpi,” in Journ. American Ethnology and Archæology, vol. iv., especially pp. 119, 124.

[234] A detailed account of these prayers has been given in Pueblo folkens konstlif, passim.

[235] Cf. Tylor, Prim. Culture, i. pp. 392 sq.

[236] Mooney, in The American Anthropologist, iii. pp. 108, 109 (“The Cherokee Ball-Play”).

[237] Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 246, 247.

[238] Réclus, Les Primitifs, p. 356. For some unmistakable examples of myths secondary to the corresponding rites see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 443.

[239] Cf. Abercromby, Pre-and Proto-historic Finns, i. pp. 358, 359, ii. p. 41.

[240] Erman, Travels, ii. pp. 50, 51.

[241] Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, pp. 356 sq.

[242] Cf. Kingsley, Travels, p. 473. On the difficulty of deciding whether a given piece of sculpture is to be interpreted as an idol or as a merely memorial portrait, see Brinton, Report upon the Collections, etc., p. 33.

[243] Schweinfurth, Artes Africanæ, pl. viii. f. 5; Cruickshank, Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast, ii. pp. 270, 271; Schmeltz, Ethnol. Abtheil. des Mus. Godeffroy, p. 241.

[244] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 173, 174. The same views have been expressed by Finsch, Ethnologische Erfahrungen, pp. 255-257; Samoafahrten, pp. 47-49, 75, 175.

[245] Polack, New Zealand, i. pp. 115, 116, 236, 237; Robley, Moko, pp. 88 sq. Cf. about “Moko”-tattooing as a means of recognising individuals, living or dead, Robley, l.c. pp. 131, 146, 147, 159.

[246] Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen, i. pp. 258-261. The remarks of Herr Andree have been emphatically supported by von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Central Brasiliens, p. 244; cf. also Hoffman, Ethnographic Observations, in U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey, 1876, especially p. 475.

[247] Im Thurn, Indians of Guiana, pp. 403-410. On similar grounds the application of Herr Andree’s theory to the North American Petroglyphs has been opposed by Mallery, in Rep. Bur. Ethnol. x. pp. 28, 29 (“Picture-writing of the American Indians”).

[248] Svoboda, in Archiv für Ethnographie, v. pp. 162, 163. Cf. also Meyer, Bilderschriften des Ostindischen Archipels, p. 1.

[249] Cf. Grey, Journals, ii. p. 310.

[250] As typical illustrations of this class of legends we may instance the Polynesian poems quoted by Fornander, The Polynesian Race, ii. 12-19, 284-286.

[251] Cf. pp. 160, 161, in the preceding, and Gill, From Darkness to Light, pp. 248-264.

[252] See Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. p. 286; iv. pp. 79, 101, 105; Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences, p. 125; Polack, New Zealanders, ii. p. 167; and, above all, the collection of traditional war-poetry from the Hervey Group, published by Gill in From Darkness to Light.

[253] Cf. above, p. 165.

[254] Oviedo, Histoire des Indes, pp. 69, 70; Markham, in the Introduction to his translation of Ollanta, pp. 1, 2; Spencer, Descr. Soc. ii. pp. 13, 68, 70, 71; Forbes, Dahomey, ii. p. 13. On historical songs among the military tribes of Africa cf. also Shooter, The Kafirs, p. 268; Burton, Lake Regions, i. p. 263 (Wagogos). As regards the influence of war on early Arab poetry see Posnett, Comparative Literature, p. 133.

[255] Cf. e.g. the humble traditions of the Kubus, as quoted by Forbes, Wanderings, p. 243.

[256] Laing, Travels, p. 186 (Village Kamia); Dobrizhoffer, The Abipones, ii. pp. 430, 431.

[257] Parker, Aborigines of Australia, pp. 25, 26; Howitt in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xiii. pp. 453, 454 (Australian ceremonies of initiation), and Cameron in the same journal, xiv. p. 358 (Tribes of N.S. Wales); the last two instances quoted in Frazer, Totemism, p. 47. See also Fison, “The Nanga,” in J. A. I. xiv., esp. p. 22, on an initiation ceremony in Fiji, representing the ancestors lying dead and coming to life again, which curiously resembles Collins’s description and pictures of an Australian initiation (Collins, N.S. Wales, i. p. 575). For a somewhat analogous drama in East Africa see Dale, Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxv. p. 189 (Bondi country). For interpretation of all these rites see Frazer, Totemism, p. 47; and The Golden Bough, ii. pp. 343-359.

[258] Carver, Travels, pp. 175-180; Schoolcraft, Information, v. pp. 428 sq. Both quoted by Frazer. To be compared with the initiation into the Secret Society of Nkimba—Ward in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxiv. pp. 288, 289 (Congo tribes).

[259] Crane, Bases of Design, p. 189.

[260] Cf. Haddon, Evolution in Art, pp. 220, 221.

[261] Brown, Hist. of the Origin and Rise of Poetry, pp. 49, 50.

[262] Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. pp. 103, 124, 125; cf. also ii. pp. 436, 437, and The Origin of Species, i. p. 109.

[263] Ribot, Psychologie de l’attention, pp. 44, 45.

[264] Espinas, Des sociétés animales, p. 284.

[265] Brehm, Thierleben, v. pp. 601, 602; cf. also Wallace, Tropical Nature, p. 199.

[266] Nilsson, Foglarna, ii. p. 56; Lloyd, Game Birds and Wild Fowl, p. 81.

[267] Geddes and Thomson, The Evolution of Sex, p. 28.

[268] Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. pp. 107-109, 252.

[269] Cf. Wallace, Tropical Nature, pp. 196-198, Darwinism, p. 284; Westermarck, Human Marriage, pp. 244, 250.

[270] Wallace, Tropical Nature, pp. 193, 209, 210, 213; Darwinism, pp. 284, 287, 292, 294.

[271] Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. p. 103.

[272] Cf. Wallace, Darwinism, p. 293; Tropical Nature, p. 199.

[273] Cf. Schneider, Der Thierische Wille, p. 367.

[274] Cf. about the relation between sexual ripening and the development of the vocal organs, Buffon, Hist. nat. des oiseaux, i. pp. 21, 22.

[275] For some suggestive remarks in this direction see Espinas, Des sociétés animales, p. 313; and the anonymous paper on “The Descent of Man” in The Quarterly Review, 1871, vol. cxiii. p. 62.

[276] Westermarck, Human Marriage, pp. 245, 249.

[277] Lindsay, Mind in the Lower Animals, i. p. 252, 253; ii. pp. 126, 219, 220; Grant Allen, The Colour Sense, pp. 119, 157, 167; Romanes, Animal Intelligence, p. 247.

[278] Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. pp. 123-125; Nilsson, Foglarna, i. pp. 202, 206; Lindsay, Mind in the Lower Animals, ii. p. 152; Cornish, Life at the Zoo, pp. 101-103, 105, 106.

[279] Romanes, Darwin, i. p. 381; Büchner, Liebe und Liebes-Leben, p. 52.

[280] Beccari, “Le capanne dell’ Amblyornis inornata,” in Annali del museo civico di storia naturale di Genova, ix. pp. 382-391.

[281] Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. p. 77.

[282] Cf. especially the dresses of Homophania insectivora, Petasophora cyanotis, and Steganura underwoodi, as depicted in Mulsant, Hist. nat. des oiseaux-mouches, Pl. 62, 91a, 110.

[283] Binet, Le fétichisme dans l’amour, etc., pp. 257 sq. (L’intensité des images mentales).

[284] Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 243, 283; cf. also Hellwald, Die menschliche Familie, pp. 14-16; Van Ende, Hist. nat. de la croyance, I. L’animal, p. 238.

[285] Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. pp. 106, 107.

[286] Wallace, Darwinism, pp. 284, 287, 292, 294.

[287] Spencer, Essays, ii. pp. 427, 430, 431. Some of the arguments of Spencer had been adduced by Barrington in his polemic against Buffon. Cf. Philosophical Transactions, 1773, pp. 262, 263 (Experiments on the singing of birds).

[288] Hudson, The Naturalist in La Plata, pp. 280 sq.

[289] A more detailed account of this question has been given in the author’s Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 29, 30.

[290] Espinas, Des sociétés animales, p. 328.

[291] For experiments proving the invigorating effects of colour-impression upon the animal organism, particularly upon insects, see Féré, Pathology of Emotions, p. 23.

[292] Brehm, Thierleben, iv. p. 20; cf. also Schneider, Der thierische Wille, p. 172; Espinas, l.c. p. 286; Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 242-244.

[293] Groos, l.c. p. 242.

[294] Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 244, 245; Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 329-340.

[295] Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. pp. 18, 94, 110, 137.

[296] Ibid. ii. p. 251. When advocating the Darwinian theory of sexual selection, Professor Poulton seems to use the notion “æsthetic appreciation” in this wide sense. Cf. Colours of Animals, p. 286.

[297] Cf. Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. pp. 67, 74.

[298] Ibid. ii. p. 67.

[299] Nilsson, Foglarna, ii. p. 185.

[300] Ibid. ii. p. 8; i. p. 509.

[301] Westermarck, Human Marriage, pp. 200, 201, 212.

[302] Ibid. pp. 196, 198.

[303] Schurtz, Grundzüge einer Philosophie der Tracht, pp. 21, 57, 77, 80.

[304] As regards these various means of “embellishment” see the collection of instances in Magitot, “Les mutilations ethniques,” in Congrès d’anthropologie, 1880.

[305] Cf. Westermarck, Human Marriage, pp. 265, 266; Lippert, Kulturgeschichte, i. pp. 368, 369.

[306] Cf. Brinton, Races and Peoples, p. 43.

[307] Ahlqvist, Muistelmia, p. 11.

[308] Humboldt, Travels, iii. p. 236; cf. Joest, Tätowiren, pp. 14, 15; Brinton, Races and Peoples, p. 42.

[309] Westermarck, Human Marriage, p. 263; Lippert, Kulturgeschichte, i. pp. 402-405.

[310] Cf. Westermarck, Human Marriage, pp. 195, 200, 201.

[311] Westermarck, l.c. pp. 196-198; cf. also Finsch, Ethnologische Erfahrungen, p. 44 (New Zealand).

[312] Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, pp. 58, 59; Steinen, Under den Naturvölkern, pp. 191, 192; Lisiansky, Voyage, p. 86; Moseley in Journ. Anthr. Inst. vi. p. 398; Finsch, l.c. pp. 64, 85, 225; Roth, W. E., N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines, p. 113; Wilken, Nederlandsch-Indië, pp. 37, 38; Führer durch das Museum für Völkerkunde, p. 87.

[313] Roth, l.c. p. 114.

[314] Wilken, l.c. p. 38; cf. also Steinen, l.c. pp. 195, 196.

[315] Westermarck, Human Marriage, p. 209.

[316] For some curious superstitions of this kind see Schneider, Die Naturvölker, i. p. 269.

[317] Somerville, in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxiii. p. 368 (Notes on the New Hebrides).

[318] Elworthy, The Evil Eye, pp. 16, 148-154; Schurtz, in Archiv für Anthropologie, xxii. p. 60 (Amulette und Zaubermittel); Svoboda, Geschichte der Ideale, i. pp. 294-296, on obscene amulets in classical art. It may be remarked that ithyphallic talismans are especially numerous in and about New Guinea. Cf. Schmeltz in De Clercq, Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea, p. 244.

[319] Kleinpaul, Sprache ohne Worte, p. 275. Cf. also the obscene and indecent character of the devil dances on Ceylon—Sirr, Ceylon, ii. p. 52. To the same superstitious motives we may perhaps also ascribe the occurrence of improper dances and pantomimes at funerals, i.e. at an occasion when there is especial reason to fear the influence of malignant spirits. For instances of such funeral ceremonies see Laing, Travels, p. 368 (Soolimas); Metz, Neilgherry Hills, pp. 77, 78 (Badagas); Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, vi. p. 407 (Polynesia). The interpretation of these peculiar rites must, however, necessarily be only hypothetical. For other explanations of them see Réclus, Les Primitifs, p. 242, and Svoboda, l.c. i. p. 557.

[320] On exposure as an offence cf. the instructive instances quoted in Ellis, Man and Woman, p. 61.

[321] Ratzel, Völkerkunde, i. p. 64. On superstitious motives for covering the organs of generation cf. also Crawley in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxiv., especially pp. 441, 442 (Sexual Taboo). The Bible text (Genesis ix. 21-25), which has been interpreted by Schurtz (Philosophie der Tracht, p. 56) as a case of modesty, is undoubtedly to be explained by reference to phallic superstitions.

[322] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 125. On somewhat similar notions entertained by the North American Indians, cf. the instances quoted in Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. p. 24.

[323] Hartland, Legend of Perseus, i. pp. 179, 180; cf. also Marsden, Sumatra, p. 297 (Lampongs).

[324] Hartland, l.c. i. p. 170.

[325] Ibid. i. p. 170; Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii. p. 237.

[326] Cf. Westermarck, Human Marriage, pp. 173 sq.; Joest, Tätowiren, p. 56.

[327] Cf. Tetens and Kubary in Journal des Museum Godeffroy, ii. p. 16 (Yap); Kubary, l.c. viii. p. 133 (Pelew Islands: Gems and bracelets as badges and class distinctions); Angas, Polynesia, pp. 293, 297 (Tahiti: different ranks among the Areoi distinguished by different tattooings); Schmeltz, Ethnol. Abtheilung des Museum Godeffroy, pp. 182 sq., 259-261, 478 sq. (Fiji; Marquesas Islands; Samoa: tattooings as connected with distinctions of rank). These facts are, as Schmeltz remarks, in direct opposition to the statements of Finsch in Verhandlungen d. Berlin Anthropol. Gesellschaft, 1879, p. 414.—Lütke does not himself think that the richness of tattoo patterns on the Caroline Islands stands in any relation to the rank of the tattooed individual; but he admits that some members of his expedition had got such an impression, Voyage, i. pp. 359, 360. The belief of the Fijians, to which so curious an analogy has been found among the Eskimos (Lubbock, Prehist. Times, p. 565; Hall, Arctic Researches, p. 570), that only tattooed people are entitled to happiness after death may perhaps be connected with notions of an Elysium reserved for individuals of a certain rank. Cf. also Ymer, iv. p. 317, on the views of the Pelew islanders as to nose ornaments as a condition for entering the realm of spirits, and Finsch, Ethnol. Erfahrungen, p. 316, quoting, with reservation, Kirby on a Gilbert’s Island paradise, open only to the spirits of tattooed people. With regard to the African tribes we are unable to adduce any unambiguous instances of scars as denoting rank and status. See, however, Ellis, Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 146.

[328] Wundt, Ethik. p. 152.

[329] Kubary, Journal des Museum Godeffroy, viii. p. 133 (Pelew and Ponape Islanders).

[330] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, ii. pp. 75, 174 sq., 184 sq.; Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern, p. 179.

[331] With regard to the later developments of such triumphal signs compare e.g. Wuttke, Geschichte d. Schrift, i. pp. 108 sq.; Wilken, Nederlandsch-Indië, pp. 36, 37; Joest, Welt-Fahrten, ii. p. 301 (Formosa); Burchell, Travels, ii. p. 535 (Bachapins).

[332] Schneider, Die Naturvölker, i. pp. 109, 110; Robley, Moko, p. 46; Godden in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxvi. p. 185 (Nagas); Man, Journ. Anthr. Inst. xii. p. 35, thinks that the Andamanese tattooing is executed “primarily as ornamental, and secondarily as proving the courage of the individual and his (or her) power of enduring pain.”

[333] Schneider, l.c. i. p. 107.

[334] On tattooing as a pictography compare Wuttke, Geschichte der Schrift, i. pp. 97-99, 102.

[335] Stolpe, Tätowirung der Oster-Insulaner, p. 8.

[336] Cf. Sarasin, Forschungen auf Ceylon, iii. p. 511 (Magical cords worn by the Veddas: the custom considered to be of Singhalese origin); Man, Journ. Anthr. Inst. xii. p. 86 (Bone necklaces worn by the Andamanese as a cure for sickness); Ibid. p. 170 (Superstitious notions of the Andamanese with regard to tattooing); Stevens, “Wilde Stämme Malâkas,” in Veröff. d. Mus. Völkerkunde, ii. p. 145 (Amulet collars); Marshall, Todas, p. 49 (Rings and bracelets as charms); Elliot, Memoirs on the Races of the N. W. Provinces of India, i. p. 240 (Black “mouches” worn on the face for averting evil eye); Bock, Temples and Elephants, p. 170 (Superstitious tattooings among Burmese and Ngious); Smyth, Victoria, i. p. 112; and Taplin, “The Narrinyeri,” in Woods, Native Tribes, p. 21 (Hair of deceased worn around the head in order to make “the eyes large and the sight keen”); Roth, Tasmania, p. 76 (Bones of deceased worn as amulets); Kingsley, Travels, p. 448 (Charm-gems in W. Africa); Ellis, W. African Sketches, p. 9 (Bodily painting as medical cure among Fantis), pp. 191, 192 (Tattooing supposed to strengthen a child). For further interesting instances see Wuttke, Geschichte der Schrift, i. p. 77; cf. also the facts about laceration as medical cure collected on p. 67 in the preceding.

[337] Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern, p. 184.

[338] Ibid. l.c. pp. 173, 186; cf. the assertions of Burton, Lake Regions, ii. p. 63 (Wajiji Tribe: Tattooing explained as a protection against the humid atmosphere); Roth, Tasmania, pp. 139-141.

[339] Lippert, Kulturgeschichte, i. pp. 18, 365, 366.

[340] Cf. Haddon, Evolution in Art, p. 203; Grosse, Anfänge der Kunst, pp. 130-133.

[341] Robley, Moko, pp. 10-16. Cf., however, Shortland (New Zealand, pp. 16, 17), who explains Moko as being only a “fashionable mode of adornment,” and Dieffenbach (New Zealand, ii. p. 34), who thinks that the use of Moko for signatures is a modern invention. Tattooings which serve as individual marks of recognition are mentioned by Heriot, Travels through the Canadas, p. 293; Fraser, Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 45; Herr Koeler (Monatsberichte der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde, iii. p. 51) thinks that the scars of the Australians—“these genealogical indices”—may to some extent make up for the want of proper names.

[342] With regard to marks of tribal distinction compare the facts collected by Spencer, Principles of Sociology, ii. pp. 72-75; Frazer, Totemism, pp. 26-30. Even those who do not believe in Mr. Frazer’s assertion that the paintings, coiffures, tattooings, etc., aim at an imitation of the totem animal, will be compelled to admit that they often serve as means of distinguishing members of the same totem group. Buckland, Anthropological Studies, pp. 224, 225, 231 (On tattooing); Starcke, The Primitive Family, pp. 42, 62; Wuttke, Geschichte der Schrift, i. pp. 80 sq.

Further instances, unmentioned by these authors, are to be found in Godden, Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxvi. pp. 184, 185 (Nagas and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India); Fytche, Burma, i. pp. 351, 352 (Khyengs said to tattoo their women in order to prevent their being carried off by neighbouring tribes); Im Thurn, Indians of Guiana, pp. 196, 305; Dobrizhoffer, The Abipones, ii. p. 19; Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Central Brasiliens, pp. 179, 180, 190; Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, pp. 530, 531; Ellis, West African Sketches, p. 191; Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 146; Lander, Journal, iii. p. 61 (Kacundas); Johnston, British Central Africa, pp. 422-424; Ward in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxiv. p. 294 (Congo Tribes); Wissman, Im Inneren Afrikas, p. 246 (Bacubas). In his account of the Niger tribes M. Binger has succeeded in minutely classifying the tattoo patterns according to tribes and families (Binger, Du Niger, etc., ii. pp. 408-411). It is evidently impossible to decide to how great a degree the uniformity in the decorative systems of the several tribes has its origin in an intentional endeavour to develop a distinct tribal appearance. It may in many cases be merely a result of limited powers of invention.

As to the scarification of the Australian natives the evidence seems to be contradictory. If we are to believe Mr. Taplin’s informer, incisions on the body would have been used by the Noocoonas in order to distinguish tribes “before whites came” (Taplin, Folklore of S. Australia, p. 65). These assertions have, however, been called in question by the informers of Curr (Australian Race, ii. pp. 468, 475), by Spencer and Gillen (Native Tribes, pp. 42-44), and by Stirling (Rep. Horn Exp. IV. Anthropology, p. 24); cf. also Roth, N. W. C. Queensland, pp. 110, 115.

[343] For some further instances illustrating the use of “decoration” for purely practical purposes see Mallery, in Rep. Bur. Ethnol. x. p. 418; Westermarck, Human Marriage, p. 176.

[344] Finsch, Ethnologische Erfahrungen, pp. 283, 284 (Mikronesia); in Verhandlungen d. Berlin Anthropol. Gesellschaft, 1879, p. 414 (Markesas Islands); and in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xii. p. 308 (Ponape); Stirling in Rep. Horn Exp. iv. p. 31 (Central Australia); Stokes, Discoveries, i. pp. 58, 59 (South-Western Australia); Bock, Temples and Elephants, pp. 170-172 (Laos).

[345] Spencer, Essays, ii. pp. 433-435 (The Origin of Music).

[346] On the stimulating influence which women may exercise on warriors, and on the sensitiveness of warriors to female appreciation or criticism, see for example Spencer, Descr. Soc. Div. I. Nr. iii. p. 60 (Tasmanians); Nr. v. p. 3 (Bedouins); Mantegazza, Physiologie des Hasses, pp. 143-145.

[347] Gurney, Power of Sound, p. 159, quoted by Wallaschek, Primitive Music, p. 211.

[348] Wallaschek, l.c. pp. 210-213.

[349] Hudson, The Naturalist in La Plata, p. 279.

[350] Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 244, 245.

[351] Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. pp. 387-409.

[352] Berchon, “Le tatouage,” in Actes de l’Académie de Bordeaux, 1885, pp. 806, 807. Cf. also Joest, Tätowiren, pp. 29, 53-55, 60-65. Although Berchon himself remarks (p. 811) that in Polynesia the reverence for tattooing is dying out, he has not happened to think that this circumstance may have been the cause of the laxity in tattoo composition.

[353] Cf. Cook, (1st) Voyage, pp. 206-208; cf. p. 265 (Tahiti). For other Polynesian erotic dances see Marques in Boletim da Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa, viii. p. 60 (Samoa); Turner, Samoa, p. 125; Gill, South. Pacific, p. 20 (Hervey Islands); Rienzi, Océanie, iii. p. 160 (Maori Slave Girls). On Polynesian dance parties, arranged in order to bring into notice the daughters of the chiefs and nobles, cf. Gill, From Darkness to Light, pp. 29, 253 (Mangaia); Ellis, Pol. Res. i. pp. 215-217 (Tahiti); Vancouver, Voyage, i. p. 119. (Tahiti). Examples of similar dances and pantomimes, often in plain connection with sexual orgies, can be found among Australians and Melanesians. Cf. especially Eyre, Expeditions into Central Australia, ii. p. 235; Mathew in Curr, Australian Race, iii. pp. 168, 169 (Mary River Natives). Koeler in his list of Australian words describes “Korrobbora” as an obscene dance-pantomime performed by men before the women; Monatsber. d. Ges. für Erdkunde zu Berlin, iii. p. 53; Mathews in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxv. pp. 226-228 (Kamilaroi); Woods, Native Tribes, p. 38 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”), p. 243 (Schürmann, “Port Lincoln Tribe,” men and women dancing some rounds together); Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 381. Few of these facts, however, entitle us to assume a simple purpose of pleasing the opposite sex.

[354] Burton, Zanzibar, i. pp. 430, 431; Ellis, West African Sketches, p. 226 (Country Dance in Mankessin); Laing, Travels, pp. 104, 105 (Timannees); Nachtigal, Sahărâ und Sûdân, i. pp. 101, 102 (Murzuk, Fezzân); Sparrman, Resa, i. p. 421 (Hottentots). For general descriptions of this kind of dancing see Fr. Müller, Allgemeine Ethnographie, p. 172.

[355] Marsden, Sumatra, p. 298 (Lampong Country); Brenner, Besuch bei den Kannibalen, p. 331 (Sumatra); Joest, Weltfahrten, ii. pp. 159, 160 (Seram); Blumentritt, Filippinen, p. 17 (Tagals), p. 41 (Catalangaus).

[356] Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 196-198 (Hos and Mundaris); Lewin, Wild Races, pp. 123-125 (Khyoungtha Love Songs), p. 188 (Chukma Songs); Müller, l.c. p. 471 (Kolh Dances).

[357] Dalton, l.c. pp. 142-144 (Bhuiyas).

[358] Ibid. pp. 135, 149, 300.

[359] Ibid. p. 196.

[360] Lewin, Wild Races, pp. 123-125.

[361] Ibid. p. 188.

[362] Selenka, Sonnige Welten, pp. 349-352; Brenner, Besuch bei den Kannibalen, pp. 328 sq. (Bataks); Forbes, Wanderings, p. 149; Marsden, Sumatra, pp. 197, 198, 267; Rienzi, Océanie, i. pp. 134, 135, all on poetry from Sumatra; Blumentritt, Filippinen, p. 17; Jagor, Filippinen, p. 236 (Bisayas); Martin, Mollukken, pp. 292, 293; Hickson, Celebes, pp. 272-274, 301-304.

[363] Curr, Australian Race, iii. pp. 168, 169.

[364] Cf. on the erotic poetry in Tahiti, Cook, (3rd) Voyage, ii. p. 149; on Maori erotic poetry, Dieffenbach, New Zealand, ii. p. 57.

[365] Morgan, Iroquois, pp. 260, 284-287; Baker, Musik der Nordamerikanischen Wilden, p. 56.

[366] Cf. Brinton, Essays, pp. 293-297; Markham, Ollanta, pp. 1, 2.

[367] Hyades, Mission Scientifique, vii. p. 377; cf. p. 239.

[368] Bailey, Trans. Ethnol. Soc. N. S. ii. p. 301; Davy, Ceylon, p. 118; Deschamps, Au pays des Veddas, pp. 386-389; Emerson Tennent, Ceylon, ii. p. 450; Hoffmeister, Travels, p. 164; Sarasin, Ergebnisse, iii. pp. 512-518, 546; Schmidt, Ceylon, pp. 73, 74; De Zoysa, Journ. Ceylon Br. R. A. S. 1881, p. 114,—all on Vedda dancing.

Sarasin, l.c. pp. 510, 519-523; Bailey, l.c. p. 289; Deschamps, l.c. pp. 386 sq.; Nevill in The Taprobanian, ii. pp. 121-127; De Zoysa, l.c. pp. 98-115,—all on Vedda poetry.

[369] See Fritsch, Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, pp. 425, 426; Holub, Süd-Afrika, ii. pp. 465, 469, 470; and the interesting communication in The Academy, 1878, p. 463.

[370] Roth, W. E., N. W. C. Queensland Aborigines, pp. 119, 120, 131; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, passim (On the elaborate decorations and paraphernalia used in the dramatic rites of initiation); Hill and Thornton, Aborigines of New South Wales, pp. 7, 8; Lang, Australia, pp. 28, 29.

[371] Cf. Darwin, The Descent of Man, ii. pp. 400, 401, 418.

[372] Scott, “Sex and Art,” in American Journal of Psychology, vii., especially p. 183.

[373] Cf. Büchner, Liebe und Liebes-Leben, p. 53.

[374] Savage, New Zealand, pp. 84, 85; Ellis, Polynesian Res. i. p. 217 (Tahiti); Gill, The South. Pacific, p. 20; Romilly, My Verandah in New Guinea, p. 88.

[375] Sarasin, Ergebnisse, iii. p. 518.

[376] Cf. e.g. Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 408; Crawley, “Sexual Taboo,” passim, in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxiv.

[377] Cf. e.g. Lütke, Voyage, ii. pp. 276, 277, on Tschuktschi dance; Cook, (3rd) Voyage, i. p. 251, on the dance of the Hapaee women, some of the motions in which would, by a European, be thought rather indecent, though perhaps they meant only to display the astonishing variety of their movements.

[378] Reeves, Brown Men and Women, p. 160.

[379] Curr, Austr. Race, iii. p. 169 (Mathew, Mary River), on songs describing the charms of a sweetheart. “Such songs are only known to a few individuals, and are sung in private.”

[380] Cook. (3rd) Voyage, ii. p. 149.

[381] Spencer, Descr. Soc. Division I. Nr. v. p. 30.

[382] Cf. Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 408.

[383] Schurtz, Das Augenornament, pp. 49, 54.

[384] Cf. p. 217 in the preceding.

[385] Mathews in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxiv. p. 424.

[386] Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, p. 140.

[387] Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 408.

[388] Kidd, Social Evolution, p. 279; cf. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. pp. 88, 89.

[389] Johnstone, Maoria, p. 43.

[390] Cf. Burton, Mission to Gelele, i. pp. 46, 51, 210, 267, 382; ii. p. 10; Forbes, Dahomey, i. p. 24.

[391] Woods, Native Tribes, p. 37 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”).

[392] Burton, Mission to Gelele, i. pp. 149, 150; Acosta, History of the Indies, ii. p. 444. For European trade dances see, e.g., Böhme, Tanz in Deutschland, i. pp. 63 sq., 209.

[393] Féré, Sensation et mouvement, p. 4.

[394] Cf. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. p. 48.

[395] Rengger, Saeugethiere von Paraguay, p. 12.

[396] Cf. the facts adduced by Rengger, l.c. p. 11.

[397] Salvado, Voyage en Australie, pp. 182, 183.

[398] As regards the general psychology of musical and poetical exhortation to work cf. Chardin, Voyages, i. p. 160, quoted in Bücher’s Arbeit und Rhythmus, pp. 48, 367. For typical instances see Reade, The African Sketch Book, ii. p. 313 (Krumen); Wissman, Unter deutschen Flagge, p. 43 (West African Carriers); Burton, Lake Regions, ii. p. 291 (East Africa); Grove, Dancing, p. 16 (Egypt); Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia, pp. 317, 345; Lewin, Wild Races, p. 271 (Lhoosai); Thomson, New Zealand, i. p. 167; Dieffenbach, New Zealand, ii. p. 57.

[399] Cf. The satirical and erotic boat songs of the Gold Coast Negroes—Winterbottom, Africans of Sierra Leone, i. p. 112, and the historical and erotic ploughing songs of the ancient Peruvians—Markham, Ollanta, pp. 1, 2.

[400] A collection of such working songs from among various civilised nations has been brought together by Professor Bücher in his Arbeit und Rhythmus.

[401] Cf. e.g. the interesting chapter on mill songs in Bücher’s above-mentioned work. As an addendum to this collection we may adduce the corn-grinding song of the Mapuché women—Smith, The Araucanians, p. 306.

[402] Noiré, Der Ursprung der Sprache, pp. 331 sq.

[403] Cf. e.g. Lenz, Skizzen aus Westafrica, pp. 198, 199, on the exciting effects exercised by tam-tam music on the Okandes.

[404] See the boat-building songs of the Hervey Islanders (Gill, South Pacific, p. 22), which form so striking an analogy to the magical “Runos” of the old Finns. Cf. also Mason, Origins of Invention, p. 150 (Maoris).

[405] Lagrange, Physiologie des exercises du corps, pp. 32-35; Souriau, L’esthétique du movement, pp. 58, 59.

[406] Féré, Sensation et mouvement, p. 12.

[407] Cf. the dynamogenic experiments of Féré, Sensation et mouvement, pp. 13, 14, and the remarks of Schmidkunz, Psychologie der Suggestion, p. 222.

[408] Bücher, Arbeit und Rhythmus, p. 261; Polack, New Zealanders, i. p. 222; ii. pp. 31-32 (on the chiefs who, standing up in the canoes, direct the rowing with help of their spear-truncheons); Kollman, The Victoria Nyanza, p. 164 (Ussukuma).

[409] Cf. pp. 87-91 in the preceding.

[410] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, ii. pp. 271, 272.

[411] Laing, Travels, pp. 252, 253; Brenner, Kannibalen Sumatras, p. 258; Shortland, Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders, pp. 140, 144, 145, 150.

[412] Vodskov, Sjæledyrkelse og Naturdyrkelse, pp. lxxix.-lxxxi.; Ratzel, Völkerkunde, I. Einleitung, p. 89.

[413] On songs and dances connected with boating see Muller, Industrie des Cafres, p. 47; Burton, Gorilla Land, i. pp. 166, 167; Spencer, Descr. Soc. Div. i. Nr. 3, p. 62 (Javanese); Angas, Savage Life, i. p. 102 (Australia, canoe dance of the Rufus); Smyth, Victoria, i. pp. 174, 175 (Australian canoe dance); Rienzi, Océanie, iii. p. 159 (New Zealand), and the facts collected by Bücher, Arbeit und Rhythmus, pp. 180-191.

[414] Bücher, l.c. pp. 200-202.

[415] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. pp. 553-555, 567-574.

[416] Mitchell, The Past in the Present, p. 192; Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 435, 437.

[417] Cf. Wallaschek in International Congress of Psychology, 2nd Session, p. 75.

[418] Cf. e.g. Lafitau, Mœurs des sauvages, i. p. 522 (“Les Iroquois, et les autres sauvages leurs voisins”); Powers, Tribes of California, p. 29 (Karok).

[419] Cf. Forbes, Dahomey, ii. p. 61. Mr. Forbes’s admiration for the discipline and order displayed in the mass movements will be well understood by all who witnessed the Dahomeyan dances performed at the Crystal Palace in the summer season 1893.

[420] Thomson, New Zealand, i. pp. 126, 127; Earle, New Zealand, p. 70; Mundy, Our Antipodes, pp. 129, 183; Shortland, Trad. and Superst. of the New Zealanders, pp. 150-152.

[421] Cruise, New Zealand, pp. 30, 31.

[422] Bidwill, Rambles in New Zealand, pp. 81, 82.

[423] On ensemble and exact time in dancing cf. Cook, (1st) Voyage, pp. 206-208 (Tahiti); (3rd) Voyage, i. p. 188 (Wateoo), pp. 247, 248, 255 (Hapaee); Ellis, Pol. Res. i. p. 215; Marques in Boletim, etc., viii. p. 59 (Samoa); Reeves, Brown Men and Women, p. 158 (Samoa); Williams, Fiji, p. 142; Kleinschmidt in Journ. d. Mus. Godeffroy, xiv. p. 268 (Fiji); Lütke, Voyage, i. p. 383 (Ualan. Caroline Islands); Tetens and Kubary in Journ. d. Mus. Godeffroy, ii. p. 23 (Yap, Caroline Islands); Hernsheim, Sudsee-Erinnerungen, p. 34 (Yap).

The same virtues have also been admired in Australian dancing. See e.g. Fraser, Aborigines of N.S. Wales, p. 66; Smyth, Victoria, i. p. 168; ii. p. 294; Woods, Native Tribes, pp. xxxii., xxxiii., 272. Cf. also Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 254, 255 (Oráons); Lewin, Wild Races, p. 227 (Kumis); p. 313 (Shendoos).

[424] Fritsch, Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, p. 91 (Ama Xosa); Casalis, The Basutos, p. 147 (Kaffir and Basuto dance).

[425] Fritsch, l.c. p. 328. The authority of Herr Fritsch gives sufficient credit to this assertion, although it is in direct opposition to the statement of Kolbe, Reise, pp. 530, 531. Herr Fritsch’s account of Hottentot dancing is, moreover, in substantial agreement with Sparrman’s description, Resa, i. pp. 375, 376.

[426] Cf. with regard to the employment of horns, drums, pipes, etc., as military signals, Wallaschek, Primitive Music, pp. 88, 99, 100, 104, 111-113.

[427] See, for instance, the descriptions of Khond warfare in Spencer, Descriptive Sociology, Division I. Nr. 5, p. 17 (quoting Campbell, Khondistan, p. 42), and the reflections of Mr. Bidwill on Maori courage as dependent upon musical and saltatory stimulation, Rambles in New Zealand, pp. 82, 83. As these instances refer to tribes which have been noted for the personal bravery which they develop when excited, the need of artificial excitement must be far stronger among timid tribes.

[428] Cf. the acute reflections of Cook, (1st) Voyage, p. 344.

[429] Beecham, Ashanti, p. 211; Schoolcraft, Information, i. pp. 79, 80 (Dacotas); Wood, Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 116 (Kaffir war medicine).

[430] Kubary on Micronesian war tattooings in Joest, Tätowiren, p. 80.

[431] Mann in Trans. Ethn. Soc. N. S. v. p. 295 (Kaffirs); Livingstone, Miss. Travels, pp. 198, 199 (Makololo dance demonstration as a preparation to an intended fight); Schoolcraft, Information, iv. p. 62 (Dacotas dance when they come in the neighbourhood of the enemy’s country); Schomburgk, Guiana, ii. (Macusis); Cook, (1st) Voyage, pp. 467, 468, and Angas, Savage Life, i. pp. 328, 329 (Maoris); Cahusac, La danse, i. p. 108, on the ancient Ethiopians, quoting Lukianos.

Ethnological literature affords numberless descriptions of dances performed as an exercise to battle. As in the present connection we have only to deal with means of stimulation, which immediately precede the real action, all these instances are not to the point.

[432] Carver, Travels, pp. 174, 175; Schoolcraft, Information, iii. p. 187, quoting Colden (of 1747) on the Iroquois; Acosta, History of the Indies, ii. p. 444 (Peru); cf. also Lang, Australia, p. 29; Blumentritt, Filippinen, p. 16 (Tagal excitement during the performance of war-pantomimes).

[433] Heckewelder, Hist. of the Indian Nations, p. 209; Schoolcraft, Information ii. p. 59 (N.A. Indians in general); v. pp. 526, 684 (Chippewas and Comanches); Morgan, Iroquois, pp. 268, 339; Burton, City of the Saints, p. 177 (Prairie Indians); Casalis, The Basutos, pp. 334, 335; Czervinski, Geschichte des Tanzes, pp. 251, 252 (Hungary).

[434] Joest, Weltfahrten, ii. pp. 160, 161. On a similar institution among the Negroes see Mantegazza, Physiologie des Hasses, p. 318.

[435] Grey, Journals, ii. p. 303; cf. also Calvert, Western Australia, p. 32; Salvado, Voyage, p. 182.

[436] Sproat, Scenes and Studies, p. 190.

[437] Cf. especially the quotations from Dupuis in Spencer, Descr. Soc. Division I. Nr. 4, p. 47 (Ashantis); Ellis, Pol. Res. i. p. 287 (Tahiti); Cook, (1st) Voyage, p. 344 (New Zealand).

[438] Dobrizhoffer, The Abipones, ii. pp. 366, 367, 422-424, 427; Thomson, New Zealand, i. pp. 126, 169.

[439] Dobrizhoffer, l.c. pages adduced above; Steinen, Durch Central-Brazilien, p. 175, cf. also p. 165.

[440] Cf. Dobrizhoffer, l.c. ii. pp. 376, 385 sq.

[441] Cf. Ellis, Pol. Res. i. p. 286 (Tahiti); Spencer, Descr. Soc. Division I. Nr. 3, p. 15 (Fiji); Thomson, New Zealand, i. p. 128; Pritchard, Pol. Rem. p. 56; Wood, Nat. Hist. of Man, ii. pp. 58, 59, 280, 356 (Australia, Fiji, Samoa).

How great a part of the boastful expressions of contempt for the enemy plays in the warfare of the American tribes can be seen from Heriot, Travels, p. 449 (Iroquois). Cf. also Eyre, Expeditions into Central Australia, ii. p. 224; Schweinfurth, Im Herzen von Afrika, ii. p. 25 (Niam Niam); Shooter, The Kafirs, pp. 197-199; Wood, Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 581 (Cammas).

[442] Wood, Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 581. A typical and instructive example of undangerous warfare on the Marshall Islands is described by Finsch in Ethnologische Erfahrungen, p. 392.

[443] Bidwill, Rambles in New Zealand, p. 81; cf. Cook, (3rd) Voyage, pp. 161, 162.

[444] (Maning), Old New Zealand, p. 49; Polack, New Zealanders, i. p. 88; ii. pp, 166, 167.

[445] Polack, l.c. i. p. 28.

[446] Richardson, Arctic Expedition, i. p. 356; Bancroft, Native Races, i. p. 68.

[447] Angas, Savage Life, ii. pp. 149, 150; Wood, Nat. Hist. of Man, ii. pp. 161, 162.

[448] Macpherson, Memorials of Service in India, p. 79.

[449] Cf. Grosse, Anfänge der Kunst, pp. 58-60.

[450] Wuttke, Geschichte der Schrift, p. 74, quoting Silius Italicus, Aelianus, and Valerius Maximus. Further quotations adduced in Farrer, Military Manners and Customs, pp. 222-224. Cf. also Letourneau, La guerre, p. 153.

[451] Cf. the remarks of Wood in Nat. Hist. of Man, ii. p. 599.

[452] Clavigero, The History of Mexico, i. p. 371.

[453] As to magical paintings on banners, standards, and shields, see Hein, Die bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo, pp. 71, 72. Cf. also the old Slavonic traditions related by Nagele in Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, xvii. p. 278 (Der Schlangen-Cultus).

[454] Joest, Tätowiren, p. 20; Polack, New Zealanders, i. p. 28 (Tahiti deformations of the skull).

[455] Bancroft, Native Races, i. pp. 101, 105 (Thlinkeets).

[456] Romilly, My Verandah, p. 42; Finsch, Samoafahrten, p. 91, Atlas, Tafel xxii.; Ethnologische Erfahrungen, p. 99 (Motu, New Guinea), p. 243 (Kaiser Wilhelms Land, New Guinea), p. 630 (Bismarck-Archipel). Some fine specimens to be seen in the British Museum.

[457] In later times, however, the Dyaks have begun to avail themselves for this purpose of the hair of their deceased. Cf. Hein, Die Bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks, p. 74.

[458] Hein, Die Bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo, p. 85.

[459] Marryat, Borneo, pp. 14, 15, 74-76; Selenka, Sonnige Welten, pp. 80, 81.

[460] Hein, l.c. p. 19.

[461] For detailed arguments on this point see the author’s Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, chap, iv., “On Gracefulness.”

[462] Cf. the illustrations in Hamilton’s The Art Workmanship of the Maori Race.

[463] Earle, New Zealand, pp. 160, 161; cf. also Johnstone, Maoria, p. 50.

[464] Cf. especially the specimens translated in Schoolcraft, Information, ii. pp. 59 sq.

[465] See the specimens of leather, bone, and textile works preserved in ethnological collections, especially in Musée de Trocadéro, Paris.

[466] Cf. Posnett, Comparative Literature, p. 133.

[467] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, vol. i. p. 102; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i. pp. 94-100; Frazer, The Golden Bough, i. pp. 9-12, 193-206. For further instructive instances see Ellis, Eẃe Peoples, pp. 98, 99; Tshi Peoples, pp. 108, 109; Curr, Australian Race, i. pp. 45-48; Woods, Native Tribes, pp. 23-26 (Facts referring to Polynesia and Australia); Kotzebue, Entdeckungsreise, ii. p. 20 (Hawaji); Dieffenbach, New Zealand, ii. p. 59; Musters, Patagonia, p. 12 (Tehuelches).

[468] See literature on the Couvade, and on the precautions to be observed by men who expect to become fathers. We cannot here dwell on the interesting theories, according to which totemistic doctrines and regulations ought to be interpreted as based upon the conception of a quite material substratum, connecting for eternity with each other all individuals and generations of the same family. However fantastic they may have appeared, the probability of these views has undeniably been increased by the publication of those hitherto unknown details of Australian ceremonialism that have been brought to light by Messrs. Spencer and Gillen. But in questions like these it seems almost impossible to discriminate between symbolical ideas and actions on the one hand, and magical practices based on a real belief on the other.

[469] Cf. Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen, Neue Folge, p. 46; Hartland, The Legend of Perseus, ii. p. 267.

[470] Cf. Rochas, L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, pp. 117-139.

[471] Ibid. p. 72.

[472] For the most illustrious and at the same time most lucid statement of this analogy see the remarks of Milton in the preface to Samson Agonistes.

[473] Cf. the curious instances and interpretations in Brière, Essai sur le symbolisme, pp. 38-41.

[474] For dramatic elements in the ceremonies of rain-making, see Frazer, The Golden Bough, i. pp. 13-18, 20; Bérenger-Féraud, Superstitions et survivances, i. chap. viii.; iii. pp. 177-207; Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, pp. 593-595 (vol. ii.); Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i. pp. 97, 98; ii. p. 78. Further instances in Roth, N. W. C. Queensland, pp. 167, 168; Woods, Native Tribes, pp. 276-278 (Gason, “Dieyerie Tribe”); Williams, Fiji, p. 194; Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 261 (Oraons); Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 108; Weston in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxvi. p. 30 (Highlands of Central Japan); Stevenson in Rep. Bur. Ethn. 1889-90, pp. 80, 94, 110, 111, 115, 116 (The Sia); Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, pp. 227, 228; Bonghi, Römische Feste, p. 181. Equally interesting is the curious kind of negative magic that is practised by the Javanese “rain preventers.” See Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago, pp. 68-70 (J. Kreemer, “Rain Preventers”).

[475] Frazer, The Golden Bough, i. pp. 22, 23; Grove, Dancing, p. 85; Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, pp. 186-188, 243 sq.

[476] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, pp. 764-772 (vol. ii.); Ralston, l.c. pp. 210, 244-246; Zacher, “Kampf des Sommers und Winters,” in Globus, xxxi. pp. 266-269, 284-286.

[477] Bérenger-Féraud, l.c. v. pp. 177-266; Hartland, The Legend of Perseus, i. pp. 173, 174; Soldi, La langue sacrée, p. 317 (France); Powers, Tribes of California, p. 169 (The Senel).

[478] Selenka, Sonnige Welten, pp. 429-431 (Sinhalese); Fraser, Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 65.

[479] That the priests who in dance and drama impersonate a god are considered—and perhaps also consider themselves—as embodiments of this god is a view the probability of which is borne out by many details of religious ritualism. If definite proofs are wanted we need only refer to the express statements of the Zuñi Indians as related by Mrs. Stevenson, Rep. Bur. Ethn. 1889-90, p. 116 (Stevenson, “The Sia”); 1883-84, p. 549 (Stevenson, “Religious Life of the Zuñi Child”).

[480] Fairer, Primitive Manners and Customs, pp. 65, 66. This view may of course also be applied to the interpretation of “pictorial prayers,” such as e.g. the wonderful sand-mosaics of the Pueblo Indians.

[481] Collins, The English Colony of N.S. Wales, i. p. 367.

[482] As regards this almost universal practice see the collection of instances in Tylor, Early History, pp. 277-279; and Primitive Culture, ii. p. 146; Peschel, Völkerkunde, p. 274; Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus, pp. 166, 167. Further instructive instances in Brinton, Nagualism, p. 11 (Modern Mexico); Castréu, Nordiska Resor. i. p. 137 (Russian Lapps); Casalis, The Basutos, p. 280; Lumholtz, Among Cannibals, p. 281 (Australia). Winterbottom, Native Africans of Sierra Leone, i. pp. 252, 253, adduces some ethnological examples, and refers for comparison to Paracelsus.

[483] Bérenger-Féraud, Superst. et surviv. i. pp. 523-540; cf. also Gaidoz, Un vieux rite medical, pp. 73-84.

[484] Nyrop, “Kludetraedet” in Dania, i., particularly pp. 21-23; cf. also Dania, i. p. 310; iii. pp. 139-141.

[485] Lenormant, Magie und Wahrsagekunst der Chaldäer, p. 73; Rochas, L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, pp. 74-113 (rich collection of instances referring to savage tribes, to mediæval Europe, and to modern folklore); further instances in Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 569-574; Romilly, Western Pacific, p. 35 (New Britain); Selenka, Sonnige Welten, p. 215 (Japan). That this crude superstition has been at the bottom of many ceremonies which, from our point of view, appear purely symbolical is shown by the curious death-sentences on absent criminals—to be executed in effigy, “jusqu’à mort s’en suive”—which M. Tarde has unearthed from among the old law-proceeds of Périgord. Tarde, Études pénales et sociales, p. 241.

[486] Cf. as to dolls representing the corn spirits, Frazer, The Golden Bough, i. pp. 332-346.

[487] Haddon in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xix. p. 427 (Tribe of Torres Strait; Models of Dugong used as charms to attract the fishes); Woldt in Arch, für Ethnographie, i. p. 106 (Kultusgegenstände der Golden und Giljaken; sculptures of fishes used for the same purpose by the Golds); Spencer, quoting Motolinia, Descr. Soc. Div. ii. Nr. 2, p. 39 (similar customs among the old Azteks).

[488] Cf. especially the Sinhalese masks representing the symptoms of various diseases as exhibited in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin.

[489] On images of children worn by barren women in order to remove sterility see Binger, Du Niger, ii. p. 230 (Agnis, Wolofs); Casalis, The Basutos, p. 251; Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, p. 213; Powers, Tribes of California, p. 318 (Nishinam). In this connection we may also refer to the bird-shaped amulets of the North American Indians, which by some authors have been explained as emblematic of maternity. Cf. Abbott, Primitive Industry, p. 370. Whether they also have been thought of as possessing a magical efficacy is, however, impossible to decide.

[490] Guaita, Sciences maudites, ii., i. p. 185.

[491] Raffles, History of Java, i. pp. 375, 376. For a similar reasoning cf. Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 23, 24.

[492] Bock, Temples and Elephants, p. 245.

[493] Rochas, L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, p, 101.

[494] Cf. e.g. Gooneratne in Journ. Ceylon Branch R. Asiatic Soc. 1865, 1866, p. 71 (Demonology in Ceylon); Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 45, 571. The same combination of the two classes of magic, as applied to a medical cure, is instanced by Walhouse in Journ. Anthr. Inst. iv. p. 372 (Account of a leaf-wearing tribe).

[495] Cf. Ellis, Yoruba Peoples, pp. 99, 278; Tshi Peoples, pp. 98, 101, 176, 195.

[496] Schurtz in Abhandlungen d. Sächs. Ges. d. Wissensch. Ph. Cl. xv. p. 52, quoting De Clercq en Schmeltz, Nieuw Guinea, p. 185. For an interesting analogy see De Landa, Relation des causes de Yucatan, p. 199.

[497] Schurtz, l.c. p. 47. Cf. with regard to other means of animating idols by contact, Brenner, Kannibalen Sumatras, pp. 225, 226; Pleyte Wzn in Globus, lx. p. 289 (Religiöse Anschaungen der Bataks).

[498] Matthews, The Mountain Chant, in Rep. Bur. Ethn. 1883, 1884, especially pp. 426, 427.

[499] Cf. the Kalmuck tales quoted in Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus, p. 31.

[500] Cf. Lucretius, De rerum natura, iv. vv. 1-1035.

[501] Cf. the facts collected by Réclus in his pamphlet, L’âme comme souffle, ombre et reflet, and by Frazer in The Golden Bough, i. pp. 143-149.

[502] Rochas, L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, p. 103.

[503] Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen, Neue Folge, p. 19.

[504] Cf. Ellis, Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 98.

[505] Cf. as the perhaps most typical example, Matthews, “The Prayer of a Navajo Shaman,” in The American Anthropologist, i. (1888).

[506] Cf. e.g. Svoboda, Gesch. d. Ideale, i. pp. 495, 496.

[507] Cf. the theories of Réclus and Svoboda referred to in p. 217, note 4, of the preceding.

[508] Cf. e.g. the typical instances of Naga funeral ceremonies described by Dalton in Ethnology of Bengal, p. 40.

[509] This interpretation seems to be indicated e.g. in the case of the rope-pulling at Chukma funerals (Lewin, Wild Races, p. 185). As to the use of tugs of war for purposes of agricultural magic cf. Haddon, The Study of Man, pp. 270-276.