Argonauts of the Western Pacific

by Bronisław Malinowski

Chapter XXII. The meaning of the Kula

We have been following the various routes and ramifications of the Kula, entering minutely and meticulously into its rules and customs, its beliefs and practices, and the mythological tradition spun round it, till, arriving at the end of our information, we have made its two ends meet. We shall now put aside the magnifying glass of detailed examination and look from a distance at the subject of our inquiry, take in the whole institution with one glance, let it assume a definite shape before us. This shape will perhaps strike us as being something unusual, something not met before in ethnological studies. It will be well to make an attempt at finding its place among the other subjects of systematic ethnology, at gauging its significance, at assessing how much we have learned by becoming acquainted with it.

After all there is no value in isolated facts for science, however striking and novel they might seem in themselves. Genuine scientific research differs from mere curio-hunting in that the latter runs after the quaint, singular and freakish — the craving for the sensational and the mania of collecting providing its twofold stimulus. Science on the other hand has to analyse and classify facts in order to place them in an organic whole, to incorporate them in one of the systems in which it tries to group the various aspects of reality.

I shall not, of course enter upon any speculations or add any hypothetical assumptions to the empirical data contained in the foregoing chapters. I shall confine myself to some reflections on the most general aspect of the institution, and try to express somewhat more clearly what to me appears the mental attitude at the bottom of the various Kula customs. These general points of view ought, I think, to be considered and tested in further field-work done on subjects akin to the Kula as well as in theoretical research, and might thus prove fertile for future scientific work. In this form it may be granted that it is the privilege of the chronicler of a novel phenomenon to pass it over to the consideration of fellow-workers; but it is his duty as well as his privilege. For, apart from his first-hand acquaintance with the facts — and indeed, if his account is good, he ought to have succeeded in transferring the best part of his knowledge to the reader — the fundamental aspects and characteristics of an ethnographic phenomenon for being general are none the less empirical. It is therefore the chronicler’s task to finish his account by a comprehensive, synthetic coup d’oeil upon the institution described.

As said the Kula seems to be, to a certain extent, a novel type of ethnological fact. Its novelty lies partly in the size of its sociological and geographical extent. A big, inter-tribal relationship, uniting with definite social bonds a vast area and great numbers of people, binding them with definite ties of reciprocal obligations, making them follow minute rules and observations in a concerted manner — the Kula is a sociological mechanism of surpassing size and complexity, considering the level of culture on which we find it. Nor can this wide network of social co-relations and cultural influences be considered for a moment as ephemeral, new or precarious. For its highly developed mythology and its magical ritual show how deeply it has taken root in the tradition of these natives and of what ancient growth it must be.

Another unusual feature is the character of the transaction itself, which is the proper substance of the Kula. A half commercial, half ceremonial exchange, it is carried out for its own sake, in fulfilment of a deep desire to possess. But here again, it is not ordinary possession, but a special type, in which a man owns for a short time, and in an alternating manner, individual specimens of two classes of objects. Though the ownership is incomplete in point of permanency, it is in turn enhanced in point of numbers successively possessed, and may be called a cumulative possession.

Another aspect of great, perhaps the greatest, importance and which perhaps reveals best the unusual character of the Kula is the natives’ mental attitude towards the tokens of wealth. These latter are neither used nor regarded as money or currency, and they resemble these economic instruments very little, if indeed there is any resemblance at all, except that both money and vaygu’a represent condensed wealth. Vaygu’a is never used as medium of exchange or as measure of value, which are the two most important functions of currency or money. Each piece of vaygu’a of the Kula type has one main object throughout its existence — to be possessed and exchanged; has one main function and serves one main purpose — to circulate round the Kula ring, to be owned and displayed in a certain manner, of which we shall speak presently. And the exchange which each piece of vaygu’a constantly undergoes is of a very special kind; limited in the geographical direction in which it can take place, narrowly circumscribed in the social circle of men between whom it may be done, it is subject to all sorts of strict rules and regulations; it can neither be described as barter, nor as simply giving and receiving of presents, nor in any sense is it a play at exchange. In fact it is Kula, an exchange of an entirely novel type. And it is just through this exchange, through their being constantly within reach and the object of competitive desire, through being the means of arousing envy and conferring social distinction and renown, that these objects attain their high value. Indeed, they form one of the leading interests in native life, and are one of the main items in the inventory of their culture. Thus, one of the most important and unusual features of the Kula is the existence of the Kula vaygu’a, the incessantly circulating and ever exchangeable valuables, owing their value to this very circulation and its character.

The acts of exchange of the valuables have to conform to a definite code. The main tenet of this declares that the transaction is not a bargain. The equivalence of the values exchanged is essential, but it must be the result of the repayer’s own sense of what is due to custom and to his own dignity. The ceremonial attached to the act of giving, the manner of carrying and handling the vaygu’a shows distinctly that this is regarded as something else than mere merchandise. Indeed it is to the native something that confers dignity, that exalts him, and which he therefore treats with veneration and affection. Their behaviour at the transaction, makes it clear that the vaygu’a is regarded, not only as possessing high value, but that it is treated also in a ritual manner, and arouses emotional reaction. This recognition is confirmed and deepened by the consideration of some other uses of vaygu’a, in which uses other valuables, such as kaloma belts and large stone blades also function, besides the Kula articles.

Thus, when a malignant spirit, tauva’u (see Chapter II , Division VII) is found in or near the village in the shape of a snake or a land crab, some vaygu’a is put before it ceremonially and this is not done so much in order to bribe the spirit sacrrficially by a gift as rather to exercise a direct action on his mind, and to make it benevolent. In the annual festive and dancing period, the milamala, the spirits return to their villages. The Kula valuables at that time in the hands of the community, as well as the permanent vaygu’a, such as stone blades, kaloma belts, and doga pendants, are exhibited sacrificially to the spirits on a platform, an arrangement and custom called yolova (compare Chapter II, Division VII). Thus the vaygu’a represent the most effective offering to be given to the spirits, through which they can be put into a pleasant state of mind; „to make their minds good”, as the stereotyped phrase of the natives runs. In the yolova an offering is made to the spirits of what is most valued by the living. The shadowy visitors are supposed to take the spirit or shadow part of the vaygu’a home, and make a tanarere of it on the beach of Tuma, just as a Kula party make a tanarere of the acquired valuables on their home beach (cf. Chapter XV, Division IV). In all this there is a clear expression of the mental attitude of the natives, who regard the vaygu’a as supremely good in themselves, and not as convertible wealth, or as potential ornaments, or even as instruments of power. To possess vaygu’a is exhilarating, comforting, soothing in itself. They will look at vaygu’a and handle it for hours; even a touch of it imparts under circumstances its virtue.

This is most clearly expressed by a custom observed at death. A dying man is surrounded and overlaid with valuables which all his relatives and relatives-in-law bring in loan for the occasion, to take it back when all is over while the man’s own vaygu’a are left on the corpse for some time after death (see Plate LXV). Various rationalised versions and justifications of this custom are given. Thus it is said to be a gift to Topileta, the keeper of the nether world; or, again, that it has to be taken in its spiritual form to procure a high social standing in Tuma, or simply, that it is laid to adorn and make happier the last moments of the dying. All these beliefs no doubt exist side by side, and they are all compatible with, and indeed express, the underlying emotional attitude; the comforting action of the valuables. It is applied to the dying as something full of good, as something exercising a pleasant action, soothing and fortifying at the same time. They put it on his forehead, they put it on his chest, they rub his belly and his ribs with it, they dangle some of the vaygu’a before his nose. I have often seen them do that, in fact, observed them do it for hours, and I believe there is a complex, emotional and intellectual attitude at the bottom of it; the desire to inspire with life; and at the same time to prepare for death; to hold him fast to this one, and to equip for the other world; but above all, the deep feeling that the vaygu’a are the supreme comfort, that to surround a man with them, even in his most evil moment, makes this moment less evil. The same mental attitude is probably at the bottom of the custom which prescribes that the widow’s brothers should give a vaygu’a to the brothers of the dead man, the same vaygu’a being given back on the same day. But it is kept just long enough to be of comfort to those, who, according to native kinship ideas, are most directly hit by the death.

In all this we find the expression of the same mental attitude, the extreme value attached to condensed wealth, the serious, respectful way of treating it, the idea and the feeling that it is the reservoir of highest good. The vaygu’a are valued in quite a different manner from that in which we value our wealth. The Biblical symbol of the golden calf might even be better applied to their attitude than to ours, although it would be not quite correct to say that they „worship” the vaygu’a, for they worship nothing. The vaygu’a might perhaps be called „objects of cult” in the sense expressed by the facts of the Kula, and the data just adduced; that is, in so far as they are handled ritually in some of the most important acts of native life.

Thus, in several aspects, the Kula presents to us a new type of phenomenon, lying on the borderland between the commercial and the ceremonial and expressing a complex and interesting attitude of mind. But though it is novel, it can hardly be unique. For we can scarcely imagine that a social phenomenon on such a scale, and obviously so deeply connected with fundamental layers of human nature, should only be a sport and a freak, found in one spot of the earth alone. Once we have found this new type of ethnographic fact, we may hope that similar or kindred ones will be found elsewhere. For the history of our science shows many cases in which a new type of phenomena having been discovered, taken up by theory, discussed and analysed, was found subsequently all the world over. The tabu, the Polynesian word and the Polynesian custom, has served as prototype and eponym to similar regulations found among all the savage and barbarous as well as civilised races. Totemism, found first among one tribe of North American Indians and brought to light by the work of Frazer, has later on been documented so widely and fully from everywhere, that in re-writing his early small book, its historian could fill out four volumes. The conception of mana, discovered in a small Melanesian community has, by the work of Hubert and Mauss, Marett and others, been proved of fundamental importance, and there is no doubt that mana, whether named or unnamed, figures and figures largely in the magical beliefs and practices of all natives. These are the most classical and best known examples, and they could be multiplied by others were it necessary. Phenomena of the „totemic type” or of the „mana type” or of the „tabu type” are to be found in all ethnographic provinces, since each of these concepts stands for a fundamental attitude of the savage towards reality.

So with the Kula, if it represents a novel, but not freakish, indeed, a fundamental type of human activity and of the mental attitude of man, we may expect to find allied and kindred phenomena in various other ethnographic provinces. And we may be on the lookout for economic transactions, expressing a reverential, almost worshipping attitude towards the valuables exchanged or handled; implying a novel type of ownership, temporary, intermittent, and cumulative; involving a vast and complex social mechanism and systems of economic enterprises, by means of which it is carried out. Such is the Kula type of semi-economic, semi-ceremonial activities. It would be futile, no doubt, to expect that exact replicas of this institution should be found anywhere and with the same details, such as the circular path on which the valuables move, the fixed direction in which each class has to travel, and existence of solicitory and intermediate gifts. All these technicalities are important and interesting, but they are probably connected in one way or another with the special local conditions of the Kula. What we can expect to find in other parts of the world are the fundamental ideas of the Kula, and its social arrangements in their main outline, and for these the field-worker might be on the look-out.

For the theoretical student, mainly interested in problems of evolution, the Kula might supply some reflections about the origins of wealth and value, of trade and economic relations in general. It might also shed some light upon the development of ceremonial life, and upon the influence of economic aims and and ambitions upon the evolution of intertribal intercourse and of primitive international law. For the student mainly viewing the problems of Ethnology from the point of view of the contact of cultures, and interested in the spread of institutions, beliefs and objects by transmission, the Kula is no less important. Here is a new type of inter-tribal contact, of relations between several communities slightly but definitely differing in culture, and a relation not spasmodic or accidental but regulated and permanent. Quite apart from the fact that in trying to explain how the Kula relationship between the various tribes originated, we are confronted with a definite problem of culture contact.

These few remarks must suffice, as I cannot enter into any theoretical speculations myself. There is one aspect of the Kula, however, to which attention must be drawn from the point of view of its theoretical importance. We have seen that this institution presents several aspects closely intertwined and influencing one another. To take only two, economic enterprise and magical ritual form one inseparable whole, the forces of the magical belief and the efforts of man moulding and influencing one another. How this is happening has been described before in detail in the previous chapters¹¹⁵.

But it seems to me that a deeper analysis and comparison of the manner in which two aspects of culture functionally depend on one another might afford some interesting material for theoretical reflection. Indeed, it seems to me that there is room for a new type of theory. The succession in time, and the influence of the previous stage upon the subsequent, is the main subject of evolutional studies, such as are practised by the classical school of British Anthropology (Tylor, Frazer, Westermarck, Sydney Hartland, Crawley). The ethnological school (Ratzel, Foy, Grabner, W. Schmidt, Rivers, and Eliott-Smith) studies the influence of cultures by contact, infiltration and transmission. The influence of environment on cultural institutions and race is studied by anthropo-geography (Ratzel and others). The influence on one another of the various aspects of an institution, the study of the social and psychological mechanism on which the institution is based, are a type of theoretical studies which has been practised up till now in a tentative way only, but I venture to foretell will come into their own sooner or later. This kind of research will pave the way and provide the material for the others.

At one or two places in the previous chapters, a somewhat detailed digression was made in order to criticise the view about the economic nature of primitive man, as it survives in our mental habits as well as in some text books the conception of a rational being who wants nothing but to satisfy his simplest needs and does it according to the economic principle of least effort. This economic man always knows exactly where his material interests lie, and makes for them in a straight line. At the bottom of the so-called materialistic conception of history lies a somewhat analogous idea of a human being, who, in everything he devises and pursues, has nothing but his material advantage of a purely utilitarian type at heart. Now I hope that whatever the meaning of the Kula might be for Ethnology, for the general science of culture, the meaning of the Kula will consist in being instrumental to dispell such crude, rationalistic conceptions of primitive mankind, and to induce both the speculator and the observer to deepen the analysis of economic facts. Indeed, the Kula shows us that the whole conception of primitive value; the very incorrect habit of calling all objects of value „money” or „currency”; the current ideas of primitive trade and primitive ownership all these have to be revised in the light of our institution.

At the beginning of this book, in the Introduction, I, in a way, promised the reader that he should receive a vivid impression of the events enabling him to see them in their native perspective, at the same time without for one moment losing sight of the method by which I have obtained my data. I have tried to present everything as far as possible in terms of concrete fact, letting the natives speak for themselves, perform their transactions, pursue their activities before the reader’s mental vision. I have tried to pave my account with fact and details, equip it with documents, with figures, with instances of actual occurrence. But at the same time, my conviction, as expressed over and over again, is that what matters really is not the detail, not the fact, but the scientific use we make of it. Thus the details and technicalities of the Kula acquire their meaning in so far only as they express some central attitude of mind of the natives, and thus broaden our knowledge, widen our outlook and deepen our grasp of human nature.

What interests me really in the study of the native is his outlook on things, his Weltanschauung, the breath of life and reality which he breathes and by which he lives. Every human culture gives its members a definite vision of the world, a definite zest of life. In the roamings over human history, and over the surface of the earth, it is the possibility of seeing life and the world from the various angles, peculiar to each culture, that has always charmed me most, and inspired me with real desire to penetrate other cultures, to understand other types of life.

To pause for a moment before a quaint and singular fact; to be amused at it, and see its outward strangeness; to look at it as a curio and collect it into the museum of one’s memory or into one’s store of anecdotes — this attitude of mind has always been foreign and repugnant to me. Some people are unable to grasp the inner meaning and the psychological reality of all that is outwardly strange, at first sight incomprehensible, in a different culture. These people are not born to be ethnologists. It is in the love of the final synthesis, achieved by the assimilation and comprehension of all the items of a culture and still more in the love of the variety and independence of the various cultures that lies the test of the real worker in the true Science of Man.

There is, however, one point of view deeper yet and more important than the love of tasting of the variety of human modes of life, and that is the desire to turn such knowledge into wisdom. Though it may be given to us for a moment to enter into the soul of a savage and through his eyes to look at the outer world and feel ourselves what it must feel to him to be himself — yet our final goal is to enrich and deepen our own world’s vision, to understand our own nature and to make it finer, intellectually and artistically. In grasping the essential outlook of others, with the reverence and real understanding, due even to savages, we cannot but help widening our own. We cannot possibly reach the final Socratic wisdom of knowing ourselves if we never leave the narrow confinement of the customs, beliefs and prejudices into which every man is born. Nothing can teach us a better lesson in this matter of ultimate importance than the habit of mind which allows us to treat the beliefs and values of another man from his point of view. Nor has civilised humanity ever needed such tolerance more than now, when prejudice, ill will and vindictiveness are dividing each European nation from another, when all the ideals, cherished and proclaimed as the highest achievements of civilisation, science and religion, have been thrown to the winds. The Science of Man, in its most refined and deepest version should lead us to such knowledge and to tolerance and generosity, based on the understanding of other men’s point of view.

The study of Ethnology — so often mistaken by its very votaries for an idle hunting after curios, for a ramble among the savage and fantastic shapes of „barbarous customs and crude superstitions” — might become one of the most deeply philosophic, enlightening and elevating disciplines of scientific research. Alas! the time is short for Ethnology, and will this truth of its real meaning and importance dawn before it is too late?

Przypisy:

1. treatise on the family among the aborigines of Australia — The Family among the Australian Aborigines: A Sociological Study. London University of London Press, 1913. [przypis edytorski]

2. account of the natives of Mailu in New Guinea — The Natives of Mailu Preliminary Results of the Robert Mond Research Work in British New Guinea. „Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia”, vol. xxxix., 1915. [przypis edytorski]

3. The hiri, as these expeditions are called in Motuan, have been described with a great wealth of detail and clearness of outline by Captain F. Barton, in C. G. Seligman’s The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Cambridge, 1910, Chapter VIII. [przypis autorski]

4. Cf. The Mailu, by B. Malinowski, in „Transactions of the R. Society f S. Australia”, 1915; Chapter iv. 4, pp. 612 to 629. [przypis autorski]

5. Op. cit. Chapter XI. [przypis autorski]

6. On this point of method again, we are indebted to the Cambridge School of Anthropology for having introduced the really scientific way of dealing with he question. More especially in the writings of Haddon, Rivers and Seligman, he distinction between inference and observation is always clearly drawn, and we can visualise with perfect precision the conditions under which the work was done. [przypis autorski]

7. I may note at once that there were a few delightful exceptions to that, to mention only my friends Billy Hancock in the Trobriands; M. Raffael Brudo, another pearl trader; and the missionary, Mr. M. K. Gilmour. [przypis autorski]

8. According to a useful habit of the terminology of science, I use the word Ethnography for the empirical and descriptive results of the science of Man, and the word Ethnology for speculative and comparative theories [przypis autorski]

9. The legendary „early authority” who found the natives only beastly nd without customs is left behind by a modern writer, who, speaking about he Southern Massim with whom he lived and worked „in close contact” for any years, says „ ...We teach lawless men to become obedient, inhuman men to love, and savage men to change”. And again: „Guided in his conduct by nothing but his instincts and propensities, and governed by his unchecked passions...” „Lawless, inhuman and savage!” A grosser misstatement of the real state of things could not be invented by anyone wishing to parody the Missionary point of view. Quoted from the Rev. C. W. Abel, of the London Missionary Society, Savage Life in New Guinea, no date. [przypis autorski]

10. For instance, the tables of circulation of the valuable axe blades, op. cit. pp. 531, 532. [przypis autorski]

11. In this book, besides the adjoining Table, which does not strictly belong to the class of document of which I speak here, the reader will find only a few samples of synoptic tables, such as the list of Kula partners mentioned and analysed in Chapter XIII, Division II, the list of gifts and presents in Chapter VI, Division VI, not tabularised, only described; the synoptic data of a Kula expedition in Chapter XVI, and the table of Kula magic given in Chapter XVII. Here, I have not wanted to overload the account with charts, etc., preferring to reserve them till the full publication of my material. [przypis autorski]

12. qua (from Latin) — as. [przypis edytorski]

13. verbatim (Latin) — literally, word by word. [przypis edytorski]

14. termini technici (Latin) — technical terms. [przypis edytorski]

15. It was soon after I had adopted this course that I received a letter from Dr. A. H. Gardiner, the well-known Egyptologist, urging me to do this very hing. From his point of view as archaeologist, he naturally saw the enormous possibilities for an Ethnographer of obtaining a similar body of written sources as have been preserved to us from ancient cultures, plus the possibility of illuminating them by personal knowledge of the full life of that culture. [przypis autorski]

16. scholia (Latin) — glosses, notes. [przypis edytorski]

17. The best accounts we possess of the inland tribes are those of W. H. Williamson, The Mafulu, 1912, and of C. Keysser, Aus dem Leben der Kaileute, in R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu Guinea, Vol. III. Berlin, 1911. The preliminary publications of G. Landtmann on the Kiwai, Papuan magic n the Building of Houses, „Acta Arboenses”, Humaniora. I. Abo, 1920, and The Folk-Tales of the Kiwai Papuans, Helsmgfors, 1917, promise that he full account will dispel some of the mysteries surrounding the Gulf of Papua. Meanwhile a good semi-popular account of these natives is to be found n W. N. Beaver’s Unexplored New Guinea, 1920. Personally I doubt ery much whether the hill tribes and the swamp tribes belong to the same stock or have the same culture. Compare also the most recent contribution to his problem Migrations of Cultures in British New Guinea, by A. C. Haddon, Huxley Memorial Lecture for 1921, published by the R. Anthrop Institute. [przypis autorski]

18. See C. G. Seligman, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Cambridge, 1910. [przypis autorski]

19. Cf. C. G. Seligman, op. cit., p. 5. [przypis autorski]

20. A number of good portraits of the S. Massim type are to be found in he valuable book ot the Rev. H. Newton, In Far New Guinea, 1914 and in he amusingly written though superficial and often unreliable booklet of the Rev. C. W. Abel (London Missionary Society), Savage Life in New Guinea (No date). [przypis autorski]

21. ipso facto (Latin) — by the very same act. [przypis edytorski]

22. See Table in the Introduction, and also Chapters XVI and XX. [przypis autorski]

23. Cf. Professor C. G. Seligman, op. cit., Chapters XL and XLII. [przypis autorski]

24. Professor C G. Seligman, op. cit., Chapters XXXV, XXXVI, XXXVII. [przypis autorski]

25. Cf. Professor C. G. Seligman, Chapters XXXVII and XXXVIII. [przypis autorski]

26. My knowledge of the Dobuans is fragmentary, derived from three short visits in their district, from conversation with several Dobu natives whom I had in my service, and from frequent parallels and allusions about Dobuan customs, which are met when doing field-work among the Southern Trobrianders. There is a short, sketchy account of certain of their customs and beliefs by the Rev. W. E. Bromilow, first missionary in Dobu, which I have also consulted, in the records of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. [przypis autorski]

27. Professor C. G. Seligman, op. cit., pp. 170 and 171; 187 and 188 about the Koita and Motu; and B. Malinowski, The Mailu, pp. 647–652. [przypis autorski]

28. Comp. D. Jenness and A. Ballantyne, The Northern d’Entrecasteaux, Oxford, 1920, Chapter XII. [przypis autorski]

29. I spent about a month in these islands, and found the natives surprisingly intractable and difficult to work with ethnographically. The Amphlett „boys” are renowned as boys good boat-hands, but in general they are not such capable and willing workers as the Dobuans. [przypis autorski]

30. Already Dr. C. G. Seligman has noticed that there are people of an outstanding fine physical type among the Northern Massim, of whom the Trobrianders form the Western section, people who are „generally taller (often very notably so) than the individuals of the short-faced, broad-nosed type, in whom the bridge of the nose is very low”. Op. cit., p. 8. [przypis autorski]

31. I have dealt with the subject of garden work in the Trobriands and ith its economic importance more fully in an article entitled The Primitive Economics of the Trobriand Islanders in „The Economic Journal”, March, 1921. [przypis autorski]

32. This does not mean that the general economic conclusions are wrong. The economic nature of Man is as a rule illustrated on imaginary savages for didactic purposes only, and the conclusions of the authors are in reality based n their study of the facts of developed economics. But, nevertheless, quite apart from the fact that pedagogically it is a wrong principle to make matters look more simple by introducing a falsehood, it is the Ethnographer’s duty and right to protest against the introduction from outside of false facts into his own field of study. [przypis autorski]

33. primus inter pares (Latin) — the first among the equals. [przypis edytorski]

34. Compare Professor C. G. Seligman, op. cit., pp. 663–668; also the Author, Article on War and Weapons among the Trobriand Islanders, in Man, January, 1918. [przypis autorski]

35. Compare the Author’s article on Fishing and Fishing Magic in the Trobriands, Man, June, 1918. [przypis autorski]

36. The discovery of the existence of „linked” totems, and the introduction of this term and conception are due to Professor C. G. Seligman. Op. tit. , pp. 9, 1 1; see also Index. [przypis autorski]

37. See the Author’s article, Baloma, Spirits of the Dead, Part VII, J. R. A. I., 1917, where this statement has been substantiated with abundant vidence. Further information obtained during another expedition to the Trobriands, established by an additional wealth of detail the complete ignorance f physiological fatherhood. [przypis autorski]

38. See the Author’s article Baloma, Spirits of the Dead, quoted above. [przypis autorski]

39. I am using the words religion and magic according to Sir James Frazer’s distinction (see Golden Bough, vol. I). Frazer’s definition suits the Kiriwinian facts much better than any other one. In fact, although I started my field work convinced that the theories of religion and magic expounded in the Golden Bough are inadequate, I was forced by all my observations in New Guinea to come over to Frazer’s position. [przypis autorski]

40. Compare Professor C. G. Seligman, op. cit., the parallel description of he social institutions in the Trobriands, Marshall Bennetts, Woodlark Island nd the Loughlands, Chapters XLIX–LV. [przypis autorski]

41. By „current view”, I mean such as is to be found in text-books and n passing remarks, scattered through economic and ethnological literature. As a matter of fact, Economics is a subject very seldom touched upon either in theoretical works on Ethnology, or in accounts of field-work. I have enlarged n this deficiency in the article on Primitive Economics, published in the „Economic Journal”, March, 1921. The best analysis of the problem of savage economy is to be found, in spite of its many shortcomings, in K. Bűcher’s Industrial Evolution, English Translation, 1901. On primitive trade, however, his views are inadequate. In accordance with his general view that savages have no national economy, he maintains that any spread of goods among natives is achieved by non-economic means, such as robbery, tributes and gifts. The information contained in the present volume is incompatible with Bucher’s views, nor could he have maintained them, had he been acquainted with Barton’s description of the Hiri (contained in Seligman’s Melanesians.) A summary of the research done on Primitive Economics, showing ncidentally, how little real, sound work has been accomplished, will be found in Pater W. Kopper’s Die Ethnologische Wirtschaftsforschung in „Anthropos”, X XI, 1915–16, pp. 611–651, and 971–1079. The article is very useful, here the author summarises the views of others. [przypis autorski]

42. Professor C. G. Seligman, op. tit., p. 93, states that arm-shells, toea, as they are called by the Motu, are traded from the Port Moresby district westward to the Gulf of Papua. Among the Motu and Koita, near Port Moresby, they are highly valued, and nowadays attain very high prices, up to £30, much more than is paid for the same article among the Massim. [przypis autorski]

43. This and the following quotations are from the Author’s preliminary article on the Kula in Man, July, 1920. Article number 51, p. 100. [przypis autorski]

44. In order not to be guilty of inconsistency in using loosely the word „ceremonial” I shall define it briefly. I shall call an action ceremonial, if it s (1) public; (2) carried on under observance of definite formalities; (3) if it has sociological, religious, or magical import, and carries with it obligations. [przypis autorski]

45. This is not a fanciful construction of what an erroneous opinion might be, for I could give actual examples proving that such opinions have been set forth, but as I am not giving here a criticism of existing theories of Primitive Economics, I do not want to overload this chapter with quotations. [przypis autorski]

46. It is hardly necessary perhaps to make it quite clear that all questions of origins, of development or history of the institutions have been rigorously ruled out of this work. The mixing up of speculative or hypothetical views with an account of facts is, in my opinion, an unpardonable sin against ethnographic method. [przypis autorski]

47. Comparing the frail yet clumsy native canoe with a fine European yacht, we feel inclined to regard the former almost in the light of a joke. This is the pervading note in many amateur ethnographic accounts of sailing, here cheap fun is made by speaking of roughly hewn dug-outs in terms of „dreadnoughts” or „Royal Yachts”, just as simple, savage chiefs are referred o as „Kings” in a jocular vein. Such humour is doubtless natural and refreshing, but when we approach these matters scientifically, on the one hand we must refrain from any distortion of facts, and on the other, enter into the finer shades of the natives’ thought and feeling with regard to his own creations. [przypis autorski]

48. The crab-claw sails, used on the South Coast, from Mailu where I used o see them, to westwards where they are used with the double-masted lakatoi of Port Moresby, are still more picturesque. In fact, I can hardly imagine anything more strangely impressive than a fleet of crab-claw sailed canoes. They have been depicted in the British New Guinea stamp, as issued by Captain Francis Barton, the late Governor of the Colony. See also Plate XII of Seligman’s Melanesians. [przypis autorski]

49. A constructive expedient to achieve a symmetrical stability is exemplified by the Mailu system of canoe-building, where a platform bndges two parallel, hollowed-out logs. Cf. Author’s article in the „Transactions of the Royal Society of S. Australia”, Vol. XXXIX, 1915, pp. 494–706. Chapter IV, 612–599. Plates XXXV-XXXVII. [przypis autorski]

50. The whole tribal life is based on a continuous material give and take; cf. the above mentioned article in the „Economic Journal”, March, 1921, and he disgression on this subject in Chapter VI, Division IV-VII. [przypis autorski]

51. This view has been more fully elaborated in the article on Primitive Economics in the „Economic Journal”, March, 1921; compare also the remarks on systematic magic in Chapter XVII, Division VII. [przypis autorski]

52. The way of hiring a masawa (sea-going) canoe is different from the usual transaction, when hiring a fishing canoe. In the latter case, the payment consists of giving part of the yield of fish, and this is called uwaga. The same term applies to all payments for objects hired. Thus, if fishing nets or hunting implements, or a small canoe for trading along the coast are hired out, part of the proceeds are given as uwaga. [przypis autorski]

53. The words within brackets in this and in some of the following spells are free additions, necessary to make the meaning clear in the English version. They are implied by the context in the native original, though not explicitly contained. [przypis autorski]

54. Compare therefore Chapter XII, Division IV. [przypis autorski]

55. All this is discussed at length in Chapter XVII, Division IV. [przypis autorski]

56. It is necessary to be acquainted with the mythology of canoe-building nd of the Kula (Chapter XII) in order to understand thoroughly the meaning f this spell. [przypis autorski]

57. Compare the linguistic analysis of this spell in Chapter XVIII. [przypis autorski]

58. Cf. Chapter II, Divisions III and IV, and some of the following Divisions of this Chapter. [przypis redakcyjny]

59. eo ipso (Latin) — by that very act. [przypis edytorski]

60. status quo (Latin) — the current state of affairs. [przypis edytorski]

61. I am adducing these views not for any controversial purposes, but to justify and make clear why I stress certain general features of Trobriand Economic Sociology. My contentions might run the danger of appearing as gratuitous truisms if not thus justified. The opinion that primitive humanity and savages have no individual property is an old prejudice shared by many modern writers, especially in support of communistic theories, and the so-called materialistic view of history. The „communism of savages” is a phrase very often read, and needs no special quotation. The views of individual search for food and household economy are those of Karl Bűcher, and they have directly influenced all the best modern writings on Primitive Economics. Finally, the view that we have done with Primitive Economics if we have described the way in which the natives procure their food, is obviously a fundamental premise of all the naīve, evolutionary theories which construct the successive stages of economic development. This view is summarised in the following sentence : „...In many simple communities, the actual food quest, and operations immediately arising from it, occupy by far the greater part of the people’s time and energy, leaving little opportunity for the satisfaction of any lesser needs”. This sentence, quoted out of „Notes and Queries on Anthropology”, p. 160, article on the Economics of the Social Group, represents what may be called the official view of contemporary Ethnology on the subject, and in perusing the rest of the article, it can be easily seen that all the manifold economic problems, with which we are dealing in this book, have been so far more or less neglected. [przypis redakcyjny]

62. These views had to be adduced at length, although touched upon already in Chapter II, Division IV, because they imply a serious error with regard to human nature in one of its most fundamental aspects. We can show up their fallacy on one example only, that of the Trobriand Society, but even this is enough to shatter their universal validity and show that the problem must be re-stated. The criticised views contain very general propositions, which, however, can be answered only empirically. And it is the duty of the field Ethnographer to answer and correct them. Because a statement is very general, it can none the less be a statement of empirical fact. General views must not be mixed up with hypothetical ones. The latter must be banished from field work; the former cannot receive too much attention. [przypis redakcyjny]

63. As a matter of fact, this custom is not so prominent in the Trobnands as in other Massim districts and all over the Papuo-Melanesian world, cf. for instance Seligman, op. cit. p. 56 and Plate VI, Fig. 6. [przypis redakcyjny]

64. Again, in explaining value, I do not wish to trace its possible origins, but I try simply to show what are the actual and observable elements into which the natives’ attitude towards the object valued can be analysed. [przypis redakcyjny]

65. a limine (Latin) — from the threshold, from the beginning. [przypis edytorski]

66. These natives have no idea of physiological fatherhood. See Chapter II, Division VI. [przypis redakcyjny]

67. opprobrium (from Latin) — shame, disgrace. [przypis edytorski]

68. Compare Plate XXXIII, where the yam houses of a headman arc filled by his wife’s brothers. [przypis redakcyjny]

69. This advantage was probably in olden days a mutual one. Nowadays, when the fishermen can earn about ten or twenty times more by diving for pearls than by performing their share of the wasi, the exchange is as a rule a great burden on them. It is one of the most conspicuous examples of the tenacity of native custom that in spite of all the temptation which pearling offers them and in spite of the great pressure exercised upon them by the white traders, the fishermen never try to evade a wasi, and when they have received the inaugurating gift, the first calm day is always given to fishing, and not to pearling. [przypis redakcyjny]

70. Compare the linguistic analysis of the original text of this spell, given in Chapter XVIII. [przypis redakcyjny]

71. Koyatabu — the mountain on the North shore of Fergusson, Kamsareta, the highest hill on Domdom, in the Amphletts; Koyava’u — the mountain opposite Dobu island, on the North shore of Dawson Straits; Gorebubu — the volcano on Dobu island. [przypis redakcyjny]

72. The prefix bo- has three different etymological derivations, each carrying its own shade of meaning. First, it may be the first part of the word bomala, in which case, its meaning will be „ritual” or „sacred”. Secondly, it may be derived from the word bu’a, areca-nut, a substance very often used and mentioned in magic, both because it is a narcotic, and a beautiful, vermilion dye. Thirdly, the prefix may be a derivation from butia, the sweet scented flower made into wreaths, in which case it would usually be bway, but sometimes might become bo-, and would carry the meaning of „festive”, „decorated.” To a native, who does not look upon a spell as an ethnological document, but as an instrument of magical power, the prefix probably conveys all three meanings at once, and the word ritual covers best all these three meanings. [przypis redakcyjny]

73. The prefix bo- has three different etymological derivations, each carrying its own shade of meaning. First, it may be the first part of the word bomala, in which case, its meaning will be „ritual” or „sacred”. Secondly, it may be derived from the word bu’a, areca-nut, a substance very often used and mentioned in magic, both because it is a narcotic, and a beautiful, vermilion dye. Thirdly, the prefix may be a derivation from butia, the sweet scented flower made into wreaths, in which case it would usually be bway, but sometimes might become bo-, and would carry the meaning of „festive”, „decorated.” To a native, who does not look upon a spell as an ethnological document, but as an instrument of magical power, the prefix probably conveys all three meanings at once, and the word ritual covers best all these three meanings. [przypis redakcyjny]

74. See Division II of Chapter V. [przypis redakcyjny]

75. The word tabu, in the meaning of taboo prohibition is used in its verbal form in the language of the Trobriands, but not very often. Tho noun „prohibition,” „sacred thing,” is always bomala, used with suffixed personal pronouns. [przypis redakcyjny]

76. At a later date, I hope to work out certain historical hypotheses with regard to migrations and cultural strata in Eastern New Guinea. A considerable number of independent indices seem to corroborate certain simple hypotheses as to the stratification of the various cultural elements. [przypis redakcyjny]

77. The word vineylida suggests the former belief, as vine — female, lida — coral stone. [przypis autorski]

78. Professor Seligman has described the belief in similar beings on the North-East Coast of New Guinea. At Gelaria, inland of Bartle Bay, the flying witches can produce a double, or „sending”, which they call labuni. „Labuni exists within women, and can be commanded by any woman who has had children. ... It was said that the labuni existed in, or was derived from, an organ called ipona, situated in the flank, and literally meaning egg or eggs”. op. cit., p. 640. The equivalence of beliefs here is evident. [przypis redakcyjny]

79. Not all the spells which I have obtained have been equally well translated and commented upon. This one, although very valuable, for it is one of the spells of the old chief Maniyuwa, and one which had been recited when his corpse was brought over from Dobu by his son Maradiana, was obtained early in my ethnographic career, and Gomaya, Maradiana’s son, from whom I got it, is a bad commentator. Nor could I find any other competent informant later on, who could completely elucidate it for me. [przypis redakcyjny]

80. Such reconstructions are legitimate for an Ethnographer, as well as for a historian. But it is a duty of the former as well as of the latter to show his sources as well as to explain how he has manipulated them. In one of the next chapters, Chapter XVIII, Divisions XIV-XVII, a sample of this methodological aspect of the work will be given, although the full elaboration of sources and methods must be postponed to another publication. [przypis redakcyjny]

81. See Chapter II, Division VII. [przypis autorski]

82. I cannot tell what sort of influence this would be, exercised by a sister over her brother in Dobu. I do not even know whether, in that district, there obtains the same taboo between brother and sister as in the Trobriands. [przypis autorski]

83. This is the information which I obtained during my short visit to Murua (Woodlark Island), and which was confirmed by the Trobriand islanders. Professor Seligmann states, also, that the sepulchral pots, found in this island, come from the Amphletts. Op. cit., p. 731. Compare also pp. 15 and 535. [przypis autorski]

84. See Chapter VI, Division VI. [przypis autorski]

85. prima facie (Latin) — at first sight. [przypis edytorski]

86. The reader will note that this is the same name, which another mythical log bore, also of the Lukuba clan as all dogs are, the one namely from whom he kayga’u magic is traced. Cf. Chapter X, Division V. [przypis autorski]

87. Cf. Professor C. G. Seligman, The Melanesians, Chapter LIV, Burial and Mourning Ceremonies (among the natives of the Trobriand Islands, of Woodlark and the Marshall Bennetts). [przypis autorski]

88. The great moral philosopher — Immanuel Kant. [przypis edytorski]

89. Compare also No. VI (A), in the Synoptic Table of Kula magic, in Chapter XVII, p. 418. [przypis autorski]

90. There can be no better expression to denote the mutual relation of all these ideas than that used by Frazer to describe one of the typical forms of magic thought, the „contagion of ideas”. The subjective, psychological process leads the natives to the belief in magical contagion of things. [przypis autorski]

91. It will be noted, that this is the third meaning in which the term pokala is used by the natives. (Cf. Chapter VI, Division VI.) [przypis autorski]

92. See the Author’s Memoir, The Natives of Mailu in „Transactions of the R. Society of S. Australia” for 1915, p. 598. [przypis autorski]

93. These views have been elaborated in the previously quoted article on Primitive Economics in the „Economic Journal”, March, 1921. [przypis autorski]

94. The association of magic with any vital interest is demonstrated by the case of pearling. Here, through the advent of white men, a new and very lucrative and absorbing pursuit has opened up for the natives. A form of magic is now in existence, associated with this fishing. This of course apparently contradicts the native dogma that magic cannot be invented. The natives, if faced with this contradiction, explain that it is really an old magic of shell fishing which refers to all the shells found at the bottom of the Lagoon, but which so far had only been used with regard to fishing for the Conus. In fact, this magic is nothing but the adaptation of the mwali (armshell) magic to the pearls. I doubt, none the less, whether even such a transference or adaptation would have taken place before the foundations of native belief and custom had been shaken by the well-intentioned but not always wise and beneficent teachings and rulings of the white man and by the introduction of trade. [przypis autorski]

95. See article by the Author on the Baloma, spirits of the dead in the Trobriand Islands, J. A. I., 1917. [przypis autorski]

96. ad libitum (Latin) — literally „at one’s pleasure”, in music means „repeat as many times as you want”. [przypis edytorski]

97. An example of this ill-judged attitude of interference is to be found even in a book written by an exceptionally well informed and enlightened missionary, In Far New Guinea, by Henry Newton. In describing the feasts and dancing of the natives, he admits these to be a necessity of tribal life: „On the whole the feasting and dancing are good; they give excitement and relaxation to the young men, and tone the drab colours of life”. He himself tells us that, „the time comes when the old men stop the dancing. They begin to growl because the gardens are neglected, and they want to know if dancing will give the people food, so the order is given that the drums are to be hung up, and the people settle down to work”. But in spite of Mr. Newton’s recognition of this natural tribal authority, in spite of the fact that he really admits the views given in our text, he cannot refrain from saying: „Seriously, however, for the benefit of the people themselves, it would be a good thing if there could be some regulations — if dancing were not allowed after midnight, for while it lasts nothing else is done. — The gardens suffer and it would help the people to learn self-restraint and so strengthen their characters if the dancing could be regulated”. He goes on to admit quite candidly that it would be difficult to enforce such a regulation because „to the native mind, it would seem that it was the comfort of the white man, not the benefit of the native which was the reason for the regulation”. And to my mind also, I am afraid! The following quotations from a recent scientific work published by the Oxford Press The Northern d’Entrecasteaux, by D. Jenness, and the Rev. A. Ballantyne, 1920 are also examples of the dangerous and heedless tampering with the one authority that now binds the natives, the one discipline they can be relied upon to observe that of their own tribal tradition. The relations of a church member who died, were „counselled to drop the harsher elements in their mourning”, and instead of the people being bidden „to observe each jot and tittle of their old, time-honoured rites”, they were advised from that day forth to leave off „those which had no meaning”. It is strange to find a trained ethnologist, confessing that old, time-honoured rites have no meaning! And one might feel tempted to ask: for whom it is that these customs have no meaning, for the natives or for the writers of the passage quoted? The following incident is even more telling. A native headman of an inland village was supposed to keep concealed in his hut a magic pot, the „greatest ruler of winds, rain, and sunshine”, a pot which had „come down from times immemorial”, which according to some of the natives „in the beginning simply was”. According to the Authors, the owner of the pot used to descend on the coastal natives and „levy tribute”, threatening them with the magical powers of the pot if they refused. Some of the coastal natives went to the Missionary and asked him to interfere or get the magistrate to do so. It was arranged they should all go with the Missionary and seize the pot. But on the day „only one man turned up”. When the Missionary went, however, the natives blocked his path, and only through threats of punishments by the magistrate, were they induced to temporarily leave the village and thus to allow him to seize the pot! A few days later the Missionary accordingly took possession of the pot, which he broke. The Authors go on to say that after this incident „everyone was contented and happy”; except, one might add, the natives and those who would see in such occurrences the speedy destruction of native culture, and the final disintegration of the race. [przypis autorski]

98. I have not seen the site of Suloga myself. Interesting details are to be found in The Melanesians of Professor Seligman, who visited the spot himself, and who has collected a number of specimens in the locality, as well as many data about the production of the blades. Op. cit., pp. 530-533. [przypis autorski]

99. Cf. Op. cit., pp. 670-672. [przypis autorski]

100. Op. cit., description of the Walaga feast, pp. 594-603. [przypis autorski]

101. mutatis mutandis (Latin) — changing what must be changed. [przypis edytorski]

102. See the Author’s Memoir in the „Transactions of the Royal Society of S. Australia”. The Natives of Mailu, pp. 580-588. [przypis autorski]

103. Cf. Professor C. G. Seligman. Op. cit, Chapter XLIV. [przypis autorski]

104. Cf. Professor C. G. Seligman. Op. cit., p. 584. [przypis autorski]

105. The ethnographic researches at present carried on in Su’a’u by Mr. W. E. Armstrong, of Cambridge, will no doubt throw light on this subject. [przypis autorski]

106. Seligman. Op. cit., p. 524. [przypis autorski]

107. Op. cit., p. 538. [przypis autorski]

108. Ibid. [przypis autorski]

109. Cf. Op. cit., pp. 536-537. [przypis autorski]

110. I cannot follow Professor Seligman in his use of the word currency, which is not very clearly defined by him. This word can be correctly applied to the armshells, spondylus discs, big polished blades of green stones, etc., only if we give it simply the meaning of „objects” or ”tokens of wealth”. Currency as a rule means a medium of exchange and standard of value, and none of the Massim valuables fulfil these functions. [przypis autorski]

111. A short article on this subject has been published by the Rev. M. Gilmour, now head of the Methodist Mission in New Guinea. („Annual Report of British New Guinea”, 1904-5, p. 71.) I used this article in the field, going over it with several natives of Kavataria, and I found it substantially correct, and on the whole formulated with precision. The need for extreme compression of statement has, however, led the Author into one or two ambiguities. Thus, the constant mention of „feasting” might give a wrong impression, for it is alwayls the matter of a public distribution of food, which is then eaten apart, or in small groups, while the word „feast” suggests eating in common. Again, the data about the „sea-chief”, as Mr. Gilmour calls the leader of the privileged clan in Kavataria (cf. Chapter IX, Division III), seemed to me over-stated when he is said to be „supreme”, to have „the right of determining an expedition”, and especially when it is said that he „had the right of first choice of a canoe”. This latter phrase must involve a misunderstanding; as we saw, each sub-clan (that is, each sub-division of the village) build their own canoe, and a subsequent swapping and free choice are out of the question. Mr. Gilmour was fully acquainted with the facts of the Kula, as I learnt from personal conversation. In this article, he mentions it only in one phrase, saying that some of the expeditions „were principally concerned in the exchange of the circulated articles of native wealth ... in which trade was only a secondary consideration”. [przypis autorski]

112. Mr. Gilmour’s statement to the contrary namely that „the trips from the West Kavataria and Kaileuna were pure trading expeditions” (loc. cit.) is incorrect. First, I am inclined to think that some of the Kavataria men did make the Kula in the Amphletts, where they always stopped on their way South, but this might have been only on a very small scale, and entirely overshadowed by the main object of the expedition, which was the trade with the Southern Koya. Secondly, as to the natives of Kayleula, I am certain that they made the Kula, from conclusive data collected both in the Trobriands and in the Amphletts. [przypis autorski]

113. I have given a more detailed description of this process which I had often opportunities to observe among the Mailu on the South coast. I never saw the making of an armshell in the Trobriands, but the two processes are identical according to detailed information which I obtained. (Compare the monograph on The Natives of Mailu by the Author, in the „Transactions of the Royal Society of S. Australia”, 1915, pp. 643-644. [przypis autorski]

114. Both statements of Professor Seligman in the Melanesians (p. 89) are in entire agreement with the information I obtained among the Mailu. See „Transactions of the Royal Society of S. Australia”, 1915, pp. 620-629, [przypis autorski]

115. Also in the before quoted article in the „Economic Journal”, March, 1921. [przypis autorski]