Black willow (Salix nigra, Marsh.). This species of black willow was used by the Menomini, Winnebago, Michigan Ottawa, and Ojibway Indians in the manufacture of bags, pouches, fish nets, and cord. A Menomini bag (MAIHF 8-1136) and a similar Winnebago bag (AMNH 50.1-903) contain black willow fiber. A Micmac fish spear (AMNH 50-4754) is wrapped with black willow twine. In the preparation of black willow fiber the bark was obviously stripped from the tree. Then the inner white bast tissue was removed and boiled in wood ashes; finally, this bast was pounded and rubbed to remove all the cementitious materials and loosen the fibers so they could be arranged more or less parallel to each other for twisting or spinning. In none of the specimens examined were crude strips of the inner bark used without preliminary treatment.
TILIACEAE, Juss. (Basswood Family)
The bast layer from the basswood (Tilia americana, L.) seems to have been the fiber most commonly and universally used by the Eastern Indians, for it was encountered fifty-two times, in all areas from which specimens were obtained, with the exception of the extreme south. It was utilized for nearly all purposes, from the manufacture of bags to textiles. In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a Menomini bag (4586) made from the Tilia bast, carefully and thoroughly prepared to remove the gums and render the fibers parallel and capable of being spun into good yarn. A Potawatomi bag in this Museum (50.1-7091) is made from the same material. In the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, is a bag made by the Sauk and Fox (2-4966). In the Peabody Museum of Harvard University is a twilled woven garment (A5479B) made by the protohistoric Indians of Massachusetts. An Iroquois burden strap (AE 2963) in the Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences is woven of threads from prepared fibers from this tree. In the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum is a prehistoric fabric (957) containing Tilia and three other species of fiber. Hopewell mound and rock-shelter specimens in the same museum show the use of Tilia.
The above gives a general picture of basswood fiber usage. It was found in an untreated state, merely cut into strips, as well as thoroughly treated and spun into comparatively fine threads.
ULMACEAE, Mirbel. (Elm Family)
The slippery elm (Ulmus fulva, Michx.) was found three times. Once, in a burden strap made by the Iroquois Indians (AMNH 50-6680) in which the fibers had received some preliminary treatment to soften them and remove much of the natural gum. Two other specimens, both rather coarsely woven fabrics from mounds of the Hopewell culture (OSHAM 283 and 125) were in the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum.
The American elm (Ulmus americana, L.) was encountered only once in an Iroquois burden strap (MAIHF 19-4550). The fiber had received some preliminary treatment and differed decidedly from Ulmus fulva in the shape of the cells, in cross-section, and the residual amount of amorphous material.
UMBELLIFERAE
The eryngium (Eryngium yuccaefolium, Michx.) was commonly used by the prehistoric tribes of the area in which it occurs. It was found fifty-five times in material from the caves and rock-shelters of Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. Its parallel veined long leaves lend themselves to all uses as readily as the yuccas of the south and west. It is easily shredded or it can be used entire with equal facility. The stem contains a very strong bast fiber which was also utilized. It does not seem to have been utilized by the historic Indians, as it was not encountered outside of the above cultures. Whatever, if any, treatment it received before usage was very slight and consisted apparently of shredding, with no chemical treatment, as no fine threads or cords were found. A sandal from the Kentucky cave culture is made from this plant by utilizing the leaf, as in the Southwest. A cord from a reed mat found in the Tennessee caves (USNM 132252) is made from this material. The cord was used for tying reeds (Typha latifolia, L.) together. The Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, contains many specimens taken from the caves and rock-shelters of Arkansas. Among these is a bag (11-7315) from Allards Bluff, made of this material.
This plant was frequently encountered in collections from the Hopewell and the rock-shelter cultures of Ohio, in the State Museum at Columbus; as, braided work (957), and cloth from a burial (854). These objects are believed to be typical, but the same plant was used in all classes of cordage and textiles found in collections representing these cultures.