The usual note is shrill, piercing, and often harsh or angry, as in Tyrannus, Myiarchus, and Machetornis; it is loud, grating, and rarely mellow, in Pitangus and Cybernetes; a low plaintive whistle or pipe is uttered by Myiotheretes, Cyanotis, and most of the Taeniopterinae, Sayornis having a ringing cry, supposed to resemble "Phoebe," which name it bears in North America, and Fluvicola and Cnipolegus giving vent to clicking sounds. Many species twitter, chirp, or chatter, while Pyrocephalus rubineus, Hapalocercus flaviventer, Ornithion imberbe, Contopus ardesiacus, and Empidonax flaviventer are stated to have a pleasant trill approaching a song. These notes may be uttered by the birds either when soaring in the air or when stationary. The food normally consists of insects, caught upon the wing with an audible snap of the bill; but Taenioptera often, instead of hawking from a perch, pounces upon crawling beetles, grasps them in its claws, and devours them upon the earth. Pitangus bolivianus and some other forms even eat mice, young birds, small snakes, lizards, fishes, frogs, spiders, molluscs, worms, and insect-larvae, beating the larger creatures upon a branch to kill them. Elainea strepera, Myiarchus crinitus, and some species of Tyrannus, will eat berries and seeds. A bulky nest is often fashioned of rough twigs, moss, grass, straws, wool, hair, and rags; which may be open as in Tyrannus, or domed as in Pitangus bolivianus, and placed in trees in either case: or it may be beautifully felted with moss, lichens, and spiders'-webs, and lined with hair and feathers, as in Elainea and Serpophaga. Sayornis commonly makes a foundation of mud pellets, adding coarse materials above with feathers for bedding, the fabric being fixed to rocks or buildings. Again, many species build slight or fairly compact nests of grass, twigs, and softer materials in bushes, forks, or outgrowths of trees. Copurus, Taenioptera, Machetornis, and Myiarchus commonly use old holes of Woodpeckers; Todirostrum and Fluvicola often make hanging purse-like structures; Cyanotis attaches its conical nest of papery reeds to the stems of those plants; Serpophaga frequently suspends its domicile to twigs, roots, or grasses overhanging water; Alectrurus, Lichenops, Hapalocercus, and Centrites build in rush- or grass-tufts, and Muscisaxicola under stones. Taenioptera and Machetornis, moreover, will lay in the "ovens" of Furnarius, or in the nests of Anumbius acuticaudus (pp. [486], [487]). Muscivora mexicana makes a curious hanging spindle-shaped nest, surrounded by loose materials. The eggs are usually whitish, salmon- or cream-coloured, and may be unspotted, or dotted and ringed with red, purple, or brown; those of Pyrocephalus rubineus have black and grey markings, those of Machetornis dense brown stripes or spots, those of Myiarchus tangled purple or red-brown lines and marblings, while those of Centrites niger are plain bluish-green.
Fam. V. Oxyrhamphidae.–The members differ from the Tyrannidae in the straight bill, and the serrated outer web of the tenth primary of the male. The sole genus Oxyrhamphus has three greenish forms, with red crests, and black-spotted yellow or white lower parts.
Fam. VI. Pipridae.–The Manakins, often considered a sub-section of the Cotingidae, are for the most part small thick-set birds, though Heteropelma and some other genera have greater dimensions. The seventy or more species may be divided into the Sub-families, Piprinae, with brilliant males, and Ptilochlorinae, where the sexes are usually dull-coloured and similar;[[269]] the former ranging from South Mexico to North Argentina, the latter to South-East Brazil. The curved bill is generally short and wide at the base in the Piprinae, with an indistinct terminal notch; but is somewhat elongated, much compressed, decidedly notched, and usually provided with rictal bristles in the Ptilochlorinae. The metatarsus is exaspidean (p. [473])–though nearly smooth in Metopothrix and Masius–and is comparatively slender in most of the Piprinae, stronger in the Ptilochlorinae, Piprites, and Ceratopipra; the outer and mid-toes being partially united. The exterior of the ten primaries is always short, while the wing is much elongated in Chloropipo; the secondaries are nine or ten. In the males of some forms the remiges differ from those of the females; thus the shafts of the primaries are thickened and pointed in Chiroxiphia, similar but incurved in Helicura and Chiromachaeris, with much attenuated barbs in the latter; in Ptilochloris the seventh primary is modified and bends outwards. In Machaeropterus the wing-bones are flattened; the secondaries have thick stems bending inwards towards the tip, and shew reduced vanes, save the eighth and ninth, while the sixth and seventh have the shaft terminally developed into a horny excrescence. The tail is usually short and square, but is long in Chloropipo and Metopia, rounded in the latter and Masius, graduated in Metopothrix and Heterocercus. The outer of the twelve feathers are much elongated in Cirrhopipra, being acuminate in C. heterocerca, curved and filiform in C. filicauda; the two median rectrices are lengthened in Helicura; while in three species of Chiroxiphia they are also long, or even linear in C. linearis. Frontal crests occur in Metopia, Masius, and Metopothrix; vertical crests in Pipra serena, P. suavissima, and four species of Chiroxiphia; Ceratopipra has a peculiar extended nuchal tuft, Chiromachaeris an elongated beard.
Fig. 102.–Manakin. Pipra mentalis. × ½.
As examples of coloration we may take the following:–Chloropipo flavicapilla has a yellow head, neck, and under parts, a green back, and brownish wings; Xenopipo atronitens is uniform black; Ceratopipra cornuta, black with scarlet head, neck, and thighs; Cirrhopipra filicauda similarly coloured, with yellow forehead and lower surface. Pipra leucocilla is black with a white crown; P. velutina has a blue cap, P. suavissima an erect white vertical crest, lilac rump, and orange mid-abdomen. Machaeropterus regulus exhibits green upper parts, a scarlet crown, slaty wing- and tail-quills, and white, green, and rufous under surface. Chiroxiphia pareola is black, with blue mantle and crimson crest; Chiromachaeris aurantiaca is also black, with orange nuchal band, cheeks and breast, green rump, and yellow abdomen. The females are green, with yellowish or whitish tints below. Ptilochloris squamata is in both sexes olive-green, with blackish cap and wings, and yellowish under parts marked with black; others again of the Ptilochlorinae are chiefly olive or rufous,[[270]] three species of Heteropelma having concealed coronal patches of yellow.
Manakins as a rule inhabit deep forests, or thick undergrowth near marshes, where they incessantly creep about the branches like Tits, and take short flights after passing insects. Chiroxiphia caudata is called in Brazil the "Fandango-bird," from the fact that one individual often sits and sings, while its fellows dance up and down to the music. Two males of C. linearis have been seen skipping before a female, and uttering meanwhile their cry of "to-le-do." Chiromachaeris makes a sound like a whip cracking, followed by a continuous rattle–possibly caused by the wings; but this noise seems peculiar to the genus, the usual cry being loud and whistling. Fruits of all sorts, especially berries and seeds, and occasionally insects, form the food. Chiromachaeris manacus and Chiroxiphia caudata hang loose, shallow nests of grass–the latter with slight additions of wool, hair, tendrils, and leaves–from the forks of low shrubs; the two eggs being reddish-or yellowish-white, thickly blotched with red or brown.
Fam. VII. Cotingidae.–This group, divided by Mr. Sclater[[271]] into the Sub-families Tityrinae, Lipauginae, Attilinae, Rupicolinae, Cotinginae, and Gymnoderinae, contains more than a hundred species; but the Attilinae are sometimes placed in the Tyrannidae or the Formicariidae, Iodopleura and Calyptura in the Pipridae. The range extends from South Mexico to Argentina, Carpodectes being restricted to Costa Rica and Nicaragua, Phoenicocercus, Haematoderus, and Gymnocephalus to Guinea and Amazonia, Doliornis to Central Peru, Tijuca, Phibalura, and Calyptura to South Brazil.
The bill varies from strong, elongated, compressed, and curved, as in Tijuca, the Tityrinae and Attilinae, to short and broad, as in Phibalura, Querula, and Chasmorhynchus; the culmen being particularly elevated in Gymnoderus, and much hooked in the Attilinae. The metatarsus, scutellated in front, and usually covered with small round scales behind (pycnaspidean), is especially strong in Pyroderus and Rupicola, partly feathered in the latter, and posteriorly corrugated in Lipaugus; while Attila and other kindred forms have the outer toes somewhat connected. The wings may be long, as in Carpodectes and Iodopleura, or short as in Phoenicocercus and Calyptura; the ten primaries, of which the outer is small, are much reduced and twisted in Chirocylla–particularly in the male; in that sex of Rupicola some have the inner web cut away at the tip, while the external secondaries have the outer vanes filamentous; the Tityrinae have the ninth primary abbreviated and often scimetar-shaped; the seventh has a terminal horny process in the male of Phoenicocercus. The secondaries are ten or eleven. In Xipholena the greater coverts are stiff and elongated. The tail of twelve rectrices is usually moderate and square; though very short in the Cotinginae, long in Tijuca, deeply forked in Phibalura, and nearly hidden by its coverts in Cotinga amabilis. Bristles surround the gape in the Lipauginae and Attilinae, but vary elsewhere; Rupicola has a large compressed crest, Cephalopterus (Fig. 103), one like an umbrella, Phoenicocercus, Doliornis, Heliochera, Calyptura, and Phibalura moderate tufts. Wattles and naked areas occur in Chasmorhynchus and Cephalopterus; some species of Tityra have the lores and orbits bare; Gymnoderus has the sides of the head and the whole neck, Gymnocephalus the entire head unfeathered.
The plumage is ordinarily plain rufous, green, or grey; the females being nearly always dull, though many of the males are very brilliant. Among these Tityra exhibits black and white hues, Hadrostomus is chiefly grey or black, with a rosy band below in three cases, Pachyrhamphus is green, black, yellow, rufous, or grey, sometimes varied with white. Lathria streptophora has a pink collar, Aulia irregular black spots below. Phoenicocercus carnifex is dark brown, with scarlet crown, rump, most of the tail and under parts; Rupicola crocea, the well-known Cock of the Rock, is bright orange, with brown and white wings and partly blackish rectrices; Phibalura flavirostris is black and yellow with concealed scarlet crest; Tijuca is black, with yellow on the wing; Ampelion is green, relieved by brown, black, and yellow; Pipreola is green, with black, scarlet, yellow, or orange markings on the throat or breast; Cotinga exhibits splendid blue and purple tints; Xipholena pompadora has an unusual reddish-purple hue, coupled with almost white wings. Carpodectes is snowy white, with leaden-coloured or yellow bill; Heliochera has black, grey, white, or yellow coloration, with a chestnut crest; Iodopleura shews a lilac tuft on each side of the breast; and Calyptura is chiefly greenish-yellow, with a scarlet, black-edged crest. Of the peculiar Gymnoderinae, Haematoderus, which has elongated head-, neck-, rump-, and breast-feathers, is crimson with brown wings and tail, the female having brown on the back; Querula is dull black with a red collar of lengthened plumes; Pyroderus is black with crimson throat and fore-neck. Cephalopterus ornatus, the Umbrella-bird, is entirely black, with a huge expanded umbrella-like crest of bare-shafted incurved feathers, and a long flattened and feathered gular wattle; C. penduliger has this appendage extraordinarily long and cylindrical; C. glabricollis a bare orange throat with a terminal tuft on the red outgrowth. Chasmorhynchus niveus is white, with a spiral erectile process on the forehead, thinly covered with white feathers: C. nudicollis has the cheeks and throat naked and bristly, but lacks the excrescence; C. variegatus is white, with a brown head, black wings, and bare papillose throat; C. tricarunculatus is chestnut, with a white head bearing three caruncles, on the forehead and at the gape. In this genus the females are green above and chiefly yellow below. The bill may be orange or red in the Family, while Gymnoderus alone has large white powder-down patches on the flanks.