† History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary nations, by M. D. G. H. Hubler. Fryburg, 1803, 3 parts. Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down to Constantine.
Augustus Cæsar B. C. 30—A. C. 14.
1. Octavianus Cæsar, on whom the senate conferred the honourable title of Augustus, which they periodically renewed, and which descended to his successors, possessed the sole dominion of the empire during forty-four years. The government, notwithstanding the great revolutions by which the republic had been converted into a monarchy, was not yet, either in fact or in form, altogether a despotic one. The private interest of the ruler required that the republican form should be preserved to the utmost, as without that he could not make an entire change; and the rest of his history sufficiently shows, that the cruelty with which he may be reproached in the early part of his career, was rather owing to circumstances than to his natural disposition. But during a reign so long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise than that the republican spirit which at the beginning existed only in a few individuals, should evaporate of itself!
The forms under which Augustus held the different branches of supreme power (dictatorship excepted) were;—the consulate, which, till B. C. 21, was annually renewed; and the potestas consularis, which, in B. C. 19, was settled on him for ever;—the tribunicia potestas, which was, 30, granted him for ever, rendered his person sacred (sacrosancta), and prepared the way to the judicia majestatis (accusations of high treason). As imperator, 31, he continued commander of all the forces, and obtained the imperium proconsulare (proconsular power) in all the provinces. He assumed the magistratura morum (censorship), 19; and became pontifex maximus (high priest), 13. To avoid all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first accepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later period, gave rise to the sacra decennalia.
The senate.
2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent council of state, and Augustus himself endeavoured to increase its authority by more than one purification (lectio); but the connection between him and that assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it was undetermined, and could not at this time be settled, whether Augustus was over the senate, or the senate over Augustus. All matters of state could not be brought before the senate, as even the most important often required secrecy. It naturally followed, that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had no proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, should consult with those whom he thought most worthy his confidence, a Mæcenas, or an Agrippa, etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret council of state (consilium secretum principis). Among the republican magistrates the highest lost most; and as so much now depended upon the preservation of peace in the capital, the offices of præfect of the city (præfectus urbis) and præfect of provisions (præfectus annonæ) were not only made permanent, but became, especially the former, the principal offices in the state.
The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its strict distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, especially the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued custom of nominating under-consuls (consules suffecti,) which in time became merely a formal assumption of the ornamenta consularia et triumphalia (consular and triumphal ornaments). Other offices were created for the purpose of rewarding friends and dependents.
Introduction of standing armies.