September, 1905.
CONTENTS
ANTECEDENTS OF THE WAR
| [CHAPTER I] Colonial Conditions | |
| Page | |
| Remote origin of the causes of the War of 1812 | [1] |
| Two principal causes: impressment and the carrying trade | [2] |
| Claim of Great Britain as to impressment | [3] |
| Counter-claim of the United States | [4] |
| Lack of unanimity among the American people | [5] |
| Prevailing British ideas as to sea power and its relations to carrying trade and impressment | [9] |
| The Navigation Acts | [10] |
| Distinction between "Commerce" and "Navigation" | [11] |
| History and development of the Navigation Acts, and of the national opinions relating to them | [13] |
| Unanimity of conviction in Great Britain | [22] |
| Supposed benefit to the British carrying trade from loss of the American colonies | [23] |
| British entrepôt legislation | [24] |
| Relation of the entrepôt idea to the Orders in Council of 1807 | [27] |
| Colonial monopoly a practice common to all European maritime states | [27] |
| Effect of the Independence of the United States upon traditional commercial prepossessions | [29] |
| Consequent policy of Great Britain | [29] |
| Commercial development of the British transatlantic colonies during the colonial period | [31] |
| Interrelation of the continental and West India colonies of Great Britain | [35] |
| Bearing of this upon the Navigation Acts | [36] |
| Rivalry of American-built ships with British navigation during the colonial period | [37] |
| Resultant commercial rivalry after Independence | [40] |
| Consequent disagreements, derived from colonial restrictions, and leading to war | [41] |
| [CHAPTER II] From Independence to Jay's Treaty | |
| Rupture of the colonial relation | [42] |
| Transitional character of the period 1774-1794, to the United States | [43] |
| Epochal significance of Jay's Treaty | [43] |
| The question of British navigation, as affected by the loss of the colonies | [45] |
| British commercial expectations from the political weakness of the United States, 1783-1789 | [46] |
| System advocated by Lord Sheffield | [47] |
| Based upon considerations of navigation and naval power | [49] |
| Navigation Acts essentially military in purpose | [51] |
| Jefferson's views upon this question | [52] |
| Imperial value of the British Navigation Act before American Independence | [53] |
| Influence of the inter-colonial trade at the same period | [55] |
| Essential rivalry between it and British trade in general | [55] |
| Common interest of continental America and of Great Britain in the West Indies | [56] |
| Pitt's Bill, of March, 1783 | [58] |
| Controversy provoked by it in Great Britain | [60] |
| British jealousy of American navigation | [63] |
| Desire to exclude American navigation from British colonial trade | [65] |
| Lord Sheffield's pamphlet | [65] |
| Reply of the West India planters | [66] |
| Lapse of Pitt's bill | [67] |
| Navigation Acts applied in full rigor to intercourse between the United States and West Indies | [68] |
| This policy continues till Jay's Treaty | [69] |
| Not a wrong to the United States, though an injury | [70] |
| Naval impotence of the United States | [71] |
| Dependence on Portugal against Barbary pirates | [72] |
| Profit of Great Britain from this impotence | [74] |
| Apparent success of Sheffield's trade policy, 1783-1789 | [75] |
| Increase of British navigation | [75] |
| American counteractive legislation after the adoption of the Constitution | [76] |
| Report of the committee of the British Privy Council on this subject, 1790 | [77] |
| Aggressive spirit of the Navigation Acts | [79] |
| Change of conditions through American navigation laws | [80] |
| Recommendations of the British committee | [81] |
| Effects of the French Revolution | [85] |
| Collapse of French colonial system | [85] |
| Failure of Sheffield's policy, in supplying the West Indies from Canada | [86] |
| Great Britain's war necessities require aid of American shipping | [86] |
| Her resolve to deprive France of the same aid | [88] |
| Consequent lawless measures towards American ships and commerce | [88] |
| Jay's mission.—Impressment not mentioned in his instructions | [88] |
| [CHAPTER III] From Jay's Treaty to the Orders in Council, 1794-1807 | |
| Arbitrary war measures of Great Britain, 1793 | [89] |
| Rule of 1756 | [90] |
| Peculiar relation of the United States to this Rule | [92] |
| Jay's arrival in London | [93] |
| Characteristics of his negotiations | [94] |
| Great Britain concedes direct trade with West Indies | [95] |
| Rejection of this article by the Senate, on account of accompanying conditions | [96] |
| Concession nevertheless continued by British order | [97] |
| Reasons for this tolerance | [97] |
| Conditions of trade from Jay's mission to the Peace of 1801 | [97] |
| No concession of the principle of the Rule of 1756 | [98] |
| Renewal of war between Great Britain and France, 1803 | [99] |
| Prosperity of American commerce | [100] |
| Question raised of "direct trade" | [100] |
| Decision in British Admiralty Court adverse to United States, 1805 | [101] |
| United States subjected again to colonial regulation | [103] |
| Remonstrance and negotiation of Monroe, American Minister in London | [104] |
| Death of Pitt. Change of ministry in Great Britain. Position of Charles James Fox | [105] |
| Fox's attempt at compromise | [108] |
| The blockade of May 16, 1806 | [108] |
| Its lawfulness contested by the United States | [110] |
| Its importance in history | [112] |
| Retaliatory commercial action by the United States | [113] |
| Pinkney sent to England as colleague to Monroe | [113] |
| Colonial trade, and impressment of seamen from American vessels, the leading subjects mentioned in their instructions | [114] |
| Historical summary of the impressment question | [114] |
| Opening of negotiations by Monroe and Pinkney | [128] |
| Death of Fox | [131] |
| Course of the negotiations | [131] |
| Provisional treaty, signed December 31, 1806 | [133] |
| Rejected by United States Government | [133] |
| Monroe and Pinkney directed to reopen negotiations | [133] |
| Change of ministry in Great Britain. Canning becomes Foreign Secretary | [134] |
| The British Government refuses further negotiation | [135] |
| Monroe leaves England, Pinkney remaining as minister | [135] |
| "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" | [135] |
| Consistency of Jefferson's Administration on the subject of impressment | [137] |
| It neglects to prepare for war | [138] |
| [CHAPTER IV] From the Orders in Council to War | |
| Reservation of the British Government in signing the treaty of December 31, 1806 | [141] |
| The Berlin Decree | [142] |
| Ambiguity of its wording | [143] |
| The question of "private property," so called, embarked in commercial venture at sea. Discussion | [144] |
| Wide political scope of the Berlin Decree | [148] |
| Twofold importance of the United States in international policy | [149] |
| Consequent aims of France and Great Britain | [149] |
| British Order in Council of January 7, 1807 | [150] |
| Attitude of the United States Government | [152] |
| Military purpose of the Berlin Decree and the Continental System | [153] |
| The "Chesapeake" affair | [155] |
| Conference concerning it between Canning and Monroe | [156] |
| Action of President Jefferson | [160] |
| Use made of it by Canning | [161] |
| Correspondence concerning the "Chesapeake" affair | [161] |
| Rose appointed envoy to Washington to negotiate a settlement | [165] |
| Failure of his mission | [167] |
| Persistent British refusal to punish the offending officer | [169] |
| Significance of the "Chesapeake" affair in the relations of the two nations | [168] |
| Its analogy to impressment | [170] |
| Enforcement of the Berlin Decree by Napoleon | [172] |
| Its essential character | [174] |
| The Decree and the Continental System are supported by the course of the American Government | [175] |
| Pinkney's conviction of Great Britain's peril | [177] |
| The British Orders in Council, November, 1807 | [177] |
| Their effect upon the United States | [178] |
| Just resentment in America | [178] |
| Action of the Administration and Congress | [181] |
| The Embargo Act of December, 1807 | [182] |
| Explanations concerning it to Great Britain | [183] |
| Its intentions, real and alleged | [185] |
| Its failure, as an alternative to war | [186] |
| Jefferson's aversion to the carrying trade | [187] |
| Growing ill-feeling between the United States and Great Britain | [190] |
| Relief to Great Britain from the effects of the Continental System, by the Spanish revolt against Napoleon | [191] |
| Depression of United States industries under the Embargo | [192] |
| Difficulty of enforcement | [194] |
| Evasions and smuggling | [195] |
| The Embargo beneficial to Canada and Nova Scotia | [198] |
| Effects in Great Britain | [199] |
| Relief to British navigation through the Embargo | [200] |
| Effect of the Embargo upon American revenue | [202] |
| Numbers of American vessels remain abroad, submitting to the Orders in Council, and accepting British licenses and British convoy | [203] |
| Napoleon's Bayonne Decree against them; April 17, 1808 | [203] |
| Illustrations of the working of Napoleon's Decrees and of the Orders in Council | [204] |
| Vigorous enforcement of the Embargo in 1808 | [206] |
| Popular irritation and opposition | [207] |
| Act for its further enforcement, January 9, 1809 | [208] |
| Evidences of overt resistance to it | [209] |
| Act for partial repeal, introduced February 8 | [210] |
| Conflicting opinions as to the Embargo, in and out of Congress | [211] |
| The Non-Intercourse Act, March 1, 1809 | [214] |
| Its effect upon commercial restrictions | [215] |
| Canning's advances, in consequence of Non-Intercourse Act | [215] |
| Instructions sent to Erskine, British Minister at Washington | [216] |
| Erskine's misleading communication of them, April 18, 1809 | [218] |
| Consequent renewal of trade with Great Britain | [219] |
| Erskine disavowed. Non-Intercourse resumed, August 9, 1809 | [219] |
| Orders in Council of November, 1807, revoked; and substitute issued, April 26, 1809 | [220] |
| Consequent partial revival of American commerce | [220] |
| Francis J. Jackson appointed as Erskine's successor | [221] |
| His correspondence with the American Secretary of State | [222] |
| Further communication with him refused | [225] |
| Criticism of the American side of this correspondence | [226] |
| Wellesley succeeds Canning as British Foreign Secretary | [229] |
| Jackson's dismissal communicated to Wellesley by Pinkney | [229] |
| Wellesley delays action | [230] |
| British view of the diplomatic situation | [231] |
| Failure of the Non-Intercourse Act | [232] |
| Difficulty of finding a substitute | [233] |
| Act of May 1, 1810.—Its provisions | [234] |
| Napoleon's Rambouillet Decree, March 23, 1810 | [235] |
| Act of May 1, 1810, communicated to France and Great Britain | [236] |
| Napoleon's action. Champagny's letter, August 5, 1810 | [237] |
| Madison accepts it as revoking the French Decrees | [238] |
| The arguments for and against this interpretation | [239] |
| Great Britain refuses to accept it | [242] |
| Statement of her position in the matter | [243] |
| Wellesley's procrastinations | [245] |
| Pinkney states to him the American view, at length, December 10, 1810 | [245] |
| Wellesley's reply | [246] |
| Inconsistent action of the French Government | [247] |
| Non-Intercourse with Great Britain revived by statute, March 2, 1811 | [249] |
| The American Minister withdraws from London, February 28, 1811 | [251] |
| Non-Intercourse with Great Britain remains in vigor to, and during, the war | [252] |
| Augustus J. Foster appointed British Minister to the United States, February, 1811 | [252] |
| His instructions | [253] |
| His correspondence with the Secretary of State | [254] |
| Settlement of the "Chesapeake" affair | [255] |
| The collision between the "President" and the "Little Belt" | [256] |
| Special session of Congress summoned | [259] |
| The President's Message to Congress, November 5, 1811 | [259] |
| Increase of the army voted | [259] |
| Debate on the navy | [260] |
| Congress refuses to increase the navy, January 27, 1812 | [263] |
| Embargo of ninety days preparatory to war, April 4 | [263] |
| The evasions of this measure | [264] |
| Increasing evidence of the duplicity of Napoleon's action | [266] |
| Report of the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, March 10, 1812 | [269] |
| Consequent British declaration | [270] |
| Use of these papers by Barlow, American Minister to France | [271] |
| The spurious French Decree of April 28, 1811, communicated to Barlow | [272] |
| Communicated to the British Government | [273] |
| Considerations influencing the British Government | [274] |
| The Orders in Council revoked | [276] |
| Madison sends a war message to Congress, June 1, 1812 | [279] |
| Declaration of war, June 18, 1812 | [279] |
| Conditions of the army, navy, and treasury | [279] |
| [CHAPTER V] The Theatre of Operations | |
| Limitations on American action through deficient sea power | [283] |
| Warfare against commerce considered | [284] |
| Its financial and political effects | [285] |
| Its military bearing | [285] |
| Distinction between military and commercial blockade | [286] |
| Commercial blockade identical in essence with commerce-destroying by cruisers | [287] |
| Recognition of this by Napoleon | [287] |
| Commerce destruction by blockade the weapon of the stronger navy; by cruisers, of the weaker | [288] |
| Inefficiency of the American Government shown in the want of naval preparation | [289] |
| Conditions in the army even worse | [290] |
| Jefferson's sanguine expectations | [291] |
| Propriety of the invasion of Canada discussed | [292] |
| The United States, weak on the seaboard, relatively strong towards Canada | [295] |
| Function of the seaboard in the war; defensive | [296] |
| Offensive opportunity essential to any scheme of defence | [298] |
| Application of this principle; in general, and to 1812 | [298] |
| Conditions on the Canada frontier, favoring the offensive by the United States | [300] |
| Importance of the Great Lakes to military operations | [301] |
| Over-confidence of Americans | [303] |
| Corresponding apprehension of British officers | [304] |
| Decisive points on the line between the countries | [305] |
| Importance of the Indians as an element in the situation | [306] |
| Proper offensive policy of the United States | [307] |
| Natural advantages favoring the United States | [309] |
| The land frontier the proper scene of American offensive action | [310] |
| Seaboard conditions, for offence and defence | [311] |
| [CHAPTER VI] Early Cruises and Engagements. Hull's Operations and Surrender | |
| Composition of Commodore Rodgers' squadron at outbreak of war | [314] |
| Indecisions of the Navy Department | [315] |
| Question between small squadrons and single cruisers for commerce-destroying | [315] |
| Opinions of prominent officers | [316] |
| British convoy system for protecting trade | [319] |
| The Navy Department formulates a plan of operations | [320] |
| Discussion of its merits | [321] |
| Rodgers sails without receiving Department's plan | [322] |
| Encounter with the "Belvidera" | [323] |
| The cruise unproductive, offensively | [324] |
| But not therefore unsuccessful, defensively | [325] |
| Its effect upon the movements of British vessels | [326] |
| The sailing of the "Constitution" | [328] |
| Chased by a British squadron | [329] |
| Cruise of the "Constitution" under Hull | [329] |
| Engagement with the "Guerrière" | [330] |
| Hull and Rodgers meet in Boston | [335] |
| Misfortune on land | [336] |
| Wretched condition of the American army | [336] |
| Appointment of Henry Dearborn and William Hull as generals. Hull to command in the Northwest | [337] |
| Isaac Brock, the British general commanding in Upper Canada | [337] |
| His well-considered scheme of operation | [338] |
| Incompetency of the American War Department | [339] |
| Hull takes command at Dayton | [340] |
| Advances to Detroit | [341] |
| Crosses to Canada | [341] |
| Brock causes seizure of Michilimackinac | [341] |
| Hull's delays in Canada, before Malden | [343] |
| The danger of his position | [343] |
| The British attack his communications | [345] |
| Hull recrosses to Detroit | [345] |
| Brock's difficulties | [346] |
| Moves against Hull, and reaches Malden | [346] |
| Crosses to Detroit, and advances | [346] |
| Hull surrenders | [347] |
| Criticism of his conduct | [348] |
| Extenuating circumstances | [349] |
| Ultimate responsibility lies upon the Governments which had been in power for ten years | [350] |
| [CHAPTER VII] Operations on the Northern Frontier after Hull's Surrender. European Events bearing on the War | |
| Brock returns to Niagara from Detroit | [351] |
| Prevost, Governor-General of Canada, arranges with Dearborn a suspension of hostilities | [352] |
| Suspension disapproved by the American Government. Hostilities resumed | [353] |
| Brock's advantage by control of the water | [353] |
| Two of his vessels on Lake Erie taken from him by Lieutenant Elliott, U.S. Navy | [354] |
| Brock's estimate of this loss | [356] |
| American attack upon Queenston | [357] |
| Repulsed, but Brock killed | [357] |
| Abortive American attack on the Upper Niagara | [358] |
| Inactivity of Dearborn on the northern New York frontier | [359] |
| Military inefficiency throughout the United States | [360] |
| Improvement only in the naval situation on the lakes | [361] |
| Captain Chauncey appointed to command on Lakes Erie and Ontario | [361] |
| His activity and efficiency | [362] |
| Disadvantages of his naval base, Sackett's Harbor | [363] |
| Chauncey's early operations, November, 1812 | [364] |
| Fleet lays up for the winter | [366] |
| Effect of his first operations | [366] |
| General Harrison succeeds to Hull's command | [367] |
| Colonel Procter commands the British forces opposed | [367] |
| His instructions from Prevost and Brock | [367] |
| Harrison's plan of operations | [368] |
| The American disaster at Frenchtown | [370] |
| Effect upon Harrison's plans | [371] |
| The army remains on the defensive, awaiting naval control of Lake Erie | [371] |
| Chauncey visits Lake Erie | [374] |
| Disadvantages of Black Rock as a naval station | [374] |
| Chauncey selects Presqu'Isle (Erie) instead | [375] |
| Orders vessels built there | [375] |
| Advantages and drawbacks of Erie as a naval base | [375] |
| Commander Perry ordered to the lakes | [376] |
| Assigned by Chauncey to command on Lake Erie | [376] |
| Naval conditions on Lakes Erie and Ontario, at close of 1812 | [377] |
| Contemporary European conditions | [378] |
| Napoleon's expedition against Russia | [379] |
| Commercial embarrassments of Great Britain | [379] |
| Necessity of American supplies to the British armies in Spain | [381] |
| Preoccupation of the British Navy with conditions in Europe and the East | [382] |
| Consequent embarrassment from the American war | [383] |
| Need of the American market | [384] |
| Danger to British West India trade from an American war | [384] |
| Burden thrown upon the British Admiralty | [385] |
| British anxiety to avoid war | [385] |
| [CHAPTER VIII] Ocean Warfare against Commerce—Privateering—British Licenses—Naval Actions: "Wasp" and "Frolic," "United States" and "Macedonian" | |
| Consolidation of British transatlantic naval commands | [387] |
| Sir John Borlase Warren commander-in-chief | [387] |
| British merchant ships forbidden to sail without convoy | [388] |
| Continued hope for restoration of peace | [389] |
| Warren instructed to make propositions | [390] |
| Reply of the American Government | [391] |
| Cessation of impressment demanded. Negotiation fails | [391] |
| Warren's appreciation of the dangers to British commerce | [392] |
| Extemporized character of the early American privateering | [394] |
| Its activities therefore mainly within Warren's station | [394] |
| Cruise of the privateer "Rossie," Captain Barney | [395] |
| Privateering not a merely speculative undertaking | [396] |
| Conditions necessary to its success | [397] |
| Illustrated by the privateer "America" | [398] |
| Comparative immunity of American shipping and commerce at the beginning of hostilities | [399] |
| Causes for this | [400] |
| Controversial correspondence between Warren and the Admiralty | [401] |
| Policy of the Admiralty. Its effects | [404] |
| American ships of war and privateers gradually compelled to cruise in distant seas | [406] |
| American commerce excluded from the ocean | [406] |
| Sailing of the squadrons of Rodgers and Decatur | [407] |
| Their separation | [408] |
| Cruise of Rodgers' squadron | [409] |
| British licenses to American merchant vessels | [410] |
| Action between the "Wasp" and "Frolic" | [412] |
| Cruise of the "Argus," of Decatur's division | [415] |
| Action between the "United States" and "Macedonian" | [416] |
| The "United States" returns with her prize | [422] |