Commentary. On these diseases consult Hippocrates (Aphor. iv, 76; de Morb. Intern. 15, et alibi); Galen (de Med. sec. loc. x; de Affect. Renum; de Loc. Affect.; Isagoge); Celsus (iv, 10); Aretæus (Morb. Acut. ii, 9; Morb. Acut. Curat. ii, 8); Ruffus Ephesius (de Vesicæ Renumque Affectibus); Alexander (viii, 4); Aëtius (xi); Oribasius (de Loc. Affect. Curat. iv, 101); Actuarius (Meth. Med. iv, 8); Pseudo-Dioscor. (Euporist. ii, 112); Nonnus (173); Cælius Aurelianus (Morb. Chron. v, 4); Scribonius Largus (38); Marcellus (de Med. 24); Avicenna (iii, 19, 1); Avenzoar (ii, 2); Serapion (iv); Haly Abbas (Theor. ix, 34; Pract. vii, 12); Alsaharavius (Pract. xx); Rhases (Div. 70, and Contin. xxiii.)
Hippocrates describes four affections of the kidneys, beginning with calculus. According to his theory, stones are formed from phlegm which has been converted into sand. See his theory fully explained (de Morbis, iv, 28, and de Aer. &c. 53.) He states distinctly that the formation of stones is the product of a preternatural heat in the bladder, with a thick and turbid state of the urine. (l. c.) He recommends fomentations with the juice of scammony, purging the whole body, tepid baths, and the like. He intimates, however, that when a stone is fairly formed, the only hopes of recovery are founded upon the operation. It appears that in his days lithotomy was a separate branch of the profession; for in his Oath he inhibits his pupils from performing the operation, and binds them to leave it to those who make it their practice. Doubts, however, are entertained of the genuineness of this piece. He mentions that hairs are sometimes passed in the urine; and the same fact is attested by Galen (Loc. Affect. vi, 3), Cælius Aurelianus, Aëtius, Avicenna, and Alsaharavius, among the ancients, and by recent writers on pathology. Actuarius calls them substances resembling hairs, of a handbreadth or thereabout in length. (De Urinis, i, 16.) He held them to be connected with disease of the kidneys. (Ibid. iv, 20.)
Galen says that all lithontriptics are of a cutting and detergent nature, the most of them being bitters. He makes mention of pepper, galbanum, ammoniac, aphronitrum, asarabacca, spignel, St. John’s wort, &c. He does not hesitate, however, to declare it as his opinion that the only certain remedy for calculus is lithotomy. (Art. Med. 94.)
Aretæus gives an interesting account of the affections of the kidneys and bladder. His remedies are similar to those of our author. For stones in the bladder he recommends, among other things, some quicklime with honied water, and diuretics. When a stone obstructs the passage, he directs us to push it back, or cut the neck of the bladder. He states that navigation and living at sea are beneficial in all affections of the kidneys. We may mention that this accords well with the late statistics of calculous diseases.
Alexander, like our author, ascribes the formation of stones to viscid and thick humours which have been much heated or roasted. He says, in the language of the Peripatetic philosophy, that the material cause of calculus is a thick matter, but the efficient a fiery heat, in like manner as by heat and a suitable matter of such a nature tiles are formed which are insoluble in water. This theory is explained with great logical parade in the ‘Isagoge’ generally ascribed to Galen, but which Albertus Fabricius supposes to be a work of Demetrius Pepagomenos. Alexander’s remedies are mostly the same as our author’s. He speaks with surprising confidence of the efficacy of goats’ blood; and, by the way, there is no lithontriptic which, both in ancient and in modern times, has been so generally cried up as it. His general treatment, which consists of bleeding, baths, emollient and paregoric medicines, is very proper. He remarks that certain lithontriptics, if given unseasonably, increase the disposition to calculus. Like our author, he forbids thick food, and attributes the best effects to drinking water.
Those who wish to see a full exposition of the ancient views on this subject may consult Aëtius. Like all the others, he says that milk, with the exception of that of asses, contributes to the formation of stones. He also recommends goats’ blood. He gives very proper directions respecting the regimen after extraction of the stone, to prevent a recurrence of the complaint.
Cælius Aurelianus makes no mention of lithontriptics, but he describes very properly the treatment when pain and inflammation of the bladder supervene. It is altogether emollient and relaxant.
The nature and treatment of calculous diseases are treated of in a very practical manner by Palladius in his Commentary on the sixth ‘Epidem. Hippocrat.’ He depends principally upon a restricted diet and light food.
The Arabians treat of calculi at great length, but have the same ideas of the formation of them, and recommend the same remedies as the Greeks. We remark that Avicenna, Rhases, Serapion, and Alsaharavius mention among their lithontriptics barauch, or the nitrum of the Greeks and Romans, which was most probably an impure carbonate of soda. We need scarcely say that this alkali is now given upon chemical principles. Like our author, they make mention of glass as a lithontriptic. Rhases, Avicenna, and some of the others remark, and perhaps justly, that white urine is one of the earliest symptoms of calculus. For stone in the bladder Avenzoar recommends cubebs. Avicenna, Serapion, and Alsaharavius join the Greeks in commending the small sparrow (or, as some suppose it, the wren) as an efficacious remedy for calculus. It is said in the ‘Isagoge’ that its lithontriptic powers were discovered by dreams. We may mention that it has been ingeniously supposed that allusion is here made to magnetic somnambulism, which, it is maintained, was one of the remedial means practised in the ancient temples of health. Haly Abbas ascribes the formation of stones to the concurrence of a viscid humour with heat of the part. Old men, he says, are most subject to renal calculi; for in them the watery part of the urine passes down to the bladder, while the grosser part or sediment is detained in the kidneys, and is converted into stones. Children are said to be most liable to calculi in the bladder, owing to their eating much gross food, and taking exercise after meals, by which means the system is loaded with gross impurities. With regard to the treatment, he enjoins restricted diet, abstinence from gross food, and the use of medicines of an incisive and attenuant nature. The general treatment during a fit of gravel is well laid down by Alsaharavius, consisting of bleeding, cupping, the tepid bath, emollient clysters, &c. Rhases, upon the authority of Antyllus, states that stones are formed either from drinking turbid water or from imperfect digestion, whence the urine deposits a sediment, which is converted into a stony hardness by the heat of the part.
According to Theophilus, a thick and milky state of the urine is characteristic of calculous diathesis. (De Urin. 8.)