The principal work of this remarkable physician—viz., the “Conciliator differentiarium philosophorum et praecipue medicorum”—was first printed at Venice in 1471. (It is said to be one of the earliest printed books known.) It was a most popular treatise, as is shown by the fact that between the year last mentioned and 1621 it passed through a number of editions. Of the other treatises which he wrote—some seven or eight in all—it will be sufficient to mention here that one alone to which reference has already been made in the preceding account, viz., the work entitled “Expositio problematum Aristotelis” (Mantua, 1475, and Paris, 1520).
At this early period in the history of the Padua Medical School there were one or two other men who attained a considerable degree of celebrity for the excellence of the work which they did, either as authors or as class-room teachers. A brief account of one of these, Aegidius Corboliensis, has already been given on a preceding page, and it seems only fair that I should furnish here similar brief accounts of some of the others—Gentile da Foligno, Massilio and Galeazzo de St. Sophia, Giacomo and Giovanni de’ Dondi, and Giacomo della Torre, from Forli, all of whom contributed greatly to the steadily increasing fame of the Padua School of Medicine; but, under the conditions which govern the preparation of this brief history, I must reluctantly pass over these names in silence.
CHAPTER XXIII
FURTHER PROGRESS OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY IN WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH AND A PART OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURIES
Among the men who, during the thirteenth century, exerted more or less influence upon the growth of medical knowledge there are three who deserve to receive some consideration at our hands. They were not physicians, but yet some of their writings deal with topics which are closely related to the science of medicine. They are: Albert von Bollstädt, a German who is generally known as Albertus Magnus, one of the greatest scholastic philosophers of the Middle Ages; Vincent of Beauvais (Vincentius Bellovacensis), a French Dominican monk, who was reader to Louis IX., and who compiled a general encyclopaedia which brought him great fame at that period; and Roger Bacon, an Englishman who, by reason of the extraordinary extent of his knowledge and his remarkable powers of observation, was given the name of “Doctor mirabilis.”
Albertus Magnus.—Albertus Magnus was born at Lauingen, Swabia, in 1193 A. D., obtained his education in Italy (at the University of Padua, during the latter part of his stay), joined the Order of the Dominicans on arriving at the age of thirty, and afterwards, throughout his long life, devoted himself largely to teaching, particularly at Paris and Cologne. He was a prolific writer and his works, particularly those which treat of topics belonging to the domain of natural history, were greatly appreciated. The effect, however, which they produced upon a certain class of readers was to persuade them that he was a great magician. The chief distinction of his writings lies in the fact that they contain a large number of original observations which he made during the course of his journeys afoot through Germany in the character of Provincial of the Dominican Order. This habit of exercising entire independence in the use of his reasoning powers was something quite rare in those days. His observations were directed chiefly to matters belonging to the domains of zoölogy, botany, climatology, mineralogy, chemistry and physics. The following significant advice, says Neuburger, is attributed to him: “As regards the doctrines which relate to questions of belief and of morality, it is the part of wisdom to attach greater authority to Saint Augustine than to the philosophers; in matters belonging to the domain of medicine put your chief trust in Galen and in Hippocrates; in natural history, however, your best guide is Aristotle.” Neuburger adds that, throughout the writings of Albertus Magnus, there appear interesting statements relating to anatomy, physiology, psychology, and the plants and minerals which may be used for remedial purposes.
An edition of the writings of Albertus Magnus (21 folio volumes) was published in Lyons by Petrus Jamy in 1651. The work was republished in Paris in 1892 and following years.
Vincent of Beauvais.—Vincent of Beauvais, France, a Dominican monk who lived during the first half of the thirteenth century and was the tutor of Louis the Ninth’s children, devoted the major part of his time to literary work. He wrote many theological treatises and also edited a large encyclopaedia in which information is furnished regarding everything that was known at that time. Several hundred authors aided him in compiling this work, which is entitled “Speculum Majus.” It is arranged in three parts, one of which (“Speculum Naturale”) consists of 33 books that are divided into 3740 chapters; and quite a number of the divisions are devoted to topics relating to medicine. The authors, from whose writings this medical information has been abstracted, are Hippocrates, Aristotle, Dioscorides, Haly Abbas, Rhazes, Avicenna and several others—not to mention the Church Fathers and other encyclopaedic writers connected with the Church. The first printed edition of this great work appeared toward the end of the fifteenth century (1473–1475 A. D.); the last, or one of the last, in 1624. Lack of space will not permit me to give any details concerning the works of a somewhat similar character which were prepared, about the same time, by the English Franciscan monk Bartholomaeus of Glanvilla (1260); by the Dominican, Thomas of Cantimpré (1204–1280 A. D.), a pupil of Albertus Magnus; and by others.
Roger Bacon.—Roger Bacon was born about 1210 A. D. in Ilchester, Somersetshire, England, and received his early training at Oxford. When he was thirty years of age he went to Paris and, after devoting himself assiduously for seven years to the study of various branches of learning, he received the Doctor’s degree (1247). The wish to acquire a thorough knowledge of whatever subject he undertook to study constituted a prominent feature of his character. He was fond of languages, but he had an even greater love for mathematics, particularly in connection with astronomy, and for experimental work in the department of chemistry. It is said that he expended a large sum of money (£2000) upon these chemical investigations. He left Paris in 1250, returned to England, and not long afterward joined the Order of the Franciscans. Robert Grossetête, Bishop of Lincoln, and the Franciscan monk Adam of Marisco—two men whom Neuburger describes as theologians of a very liberal type—exercised a strong influence upon Bacon at this period of his life. They confirmed him in the belief that familiarity with the learned languages was an acquisition greatly to be prized, and at the same time they gave him every encouragement to pursue his researches in mathematics and in natural history. For a certain length of time he was an instructor at Oxford, but his views with regard to ecclesiastic and moral questions and the discoveries which he made in physics (especially in optics) were beyond the comprehension of his contemporaries, who did not hesitate to pronounce them works of the Devil and to subject Bacon to all sorts of punishments and deprivations. Fortunately for him and for the cause of science the newly elected Pope, Clement IV. (1266), came to his rescue in those dark days and granted him—under the promise of absolute secrecy—permission to continue his researches without hindrance and to perfect the plans which he had in mind for reforms of different kinds. I cannot follow this pioneer of scientific research work, this man who was several centuries ahead of the time in which he lived, through all the vicissitudes of his interesting and extraordinarily fruitful life; I may simply add that his death occurred about the year 1294; that he left behind him many important treatises, only a small portion of which have thus far been published,[58] and that from these alone one is justified in classing Roger Bacon as one of the greatest thinkers whom history has recorded. So far as is now known, he wrote very little concerning medicine, and—strange to say—he seems to have attached considerable importance to astrology; indeed, he went so far as to blame the physicians of his day for their ignorance regarding this science, “as a result of which they neglect the best part of medicine.” In strange contrast with these views, which to-day we characterize as foolishness, is Bacon’s famous dictum: “Experiment is a firmer and more trustworthy basis of knowledge than argument”—a maxim which is the guiding principle of modern medicine.
The Medical School of Bologna.—The Medical School of Bologna first began to assume a certain degree of prominence in the early part of the thirteenth century, under the teaching of Thaddeus Alderotti—also frequently called Thaddeus of Florence.
Thaddeus Alderotti.—Thaddeus Alderotti, who was born at Florence, Italy, 1223 A. D., of humble parentage, began the study of philosophy and medicine at Bologna only after he had reached manhood; but he was such an earnest student and made such good use of his opportunities that in 1260 he was chosen to serve as one of the teachers in the school. Throughout a period of many years he filled the office so acceptably that his colleagues bestowed upon him the name of “Master of Physicians.” Before this time arrived, however, his lack of funds was sorely felt, for he was obliged, in order to support himself, to offer consecrated wax candles for sale at the entrance of the church. He is reported to have been not merely a most learned physician, but also a very successful practitioner. He was called into consultation from all parts of the country, so highly was his opinion valued by other physicians; and thus in due time he accumulated a large fortune. His charges were by no means small. It is related, for example, that Pope Honorius IV. sent for him to come to Rome, and, after the treatment was completed, paid him a fee of 10,000 gold pieces[59]—but not until after he had expressed surprise that Thaddeus should have charged as much as 100 gold pieces per day for his services. To this demurrer on the part of the Pope, Thaddeus replied that the petty princes and even the simple nobles made no objection to paying him 50 or more gold pieces per day. It is scarcely necessary to add that the Holy Father did not wish to be outdone by his inferiors.