the Bald (d. 877) received what is approximately France of to-day; and Lothair as Emperor (d. 855) was left Italy and a narrow strip to the North Sea with the two capitals in it. To confirm the treaty of Verdun, Louis and Charles with their followers, took the famous Strassburg oaths.[321:1] Louis and the French army took the oath in Latin; Charles and the Germans took it in German; and this is the first recognition in Europe of differences of race and language as a basis for political action.[321:2] The treaty of Meersen[321:3] in 870 completed the separation of Italy, Germany, and France by dividing the "strip of trouble" given to Lothair in 843. Here was the beginning of mediæval and modern France, Germany, and Italy. The Carolingian Empire virtually ended with Charles the Fat (888). Disintegration soon divided Europe among a multitude of petty feudal sovereigns with warring policies and interests.[321:4]
Ecclesiastically, the Papacy was immediately strengthened. The supremacy of the state over the Church, which Charles the Great established and which Louis the Pious had inherited, but did not use to much advantage,[321:5] was removed. This
release from secular control furnished an excellent occasion and opportunity for the rapid growth of the papal theory which culminated in the lofty claim of Pope Nicholas I. to independence of imperial control and supremacy over it. Again and again the Pope was called upon to act as arbitrator in the disputes and wars. The power of bishops and metropolitans was likewise increased and for a similar reason, but the general decline in civilisation carried the Church inevitably with it. The anarchy and confusion which resulted, formed an excellent cover for the promulgation of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. Ultimately the Papacy was weakened by the decline of the Empire and the rise of national states, because there was a tendency to create national churches and to set up kings who questioned the Pope's claim to political supremacy. Indirectly it led to the Protestant Revolution.
Sources
- A.—PRIMARY:
- 1.—New Testament.
- 2.—New Testament Apocrypha.
- 3.—The Church Fathers. See [Chap. X.]
- 4.—Henderson, Historical Documents of the Middle Ages. Bohn. Lib.
- 5.—Univ of Penn., Translations and Reprints, iv., No. 1, 2; v., 4, 5.
- 6.—Eginhard, Life of Charles the Great. Tr. by S. E. Turner. N. Y., 1880.
- 7.—Robinson, Readings in European History, vol. i.
- 8.—Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book for Mediæval History.
- 9.—Ogg, Source Book of Mediæval History.
- 10.—Theodosian Code.
- 11.—Justinian Code.
- Bibliographical Note:—Nearly all the important sources for a study of this subject are in Latin. Among them are, Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum; Jaffé, Regesta Pontificum; Corpus Juris Canonici; Corpus Juris Civilis; Pertz, Monumenta Historica Germania; Niebuhr, Corpus Byzantinæ; Migne, Patrologia; Potthast, Bibliotheca Historica Medii Ævi.
- B.—SECONDARY:
- I.—SPECIAL:
- 1.—Allies, T. W., Church and State as Seen in the Formation of Christendom. Lond., 1882.
- 2.—Armitage, W., Sketches of the Church and State in the First Eight Centuries. Lond., 1888.
- 3.—Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire. Var. eds.
- 4.—Bury, J. B., The Later Roman Empire. Edinb., 1889. 2 vols.
- 5.—Carr, A., The Church and the Roman Empire. Lond., 1887.
- 6.—Church, R. W., Relations between Church and State. Lond., 1881. Beginnings of the Middle Ages. Lond., 1895.
- 7.—Croke, A. D., History of the Church under the Roman Empire (to 476). Lond., 1873.
- 8.—Cutts, E. L., Charlemagne and His Times. Lond., 1878. Union of Church and State. Lond., 1881.
- 9.—Emerton, E., Introduction to the Middle Ages. Bost., 1888. Mediæval Europe. Bost., 1894.
- 10.—Fisher, H. A. L., The Mediæval Empire.
- 11.—Geffcken, H., Church and State. Lond., 1877. 2 vols.
- 12.—Gibbon, E., Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Var. eds.
- 13.—Gierke, O., Political Theories of the Middle Ages. Lond., 1900.
- 14.—Greenwood, A. D., Empire and Papacy in the Middle Ages. Lond., 1896.
- 15.—Greenwood, T., Cathedra Petri. Lond., 1859-72. 5 vols.
- 16.—Gregorovius, F. A., Rome in the Middle Ages. Lond., 1900.
- 17.—Gosselin, J. E. A., Power of the Pope During the Middle Ages. Lond., 1853.
- 18.—Hardy, E. G., Christianity and the Roman Government. Lond., 1893.
- 19.—Hodgkin, T., Italy and Her Invaders. Oxf., 1892-9. Charles the Great. Lond., 1896. Theodosius. Oxf., 1889. Theodoric. N. Y., 1891.
- 20.—Hussey, R., Rise of the Papal Power. Lond., 1863.
- 21.—Hergenröther, J. A. G., The Catholic Church and the Christian State. Lond., 1876. 2 vols.
- 22.—James, G. P. R., History of Charlemagne. Lond., 1832.
- 23.—Lea, H. C., Studies in Church History. Phil., 1869.
- 24.—Mann, H. K., The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages. Lond., 1905.
- 25.—Manning, H. E., The Temporal Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ. Lond., 1862.
- 26.—Mombert, J. I., History of Charles the Great. N. Y., 1888.
- 27.—Oman, C. W. C., The Dark Ages (476-918). Lond., 1893.
- 28.—Pressensé, E. de, History of Church and State. Lond., 1869.
- 29.—Tozer, H. F., The Church and the Eastern Empire. Lond., 1888.
- 30.—Wells, C. L., The Age of Charlemagne. N. Y., 1897.
- 31.—Workman, H. B., Church of the West in the Middle Ages. Lond., 1898.
- II.—GENERAL:
- Alzog, ii., 92-104, 184. Butler, ch. 30, 31, 55, 56, 57. Chantrel, pd. 3, ch. 1. Cheetham, ch. 9. Crooks, ch. 24, 33. Döllinger, i., ch. 1, sec. 9-10; ii., ch. 5, sec. 1; iii., ch. 4, sec. 1. Dunning, 131-160. Fisher, 161, 168, 244. Gieseler, i., 191-204, 419; ii., 71, 119, 153, 220, 237. Gilmartin, i., ch. 31-32. Guericke, i., sec. 69; Guizot, i., ch. 7-12. Hardwick, ch. 6, sec. 2. Hase, 134-146, 171-173. Hurst, i., 161-
- 180, 325-341, 410, 427, 473-495. Jennings, i., ch. 6, 8. Kurtz, i., 235-247, 483-488. Leavitt, ch. 1-12. Mahan, bk. 4, ch. 13. Milman, ii., 4, 130, 429; iii., 1-109. Moeller, ii., 1-2, 84-93, 99-108. Mosheim, bk. 3, pt. 2, ch. 2, sec. 7-13. Neander, iii., 1-112, 174-195; v., 117-132, 144. Robertson, i., 294-297, 486, 517; ii., 122-149. Robinson, ch. 4, 6, 7, 8. Schaff, ii., 90; iii., 203-264.
- I.—SPECIAL:
FOOTNOTES:
[289:1] Justinian, Inst., i., ii., 6.
[290:1] Eph. vi., 5; Col. iii., 22; Tit. ii., 9; 1 Pet. ii., 18.
[290:2] Rom. xiii., 1-7; cf. Heb. xiii., 17; 1 Pet. ii., 13.