But the fiery young Pope contemptuously replied: "John, bishop, the servant of all the servants of God, to all the bishops: We hear that you design to elect a new Pope. If you do, in the name of Almighty God I excommunicate you and forbid you to confer orders or to celebrate mass." In a spicy answer Otto asked John to mend both his Latin and his morals, and promised him a safe conduct to the council, but "the Pope was gone out hunting" and did not receive it. The council then formally deposed John as a "monster of iniquity" and unanimously chose the papal secretary, a layman, as Pope Leo VIII.[397:2] Thus the new Emperor had deposed one Pope, by what must certainly be
pronounced an illegal method, and had elected another—a power never claimed by Charles the Great.[398:1] This, apparently, was Otto's interpretation of his oath to protect the Holy See. The ancient relation of the Empire to the Papacy was thus re-established.
The Romans, fickle as usual, soon wearied of a German yoke, and, at a favourable opportunity, broke out in furious rebellion against the Emperor and his Pope, but were subdued with terrible revenge. When at length Otto left Rome to capture Berengar's son Adalbert, they at once attacked the defenceless Pope and recalled John XII., who wreaked sweet and cruel vengeance on the leaders of the imperial faction. An obsequious synod reversed all the decrees of deposition. When John XII. was killed in crime, the Romans, without consulting the Emperor as they had promised, at once elected Pope Benedict V. Once more Otto appeared before Rome with a huge army to assert his rights and to enforce his policy. The city surrendered, the new Pope begged for mercy, and was banished to Germany. Leo VIII. was recalled. "When I drop my sword, I will drop Leo," boasted the Emperor. The Emperor's sword had come to be the basis of papal power. A Church council was summoned and declared that the Emperor had a full right to the kingdom of Italy, that he could name his successor, and that the election of a Pope must accord with his will. After that great victory Otto returned to Germany, where his approval was soon asked for the election of Leo VIII.'s successor, the respectable John XIII. Again the customary rebellion against the new occupant of St. Peter's chair recalled Otto to Rome. There he
remained five years and won a distinct victory for both his papal, and his imperial policy.
Otto's foreign policy as Emperor was not unlike that of his great predecessor, Charles the Great, and his renowned successor, Napoleon the Great, namely, to unite the East and the West. The hand of an eastern princess was wooed for himself but without success.[399:1] His son proved a better lover and married the ambitious Theophano (972).[399:2] The Empire was extended by conquests. Lotharingia was won without war. The restoration of the West Franks to the Empire was attempted. Burgundy became a vassal kingdom.[399:3] The Danes, Slavs, and Magyars were held in subjugation. An effort was made by Otto to extend his sway over southern Italy.
Like Charles the Great, Otto gave considerable attention to education. Germany, at that time being on the frontier, was inferior in culture to Italy, Spain, France, and England. Otto, who knew the Frankish and Slavic dialects, attempted to learn Latin late in life. He attracted a number of educated men and celebrated wits to his court such as Widukind, the historian; Ratherius, the theologian; Luitprand, the humourist and diplomat; Gerbert, the omniscient scholar; Archbishop Bruno, Otto's brother and a great classical scholar; and John of Gorz, the grammarian and Bible student.[399:4] Learning was not appreciated, however, and these scholars were looked upon with jealousy and suspicion.[399:5]
The resemblances and differences between Otto the Great and Charles the Great were very striking. Both were Teutons—one a Frank, the other a Saxon. Both as kings carved out the foundations for an Empire with the sword. Both were coronated as Emperor at Rome by the Pope and posed as champions of the Church. Both assumed the Italian crown. Both used the same method in propagating Christianity among the heathen on their borders. Both assumed the right to rule the Church from Pope to priest. Both subjected the powerful nobles and established an absolute, personal government, though Otto's position in Germany and Europe was less commanding and less autocratic than his predecessor's. Both produced an intellectual renascence. Both deserve to be called the "Great." But neither their kingdoms nor their Empires were coterminous, though their capitals were identical, namely, Rome and Aachen. Otto's Empire was founded on narrower geographical limits, hence had a less plausible claim to be the heir of Rome's universal dominion. Charles tried one Pope, while Otto deposed two and had his own candidates elected. Otto took more pains to preserve his Empire than Charles. Otto's Empire was less ecclesiastical and also less Roman. Charles ruled all the Franks and Italy, Otto only the Eastern Franks and Italy. Charles ruled over Latin Christendom, while Otto only a portion of it. Charles was head of the "heerban";
Otto of a feudal state. Otto produced no great capitularies like Charles. Otto's Empire was less splendid, but more peaceful, prosperous, and lasting, because placed on a better social basis. Otto's own life and court were on a far loftier plane than was true of Charles, yet Charles was both the greater warrior and the greater statesman. The Roman Empire of Charles after one hundred and fifty years was revised as the Holy Roman Empire of Otto. The latter was substantially as well as technically the continuation of the former.
Otto I., before making his journey to Rome in 961, had his son Otto II. crowned King of Germany at Aachen.[401:1] Six years later (967) he was coronated at Rome as Emperor. He was educated by Ekkehard of St. Gall, the court chaplain, in literature, history, and science, and by Count Huodo in knightly accomplishments. For the age his moral character was exceptionally high and he possessed refined, scholarly tastes. In 971 he married Theophano, a royal princess of the Eastern Empire.[401:2] When Otto I. died in 973 in the Saxon monastery at Memleben, Otto II., at the age of eighteen, became sole king and Emperor for ten years.
Otto II. continued his father's domestic policy of breaking down the power of the German dukes. In foreign affairs he subdued the rebellious Danes (974), held the Bohemians in check, invaded France and took Lorraine (978), subjected Poland to German rule (979), and attempted to drive the Greeks and Saracens out of southern Italy; but his early death prevented the fulfilling of his threat to reunite Sicily with the Empire.