with the zeal and ability of Hildebrand, drove Henry IV. out of Italy and had his son, Conrad, crowned King of Italy (1093). Pope Urban gave all his strength to the crusading mania and made little progress with the Hildebrandine reform. Paschal II. (1099-1118), a Clugniac monk and cardinal under Gregory VII., renewed the excommunication of Henry IV., and plotted with Henry V. to induce him to revolt against his father (1104) and thus to force him to surrender his crown. The aged Henry IV. died under the awful curse of the Church and at war with this traitorous son. Paschal II. took up the question of lay investiture, likewise, and had the practice condemned in the Council of Troyes (1107) and promulgated the prohibition all over Christendom. Henry V. was forced to abjure investiture before he could again receive his imperial crown from papal hands. At length in 1111 Paschal II. entered into an arrangement with Henry V., who had appeared before Rome with a large army, by which the Pope promised that clerical princes in the Empire should give up all temporal rights and possessions received since the time of Charles the Great. The Church and its clergy were to live on the tithes and the gifts of pious persons. The Emperor, for his part, agreed to surrender all claim to nomination, election, and investiture, and to guarantee to the Papacy the full enjoyment of all its possessions and rights. This agreement was fair and just, though the German clergy objected to such a wholesale change without their consent. The compact was publicly proclaimed in St. Peter's before the imperial coronation of Henry V. (Feb. 12, 1111)[471:1] and aroused a great tumult.
Therefore Henry V. repudiated the treaty, captured the Pope, carried him together with the cardinals off as prisoners, and wrung from him ignoble terms of peace (Apr. 12th) which stated that the clerical princes in Germany were to retain all their possessions, that the Emperor was to have the full right of investiture, but without simony, and that the higher clergy were to consecrate the nominees after their investiture.[472:1] At the same time Paschal crowned Henry and promised never to excommunicate him. After the Pope's release, he had a Roman synod repudiate the treaty and of course the excommunication of the Emperor followed (1112) and civil war was continued.
Calixtus II. (1119-1124), a Clugniac monk of the royal Burgundian house, settled the perplexing question of lay investiture in 1122 by the Concordat of Worms.[472:2] The Pope agreed (1) that the election of bishops and abbots in Germany should occur in the Emperor's presence and without simony or violence; (2) that the Emperor should decide all disputed elections and enforce his decisions; (3) that the Emperor should invest with the lance and receive homage; (4) that bishops or abbots consecrated in Italy or Burgundy should also be invested by the Emperor and render homage within six months; (5) and that papal aid should be given to the Emperor whenever requested. The Emperor for his part promised (1) to surrender all investiture through the ring and the staff to the Church; (2) to grant "canonical elections and free consecration" in all churches in the Empire; (3) to restore "all the possessions and regalia of St. Peter" to the Holy
Roman Church; (4) to secure the return of property held by others; (5) and to give the Pope all needed aid and justice.[473:1] The concordat was in character, therefore, a compromise. It spared both the Emperor and the Pope the humiliation of defeat because now both made the appointment—one politically, the other spiritually. The Emperor retained but half of his former rights, yet could control the elections. The Pope gained "the ring and staff," yet fell far short of what Gregory VII. had demanded. The document was full of ambiguity and who was victor—Pope or Emperor—has been a much disputed question. The concordat lasted down through the centuries as the basis for settling all these appointments until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. It was frequently violated by both Emperor and Pope, but on the whole gave general satisfaction and determined many menacing disputes. It was modified by Lothair in 1183 so as to permit the Emperor to send a delegate to the election.
Sources
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- 1.—Colby, C. W., Selections from the Sources of English History. N. Y., 1899, No. 14, 16.
- 2.—Finch, G., A Selection of the Letters of Hildebrand. Lond., 1853. 40 important letters.
- 3.—Gee, H., and Hardy, W. J., Documents Illustrative of English Church History. Lond., 1896.
- 4.—Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages. N. Y., 1892.
- 5.—Lee, G. C., Leading Documents of English History. Lond., 1900. Sec. 50, 51, 52, 57.
- 6.—Ogg, F. A., Source-Book of Mediæval History. N. Y., 1908.
- 7.—Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History. I., 266-290.
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- 2.—Greenwood, T., Cathedra Petri. IV., 139-609. Lond., 1861.
- 3.—Greisley, Sir R., The Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII. Lond., 1832.
- 4.—Gurney J. H., Four Ecclesiastical Biographies. Lond., 1864.
- 5.—Lea, H. C., Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church. New ed.
- 6.—McMichael, N., Hildebrand and His Age. Edinb., 1853.
- 7.—Schefer, G. L. I., Historical Notice of the Life and Times of Pope Gregory VII. Lond., 1851.
- 8.—Stephen, Sir J., Essays on Ecclesiastical Biography. Lond., 1867.
- 9.—Stephens, W. R. W., Hildebrand and His Times. N. Y., 1898.
- 10.—Villemain, A. F., Life of Gregory VII. Lond., 1874. 3 vols.
- 11.—Vincent, M. R., The Age of Hildebrand. N. Y., 1897.
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- Adams, Civ. dur. M. A., 240 ff., 267, 393, 414. Med. Civ., 82 ff. Allen, ii., ch. 3. Alzog, ii., 253-336, 342-367, 481-510. Bryce, ch. x. Butler, ch. 70-72. Creighton, i., 16. Crooks, ch. 33. Darras, iii., 107 ff. Döllinger, iii., pd. 4, ch. 2, sec. 1. Emerton, ch. 8. Fisher, pd. 6, ch. 1. Fitzgerald, ii., 54-67. Foulkes, ch. 2. Gibbon, v., 61, 477; vi., 426. Gieseler, ii., sec. 23; iii. Gilmartin, ii., ch. 1-3. Gregorovius, bk. vii., ch. 5, 6. Hallam, ii., ch. 5. Hardwick, ch. 6, sec. 1; ch. 10, sec. 1. Hase, sec. 181. Hurst, i., ch. 37. Jennings, ii., ch. 11. Knight, ch. 12.
- Kurtz, sec. 94, 96, 101. Milman, iii., 140 ff. Moeller, ii., 255-265. Mosheim, cent. 9, pt. 2, ch. 2. Neander, iv., 82, 86, 123, 131, 134, 146, 194, 206, 233. Platina, Lives of Popes, ii., 1-12. Ranke, Hist. of Pap., i., 29 ff. Riddle, ii., ch. 4, 5. Robertson, bk. 5, ch. 1, 2. Robinson, ch. 13. Tout, Emp. and Pap., ch. 5, 6. Wilkes, Hist. of Popes. Workman, ch. 4.
- I.—SPECIAL:
FOOTNOTES:
[446:1] Muratori, iii., 304.
[447:1] Greenwood, bk. x., p. 249.