Below the cardinals in the hierarchy came the metropolitans, archbishops, and primates. The archbishops were the most numerous but the lowest in rank. The metropolitans ranked next and were found in the great cities. The primates had the highest rank but were comparatively few. It is doubtful whether altogether the archbishops in the thirteenth century numbered more than twenty-five. The primates, who had charge in a general way of what might be called the national churches, confirmed the election of bishops and archbishops in their dioceses, called and presided over national synods, held the superior ecclesiastical courts, performed the coronation ceremonies of kings and queens, and had general control of their districts. The archbishops ruled over a distinct province including several bishops, whose election and consecration they superintended, called and presided over provincial synods, inflicted censures and punishments on the
bishops for breaches of discipline, acted as court of appeal above the episcopal courts, and exercised general oversight concerning all Church affairs of the districts. The metropolitans, whose historical significance was practically lost by the thirteenth century, had essentially the same office as that of archbishop. Under the leadership of the higher ecclesiastics there was a tendency to form national churches. The primates and archbishops defended these national churches even against the Pope and frequently sided with the kings against the supreme Pontiffs. In Germany they helped elect the Emperor, played an important political rôle, and saved Germany from ruin again and again.[582:1] In France and England they were the trusted counsellors and advisers of the sovereign. Almost without exception they came from the nobility and were large landed proprietors as well as secular rulers.
The bishops, who came next in the scale of the hierarchy, were elected originally by the people and the clergy but that right was gradually usurped by the metropolitans and the secular rulers. The mitre and crosier were the emblems of the episcopal office. The Concordat of Worms in 1122 settled long disputes by giving both Pope and ruler a share in the election. By the thirteenth century, however, the Pope had come to have the upper hand in these ecclesiastical preferments. The total number of bishops in the thirteenth century was approximately 700.[582:2] The duties of the bishop were both spiritual and temporal. His office was one of the most important in the mediæval
Church. He ruled over a diocese of any number of parish churches, but had his own especial church, which was called the cathedral, and usually surpassed all other churches of the diocese in size and beauty. He saw to it that public services were conducted in the proper manner. He overlooked the administration of charity. He tried to secure efficient subordinates who would fulfil all their duties, and he alone could ordain new priests or degrade the old. He enforced discipline and canon law. He exercised the rights of confirmation and holy orders, and consecrated res sacræ like churches and shrines. He usually supervised the monastic houses in his diocese.[583:1] And he himself conducted religious services of a special character in his cathedral or domus dei. He assumed judicial power over his clergy and in case of misbehaviour punished them by deposition or confinement in a cloister. He passed judgment on all questions of marriage, wills, oaths, usury, and similar subjects. In general each bishop, under the authority of the representative of St. Peter, was a little pope over that section of the Church which was under his jurisdiction[583:2] and he was regarded as the direct successor of the Apostles. On the temporal side the bishop was a landlord, governed a large estate, and performed those governmental duties which the king, particularly in Germany, thrust upon him. He did not own the land, but only used it. He himself was often a vassal, had a large number of vassals and sub-vassals under him, collected feudal dues from his inferiors, paid feudal tributes to his superiors, and was an integral part of the feudal system.
His installation to office was invariably accompanied by the ceremony of feudal investiture. Indeed from many standpoints he was more of a feudal lord than a churchman. It is easy to see, therefore, what a powerful factor the bishop was in both secular and ecclesiastical affairs, and how sweeping was his influence.
There were several deviations from the regular office of bishop. The chor-bishop or "country bishop," who was little more than an assistant of the city bishop, had gradually died out by the thirteenth century.[584:1] The honorary bishop, or titular bishop, a title first applied to missionary bishops, still existed in Europe but with no regular diocese. The progress of Mohammedanism drove many regular bishops away from their episcopal seats in Asia, Africa, and Spain. But they were allowed to retain their titles and functions even though deprived of their dioceses, and successors were regularly elected. Again during the Crusades many bishoprics were established in the East. Through the failure of the Crusades, however, these bishops lost their dioceses, but they too were permitted to retain their titles in the hope of eventually recovering their possessions. They likewise served as assistants to bishops in western Europe and their successors were regularly appointed by the Pope. They became very independent and often caused the regular bishops much trouble. Efforts were made later to get rid of them but without success.
Connected with each bishop's cathedral was a chapter which probably grew out of the original college of presbyters who assisted the bishop in his spiritual and secular duties. As time passed and the Church
grew these presbyters came to be attached to the cathedral as a distinct body of the clergy. By the ninth century these clergy came to be known as a chapter and consisted of either the "seculars," i.e., the clergy not bound by monastic vows and living in separate houses, or the "regulars," i.e., the clergy living as monks in a common building. Thus the chapter came to have a regular organisation with officers whose duties were more or less clearly defined. At the head stood the bishop; then the dean, the real acting head; and after him the precentor, or chanter, who was a musical director; the chancellor, who had charge of the education of younger members, the library, correspondence, and the delivery of lectures and sermons; the treasurer, who was responsible for the funds of the church, the sacred vessels, the altar furniture, and the reliquaries; the sub-dean, the sub-chanter, and vice-chancellor; and the archdeacons, whose number depended on the size of the diocese, who executed episcopal orders, who acted as inspectors and had minor judicial functions, and who became so independent and powerful that the office was abolished in the twelfth century.[585:1] The remaining members of the chapter were called canons or prebendaries. During the absence of the canons their duties were performed by substitutes called vicars.
Each chapter had its own laws, endowments, fees, revenues, and jurisdiction over lands. The chapters often came into open conflict with the bishops[585:2] and tended to form alliances with Popes and rulers against the episcopal authorities. It was not uncommon,
either, to find chapters practically independent of the bishops with members appointed directly by the Pope. These bodies exercised great powers—they called councils, they tried clerical cases, they even excommunicated, and as little Colleges of Cardinals, usually at the king's suggestion, elected bishops.[586:1] Membership in a chapter was regarded as a fat berth and hence eagerly sought by leading families of nobility.