the globe, and the only rational explanation of such facts is, that they are indications of very ancient and once widespread groups, maintaining themselves only in a few widely separated portions of what was at one time or another the area of their distribution.
Land-shells of the Azores.—Like the insects and birds, the land-shells of these islands have a generally European aspect, but with a larger proportion of peculiar species. This was to be expected, because the means by which molluscs are carried over the sea are far less numerous and varied than in the case of insects;[[103]] and we may therefore conclude that their introduction is a very rare event, and that a species once arrived remains for long periods undisturbed by new arrivals, and is therefore more likely to become modified by the new conditions, and then fixed as a distinct type. Out of the sixty-nine known species, thirty-seven are common to Europe or the other Atlantic islands, while thirty-two are peculiar, though almost all are distinctly allied to European types. The majority of these shells, especially the peculiar forms, are very small, and many of them may date back to beyond the glacial epoch. The eggs of these would be exceedingly minute, and might occasionally be carried on leaves or other materials during gales of exceptional violence and duration, while others might be conveyed with the earth that often sticks to the feet of birds. There are also, probably, other unknown means of conveyance; but however this may be, the general character of the land-molluscs is such as to confirm the conclusions we have arrived at from a study of the birds and insects,—that these islands have never been connected with a continent, and have been peopled with living things by such forms only as in some way or other have been able to reach them across many hundred miles of ocean.
The Flora of the Azores.—The flowering-plants of the Azores have been studied by one of our first botanists, Mr. H. C. Watson, who has himself visited the islands and made extensive collections; and he has given a complete catalogue of the species in Mr. Godman's volume. As our
object in the present work is to trace the past history of the more important islands by means of the forms of life that inhabit them, and as for this purpose plants are sometimes of more value than any class of animals, it will be well to take advantage of the valuable materials here available, in order to ascertain how far the evidence derived from the two organic kingdoms agrees in character; and also to obtain some general results which may be of service in our discussion of more difficult and more complex problems.
There are in the Azores 480 known species of flowering-plants and ferns, of which no less than 440 are found also in Europe, Madeira, or the Canary Islands; while forty are peculiar to the Azores, but are more or less closely allied to European species. As botanists are no less prone than zoologists to invoke former land-connections and continental extensions to account for the wide dispersal of objects of their study, it will be well to examine somewhat closely what these facts really imply.
The Dispersal of Seeds.—The seeds of plants are liable to be dispersed by a greater variety of agents than any other organisms, while their tenacity of life, under varying conditions of heat and cold, drought and moisture, is also exceptionally great. They have also an advantage, in that the great majority of flowering plants have the sexes united in the same individual, so that a single seed in a state fit to germinate may easily stock a whole island. The dispersal of seeds has been studied by Sir Joseph Hooker, Mr. Darwin, and many other writers, who have made it sufficiently clear that they are in many cases liable to be carried enormous distances. An immense number are specially adapted to be carried by the wind, through the possession of down or hairs, or membranous wings or processes; while others are so minute, and produced in such profusion, that it is difficult to place a limit to the distance they might be carried by gales of wind or hurricanes. Another class of somewhat heavier seeds or dry fruits are capable of being exposed for a long time to sea-water without injury. Mr. Darwin made many experiments on this point, and he found that many seeds, especially of Atriplex,
Beta, oats, Capsicum, and the potato, grew after 100 days' immersion, while a large number survived fifty days. But he also found that most of them sink after a few days' immersion, and this would certainly prevent them being floated to very great distances. It is very possible, however, that dried branches or flower-heads containing seeds would float longer, while it is quite certain that many tropical seeds do float for enormous distances, as witness the double cocoa-nuts which cross the Indian ocean from the Seychelle Islands to the coast of Sumatra, and the West Indian beans which frequently reach the west coast of Scotland. There is therefore ample evidence of the possibility of seeds being conveyed across the sea for great distances by winds and surface currents.[[104]]
Birds as Seed-carriers.—The great variety of fruits that are eaten by birds afford a means of plant-dispersal in the fact that seeds often pass through the bodies of birds in a state well-fitted for germination; and such seeds may occasionally be carried long distances by this means. Of the twenty-two land-birds found in the Azores, half are, more or less, fruit-eaters, and these may have been the means of introducing many plants into the islands.
Birds also frequently have small portions of earth on their feet; and Mr. Darwin has shown by actual experiment that almost all such earth contains seeds. Thus in
nine grains of earth on the leg of a woodcock a seed of the toad-rush was found which germinated; while a wounded red-legged partridge had a ball of earth weighing six and a half ounces adhering to its leg, and from this earth Mr. Darwin raised no less than eighty-two separate plants of about five distinct species. Still more remarkable was the experiment with six and three-quarter ounces of mud from the edge of a little pond, which, carefully treated under glass, produced 537 distinct plants! This is equal to a seed for every six grains of mud, and when we consider how many birds frequent the edges of ponds in search of food, or come there to drink, it is evident that great numbers of seeds may be dispersed by this means.