Names enclosed thus (...) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera properly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

MAMMALIA.
Order, Family, and
Genus.		No. of
Species.		Range within the Region.Range beyond the Region.
CHIROPTERA.
Phyllostomidæ.
1.Macrotus1California Mexico, Antilles
Vespertilionidæ.
2.Scotophilus5Universal, to Hudson's BayNeotr., Orient., Austral.
3.Vespertilio6Universal, to Hudson's BayCosmopolite.
4.Nycticejus1South and EastIndia, Tropical Africa, temperate S. America
5.Lasiurus3Temp. N. Amer. to Nova ScotiaTropical America
6.Synotus2S. E. and Central States
7.Autrozous1W. Coast
Noctilionidæ.
8.Nyctinomus1Cal. and S. Central Sub-regionNeotropical, Oriental, S. Palæarctic
INSECTIVORA.
Talpidæ.
9.Condylura1Eastern N. America
10.Scapanus2New York to San Francisco
11.Scalops3S. of Great Lakes & Brit. Columb.
12.Urotrichus1British ColumbiaJapan
Soricidæ.
13.Sorex16The whole regionPalæarc., Ethiop., Orien.
14.Neosorex1Vancouver's Island (a sub-genus)
15.Blarina7Canada to Mexico (a sub-genus)
CARNIVORA.
Felidæ.
16.Felis5S. of 55° N. LatitudeAll regs. but Australian
17.Lynx3S. of 56° N. LatitudePalæarctic

Canidæ.

18.Lupus6All N. AmericaPalæarctic, Oriental
19.Vulpes6N. America to Arctic Ocean and GreenlandPalæarc., Ethiop., Orient.
Mustelidæ.
20.Martes2Pennsylvania to Paget's SoundPalæarctic, Oriental
21.Mustela11All N. AmericaPeru, Palæarctic, Ethiopian, Oriental
22.Gulo1Rocky Mountains and CanadaN. Palæarctic
23.Latax2United States and Canada
24.Enhydris1Pacific coastW. coast of S. America
25.Taxidea2Arkansas to 58° N. Lat.
26.Mephitis6United States and CanadaNeotropical
Procyonidæ.
27.Procyon2Texas to Canada, CaliforniaNeotropical
28.Bassaris1California and TexasGuatemala and Mexico
Ursidæ.
29.Ursus3N. America and GreenlandPalæarctic, Oriental
Otariidæ.
30.Callorhinus1Behring's StraitsKamschatka
31.Zalophus1S. California to N. PacificJapan
Eumetopias1California to Behring's Straits
Trichechidæ.
32.Trichechus1Arctic Ocean to 66° N. Lat. in N. AmericaPalæarctic
Phocidæ.
33.Callocephalus1GreenlandPalæarctic
34.Pagomys1N. Atlantic and N. PacificJapan
35.Pagophilus1N. Atlantic and N. PacificPalæarctic
36.Halicyon1N. W. coast of America
37.Phoca1Northern CoastPalæarctic
38.Halichœrus1GreenlandPalæarctic
39.Morunga1CaliforniaS. temperate shores
40.CystophoraGreenlandN. Atlantic
UNGULATA.
Suidæ.
41.Dicotyles1Texas to Red River, ArkansasNeotropical
Cervidæ.
42.Alces1N. E. United States & CanadaN. Palæarctic
43.Rangifer2Maine to Arctic Ocean & Greenl.Arctic zone
44.Cervus6N. America to 57° N. Lat.Neotr., Palæarc., Orien.
Bovidæ.
45.Bison1Between Missouri & Rocky Mtns.E. Europe
46.Antilocapra1Central plains from Rio Grande to British Columbia

47.

Aplocerus1Northern Rocky Mountains
48.Capra1Upper Missouri and Rocky Mountains northwardsPalæarctic
49.Ovibos1Arctic America and Greenland
RODENTIA.
Muridæ.
50.Reithrodon5N. America to Lat. 39° N.Neotropical
51.Hesperomys16Temperate N. AmericaNeotropical
52.Neotoma7Temperate N. America
53.Sigmodon2S. and S. E. States
54.Arvicola27Texas and California to Hudson's BayPalæarctic
55.Myodes3N. United States to Arctic Reg. and GreenlandN. Palæarctic
56.Fiber1All N. AmericaMexico
Dipodidæ.
57.Jaculus1Pennsylvania to Canada and California
Saccomyidæ.
58.Dipodomys5New Mexico to Columbia River and Carolina
59.Perognathus6New Mexico to British Columbia
60.Thomomys2Upper Missouri to Hudson's Bay
61.Geomys5New Mexico to Alabama and Nebraska
62.Saccomys1N. America
Castoridæ.
63.Castor1N. Mexico to LabradorPalæarctic
Sciuridæ
64.Sciurus18N. America to LabradorAll regs. but Australian
65.Sciuropterus4California & E. States northwds.Palæarctic, Oriental
66.Tamias4Mexico and Virginia to CanadaMexico, N. Asia
67.Spermophilus15N., W., & Central N. AmericaPalæarctic
68.Cynomys2Rio Grande to Missouri (Central)
69.Arctomys4Virginia and Nebraska, northws.N. Palæarctic
Haploodontidæ.
70.Haploodon2California and British Columbia
Cercolabidæ
71.Erethizon2Pennsylvania to Canada, & Pacific coast
Lagomyidæ.
72.Lagomys1Rocky Mountains, 42° to 60° N. Lat.Palæarctic
Leporidæ.
73.Lepus15All N. America to GreenlandAll regs. but Australian

MARSUPIALIA.

Didelphyidæ.
74.Didelphys2From Hudson's River & Lower California, southwardNeotropical
BIRDS.
PASSERES.
Turdidæ.
1.Turdus9The whole regionAlmost cosmopolite
2.Mimus2All U. States and to CanadaNeotropical
3.Galeoscoptes1E. of N. AmericaTo Panama
4.Oreoscoptes1California and Rocky MountainsMexico
5.Harporhynchus7N. America, chiefly the westMexico
Sylviidæ.
6.Myiadestes1W. of Rocky Mountains and to CanadaNeotropical
7.Sialia3All United States and to CanadaMexico and Guatemala
8.Regulus3All United States & to LabradorPalæarc., Cent. America
9.Polioptila3Central and Southern U. StatesNeotropical
Cinclidæ.
10.Cinclus1Rocky Mountains and British AmericaAndes, Palæarctic
Troglodytidæ.
11.Troglodytes3N. AmericaNeotropical, Palæarctic
12.Thryophilus1N. W. AmericaNeotropical
13.Thryothorus3All N. AmericaNeotropical
14.Cistothorus2N. AmericaNeotropical
(Campylorhynchus1Gila and Rio Grande)Neotropical genus
15.Salpinctes1Rocky Mountains to Oregon
16.Catherpes1Gila and Colorado
Chamæidæ.
17.Chamæa1California
Certhiidæ.
18.Certhia2All United States and CanadaPalæarctic, Guatemala
Sittidæ.
19.Sitta5All United States and CanadaPalæarctic, Mexico
Paridæ.
20.Parus8All United States and CanadaPalæarc., Orien., Mexico
21.Lophophanes4All United StatesPalæarctic, Mexico
22.Psaltriparus3Central & Western N. AmericaMexico and Guatemala
23.Auriparus1Rio Grande Valley

Laniidæ.

24.Lanius4All N. AmericaPalæarc., Ethio., Orient.
Corvidæ.
25.Perisoreus1Canada and Rocky MountainsPalæarctic
26.Cyanocitta9All United States and to CanadaNeotropical
27.Gymnokitta1Central and N. W. States
28.Picicorvus1Central and Western States to Sitka
29.Pica2Central and Western States to Arctic OceanPalæarctic
30.Corvus7All N. AmericaCosmop., excl. S. Amer.
Cœrebidæ.
(Certhiola1Florida; summer migrant)Neotropical genus
Mniotiltidæ.
31.Mniotilta1Eastern StatesAntilles, Andes of Columbia (migrant)
32.Parula1Eastern States and CanadaNeotropical
33.Protonotaria1Ohio and southwardsNeotrop. to Venezuela
34.Helminthophaga8All N. AmericaMexico to Columbia
35.Helmintherus2S. and E. States to CanadaMexico to Veragua
36.Perissoglossa1Eastern United StatesAntilles
37.Dendrœca22All N. AmericaMex. to Ecuador & Chili
38.Oporornis2Eastern StatesGuatemala and Panama
39.Geothlypis4All N. AmericaNeotropical
40.Setophaga2E. States & Canadian sub-regionNeotropical
41.Myiodioctes5United States and CanadaMex. to Columb. (migr.)
42.Siurus3S. and E. States to CanadaMexico to Columbia
43.Icteria2E. and Central States to CanadaMexico to Costa Rica
Vireonidæ.
44.Vireosylvia7All N. AmericaAntilles and Venezuela
45.Vireo6All United StatesAntilles and Costa Rica
Ampelidæ.
46.Ampelis2All N. AmericaPalæarctic, Guatemala
47.Phænopepla1Gila and Lower ColoradoMexico
Hirundinidæ.
48.Hirundo3All N. AmericaAlmost cosmopolite
49.Petrochelidon1All N. AmericaNeotropical
50.Cotyle1All N. AmericaAll regs. but Australian
51.Stelgidopteryx1Southern StatesNeotropical
52.Progne1All N. AmericaNeotropical
Icteridæ.
53.Icterus7All United States and CanadaNeotropical
54.Dolichonyx1Eastern States and CanadaNeotropical
55.Molothrus1All United States and CanadaNeotropical
56.Agelæus3All United Slates and CanadaNeotropical

57.

Xanthocephalus1The whole regionMexico
58.Sturnella2All United States and CanadaNeotropical
59.Scolecophagus2All United States and CanadaMexico
60.Quiscalus4S. and E. States to LabradorMexico to Venezuela
Tanagridæ.
61.Pyranga4United Stales and CanadaNeotropical
Fringillidæ.
62.Chrysomitris7The whole regionNeotropical, Palæarctic
63.Coccothraustes1W. and N. W. AmericaPalæarctic, Guatemala
64.Embernagra1Rocky Mountain districtNeotropical
65.Pipilo9All N. AmericaMexico and Guatemala
66.Junco5All United StatesMexico and Guatemala
67.Zonotrichia5The whole regionNeotropical
68.Melospiza7All United States to SitkaMexico and Guatemala
69.Spizella6N. AmericaMexico and Guatemala
70.Passerella3The whole regionNorthern Asia
71.Passerculus6The whole regionMexico and Guatemala
72.Poœcetes1All United StatesMexico
73.Ammodromus3All United StatesMexico and Guatemala
74.Coturniculus3E. and N. of N. AmericaNeotropical
75.Peucæa3S. Atlantic States and CaliforniaMexico
76.Cyanospiza5All United States to CanadaCentral American
77.Poospiza2California and S. Central StatesNeotropical
78.Carpodacus5The whole regionMexico, Palæarctic
79.Cardinalis1S. and S. Central StatesMexico to Venezuela
80.Pyrrhuloxia1Texas and Rio Grande
81.Guiraca1Southern StatesNeotropical
82.Hedymeles2All United StatesMexico to Columbia
(Spermophila1Texas)Neotropical genus
83.Loxia2N. of PennsylvaniaPalæarctic
84.Pinicola1Boreal AmericaPalæarctic
85.Linota2E. and N. of N. AmericaPalæarctic
86.Leucosticte4Alaska to UtahPalæarctic
87.Calamospiza1Arizona and Texas to MexicoMexico
88.Chondestes1Western, Cen., & Southern StatesMexico
89.Euspiza2S. Eastern StatesPalæarc., Columb. (mig.)
90.Plectrophanes6Boreal America and E. side of Rocky MountainsPalæarctic
91.Centronyx1Mouth of Yellowstone River
Alaudidæ.
92.Otocorys1High central plains to E. States and CanadaPalæarc., Mexico, Andes of Columbia
Motacillidæ.
93.Anthus1The whole regionCosmopolite
94.Neocorys1Nebraska
Tyrannidæ.
95.Sayornis3E. States to Canada, CaliforniaMexico to Ecuador
(Pyrocephalus1Gila and Rio Grande)Neotropical
96.Empidonax7The whole regionMexico to Ecuador

97.

Contopus3N. and E. of Rocky MountainsMexico to Amazonia
98.Myiarchus2E. and W. coasts and CanadaNeotropical
99.Empidias1Eastern StatesMexico
100.Tyrannus4All United States to CanadaNeotropical
(Milvulus1Texas)Neotropical genus
PICARIÆ.
Picidæ.
101.Picoides3Arctic zone and Rocky Mounts.Palæarctic
102.Picus6All United States and CanadaAll regs. but Eth. & Aus.
103.Sphyrapicus6Brit. Columbia and Pennsylvania southwardsMexico and Guatemala
104.Campephilus2United States and CanadaNeotropical
105.Hylatomus1E. and W. States and Canada
106.Centurus3The whole regionMexico to Venezuela
107.Melanerpes3United States and S. CanadaNeotropical
108.Colaptes3United States and CanadaNeotropical
Cuculidæ.
109.Crotophaga2E. States from Pennsylvania S.Neotropical
110.Coccyzus3S. E. and Cen. States to CanadaNeotropical
111.Geococcyx1California to New Mex. & TexasGuatemala
Alcedinidæ.
112.Ceryle2The whole region,Neotropical S. Palæarctic, Oriental
Caprimulgidæ.
113.Chordeiles3All United States to CanadaNeotropical
114.Antrostomus3All United States to CanadaNeotropical
Cypselidæ.
115.Nephœcetes1N. W. America Jamaica
116.Chætura2All U. States & British ColumbiaAlmost cosmopolite
Trochilidæ.
117.Trochilus2The whole regionMexico to Veragua (? mi.)
118.Selasphorus2W. coast and CentreMexico to Veragua
119.Atthis2California and Colorado ValleyMexico to Guatemala
PSITTACI.
Conuridæ.
120.Conurus1S. and S. E. StatesNeotropical
COLUMBÆ.
Columbidæ.
121.Columba3W. and Central States to CanadaAll regs. but Australian
122.Ectopistes1E. coast to Cen. plains, Canada and British Columbia
123.Melopelia1W. and S. Central StatesNeotropical
124.Zenaidura1All United States to CanadaMexico to Veragua
125.Chæmepelia1California and S. E. StatesNeotropical

GALLINÆ.

Tetraonidæ.
126.Cyrotonyx1S. Central StatesMexico and Guatemala
127.Ortyx5All United States and to CanadaMexico to Honduras and Costa Rica
128.Callipepla1CaliforniaMexico
129.Lophortyx2Arizona and California
130.Oreortyx1California and Oregon
131.Tetrao3N. and N. W. AmericaPalæarctic
132.Centrocercus1Rocky Mountains
133.Pediocætes2N. and N. W. America
134.Cupidonia1E. & N. Cen. States and Canada
135.Bonasa1N. United States and CanadaPalæarctic
136.Lagopus4Arctic zone and to 39° N. Lat. in Rocky MountainsPalæarctic
Phasianidæ.
137.Meleagris2E. and Central States to CanadaMexico, Honduras
Cracidæ.
(Ortalida1New Mexico)Neotropical genus
ACCIPITRES.
Vulturidæ.
Sub-Family
(Cathartinæ.)
138.Catharista1United States to 40° N. Lat.Neotropical
139.Psuedogryphis2United States to 49° N. Lat.Neotropical
Falconidæ.
140.Polyborus1S. States to Florida & CaliforniaNeotropical
141.Circus1All N. AmericaNearly cosmopolite
142.Antenor2California and TexasNeotropical
143.Astur1All N. AmericaAlmost cosmopolite
144.Accipiter3All temperate N. AmericaAlmost cosmopolite
145.Tachytriorchis1New Mexico to CaliforniaNeotropical
146.Buteo12All N. AmericaAll regs. but Australian
147.Archibuteo3All N. America N.Palæarctic
148.Asturina1S. E. StatesNeotropical
149.Aquila1The whole regionPalæarc., Ethiop., Indian
150.Haliæetus2All N. AmericaAll regs. but Neotropical
151.Nauclerus1E. coast to Pennsylvania and WisconsinNeotropical
(Rostrhamus1Florida)Neotropical
152.Elanus1Southern and Western StatesTropical regions
153.Ictinia1Southern StatesNeotropical
154.Falco7The whole regionAlmost cosmopolite
155.Hierofalco2N. of N. AmericaN. Palæarctic
156.Cerchneis1All N. AmericaAlmost cosmopolite
Pandionidæ.
157.Pandion1Temperate N.America Cosmopolite

Strigidæ.

158.Surnia1Arctic & N. Temperate AmericaN. Palæarctic
159.Nyctea1S. Carolina to GreenlandN. Palæarctic
160.Glaucidium1Oregon and CaliforniaNeotropical, Palæarctic
161.Micrathene1Arizona and New MexicoMexico
162.Pholeoptynx1N. W. America, TexasNeotropical
163.Bubo1All N. AmericaAll regs. but Australian
164.Scops2The whole regionAlmost cosmopolite
165.Syrnium2E. States, California, CanadaAll regs. but Australian
166.Asio2The whole regionAll regs. but Australian
167.Nyctale3All N. AmericaPalæarctic
168.Strix1Temperate N. AmericaAlmost cosmopolite
Peculiar or very characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds.
GRALLÆ
Scolopacidæ.
Micropelma1N. AmericaAndes to Chili
Philohela1Eastern States to Canada
Charadriidæ.
Aphriza1W. coast of AmericaWest of S. America
ANSERES.
Anatidæ.
Aix1N. AmericaChina
Bucephala4N. AmericaEurope
Œdemia3N. AmericaEurope
Harelda1ArcticArctic Seas
Somateria5ArcticNorth Palæarctic
Camptolæmus1N. E. America (? extinct)
Laridæ.
Creagrus1California and N. Pacific coasts

CHAPTER XVI.

SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL REGIONS.

Having now closed our survey of the animal life of the whole earth—a survey which has necessarily been encumbered with a multiplicity of detail—we proceed to summarize the general conclusions at which we have arrived, with regard to the past history and mutual relations of the great regions into which we have divided the land surface of the globe.

All the palæontological, no less than the geological and physical evidence, at present available, points to the great land masses of the Northern Hemisphere as being of immense antiquity, and as the area in which the higher forms of life were developed. In going back through the long series of the Tertiary formations, in Europe, Asia, and North America, we find a continuous succession of vertebrate forms, including all the highest types now existing or that have existed on the earth. These extinct animals comprise ancestors or forerunners of all the chief forms now living in the Northern Hemisphere; and as we go back farther and farther into the past, we meet with ancestral forms of those types also, which are now either confined to, or specially characteristic of, the land masses of the Southern Hemisphere. Not only do we find that elephants, and rhinoceroses, and hippopotami, were once far more abundant in Europe than they are now in the tropics, but we also find that the apes of West Africa and Malaya, the lemurs of Madagascar, the Edentata of Africa and South America, and the Marsupials of America and Australia, were all represented in Europe (and probably also in North America) during the earlier part of the Tertiary epoch. These facts, taken in their entirety, lead us to conclude that, during the whole of the Tertiary and perhaps during much of the Secondary periods, the great land masses of the earth were, as now, situated in the Northern Hemisphere; and that here alone were developed the successive types of vertebrata from the lowest to the highest. In the Southern Hemisphere there appear to have been three considerable and very ancient land masses, varying in extent from time to time, but always keeping distinct from each other, and represented, more or less completely, by Australia, South Africa, and South America of our time. Into these flowed successive waves of life, as they each in turn became temporarily united with some part of the northern land. Australia appears to have had but one such union, perhaps during the middle or latter part of the Secondary epoch, when it received the ancestors of its Monotremata and Marsupials, which it has since developed into a great variety of forms. The South African and South American lands, on the other hand, appear each to have had several successive unions and separations, allowing first of the influx of low forms only (Edentata, Insectivora and Lemurs); subsequently of Rodents and small Carnivora, and, latest of all, of the higher types of Primates, Carnivora and Ungulata.

During the whole of the Tertiary period, at least, the Northern Hemisphere appears to have been divided, as now, into an Eastern and a Western continent; always approximating and sometimes united towards the north, and then admitting of much interchange of their respective faunas; but on the whole keeping distinct, and each developing its own special family and generic types, of equally high grade, and generally belonging to the same Orders. During the Eocene and Miocene periods, the distinction of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions was better marked than it is now; as is shown by the floras no less than by the faunas of those epochs. Dr. Newberry, in his Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, states, that although the Miocene flora of Central North America corresponds generally with that of the European Miocene, yet many of the tropical, and especially the Australian types, such as Hakea and Dryandra, are absent. Owing to the recent discovery of a rich Cretaceous flora in North America, probably of the same age as that of Aix-la-Chapelle in Europe, we are able to continue the comparison; and it appears, that at this early period the difference was still more marked. The predominant feature of the European Cretaceous flora seems to have been the abundance of Proteaceæ, of which seven genera now living in Australia or the Cape of Good Hope have been recognised, besides others which are extinct. There are also several species of Pandanus, or screw-pine, now confined to the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, and along with these, oaks, pines, and other more temperate forms. The North American Cretaceous flora, although far richer than that of Europe, contains no Proteaceæ or Pandani, but immense numbers of forest trees of living and extinct genera. Among the former we have oaks, beeches, willows, planes, alders, dog-wood, and cypress; together with such American forms as magnolias, sassafras, and liriodendrons. There are also a few not now found in America, as Araucaria and Cinnamomum, the latter still living in Japan. This remarkable flora has been found over a wide extent of country—New Jersey, Alabama, Kansas, and near the sources of the Missouri in the latitude of Quebec—so that we can hardly impute its peculiarly temperate character to the great elevation of so large an area. The intervening Eocene flora approximates closely, in North America, to that of the Miocene period; while in Europe it seems to have been fully as tropical in character as that of the preceding Cretaceous period; fruits of Nipa, Pandanus, Anona, Acacia, and many Proteaceæ, occurring in the London clay at the mouth of the Thames.

These facts appear, at first sight, to be inconsistent, unless we suppose the climates of Europe and North America to have been widely different in these early times; but they may perhaps be harmonised, on the supposition of a more uniform and a somewhat milder climate then prevailing over the whole Northern Hemisphere; the contrast in the vegetation of these countries being due to a radical difference of type, and therefore not indicative of climate. The early European flora seems to have been a portion of that which now exists only in the tropical and sub-tropical lands of the Eastern Hemisphere; and, as much of this flora still survives in Australia, Tasmania, Japan, and the Cape of Good Hope, it does not necessarily imply more than a warm and equable temperate climate. The early North American flora, on the other hand, seems to have been essentially the same in type as that which now exists there, and which, in the Miocene period, was well represented in Europe; and it is such as now flourishes best in the warmer parts of the United States. But whatever conclusion we may arrive at on the question of climate, there can be no doubt as to the distinctness of the floras of the ancient Nearctic and Palæarctic regions; and the view derived from our study of their existing and extinct faunas—that these two regions have, in past times, been more clearly separated than they are now—receives strong support from the unexpected evidence now obtained as to the character and mutations of their vegetable forms, during so vast an epoch as is comprised in the whole duration of the Tertiary period.

The general phenomena of the distribution of living animals, combined with the evidence of extinct forms, lead us to conclude that the Palæarctic region of early Tertiary times was, for the most part, situated beyond the tropics, although it probably had a greater southward extension than at the present time. It certainly included much of North Africa, and perhaps reached far into what is now the Sahara; while a southward extension of its central mass may have included the Abyssinian highlands, where some truly Palæarctic forms are still found. This is rendered probable by the fossils of Perim Island a little further east, which show that the characteristic Miocene fauna of South Europe and North India prevailed so far within the tropics. There existed, however, at the extreme eastern and western limits of the region, two extensive equatorial land-areas, our Indo-Malayan and West African sub-regions—both of which must have been united for more or less considerable periods with the northern continent. They would then have received from it such of the higher vertebrates as were best adapted for the peculiar climatal and organic conditions which everywhere prevail near the equator; and these would be preserved, under variously modified forms, when they had ceased to exist in the less favourable and constantly deteriorating climate of the north. At later epochs, both these equatorial lands became united to some part of the great South African continent (then including Madagascar), and we thus have explained many of the similarities presented by the faunas of these distant, and generally very different countries.