Tropical nature, and other essays - Alfred Russel Wallace

A.
Abrus precatoria, perhaps a case of mimicry, [226]
Absorption-colours or pigments, [183]
Acræidæ, warning colours of, [174]
Adaptive characters, [150], [155]
Affinities, how to determine doubtful, [148]
African large mammalia, recent immigrants, [323]
Allen, Mr. Grant, on protective colours of fruits, [225]
Alpine flowers, why so beautiful, [232]
Amboyna, large-sized butterflies of, [258]
American monkeys, [118]
American Continents, past history of, [332]
Ancient races of North and South America, [298]
Andaman Islands, pale butterflies of, [260]
white-marked birds of, [263]
Anderson, Mr. W. Marshall, on cranium from N. American mound, [296]
Andes, very rich in humming-birds, [139]
Animal colours, how produced, [184]
life in tropical forests, [70]
Anthribidæ, [95]
Ants, wasps, and bees, [80]
numbers of, in India and Malaya, [81]–[88]
destructive to insect-specimens, [85]
and vegetation, special relation between, [89]
Apatura and Heterochroa, resemblance of species of, [257]
Apes, [116]
Aqueous vapour of atmosphere, its influence on temperature, [9]
quantity at Batavia and Clifton, [10]
Arctic plants, large leaves of, [236]
flowers and fruits brightly coloured, [237]
Areca palm, [45]
Arenga saccharifera, [43]
Argus-pheasant, wonderful plumage of, [205]
Arums, [48]
Assai of the Amazon, [43]
Auckland Isles, handsome flowers of, [238]
Audubon, on the ruby humming-birds, [130], [137]
Australian Region, mammalia of, [340]
birds of, [340]
extinct fauna of, [341]
its supposed union with S. America, [341]
Azara, on food of humming-birds, [135]
B.
Bamboos, [52]
uses of, [53]–[58]
Bananas, wild, [47]
Banana, [48]
Barber, Mrs. on colour changes of pupa of Papilio nireus, [168]
Barbets, [105]
Bark, varieties of in tropical forests, [33]
Barometer, range of, at Batavia, [24]
Batavia, Meteorology of, [4]
and London, diagram of mean temperatures, [5]
greatest rainfall at, [24]
range of barometer at, [24]
Bates, Mr., on climate at the Equator, [24]
on scarcity of forest-flowers on Amazon, [61]
on animal life in Amazon valley, [70]
on abundance of butterflies at Ega, [75]
on importance of study of butterflies, [78]
on leaf-cutting ants, [86]
on blind ants, [88]
on bird-catching spider, [97]
on use of toucan’s bill, [106]
on large serpents, [115]
on the habits of humming-birds, [132]
Bats, [118]
Beetles, [94]
abundance of, in New Forest-clearings, [96]
probable use of horns of, [202]
Belt, Mr., on virgin forests of Nicaragua, [62]
on aspects of tropical vegetation, [67]
on leaf-cutting ants, [86]
on an Acacia inhabited by ants, [89]
on uses of ants to the trees they live on, [90]
on a leaf-like locust, [93]
on tree-frogs, [116]
on the habits of humming-birds, [133], [134]
on uneatable bright-coloured frog, [175]
on use of light of glow-worm, [205]
Betel-nut, [45]
Bill of humming-birds, [129]
Biology, by-paths of, illustrated, [251]
Birds, [99]
how many known, [124]
cases of local variation of colour among, [262]
influence of locality on colours of, [255]
which fertilize flowers, [273], [274]
and insects blown to oceanic islands, [308]
of Palæarctic Region, [316]
of Ethiopian Region, [318]
of Oriental Region, [320]
Bonelli, Mr., on the Sappho comet humming-bird, [132]
Bullock on food of humming-birds, [153]
Buprestidæ, [94]
Burchell, Dr., on the “stone mesembryanthemum,” [223]
Butterflies, abundance of, in tropical forests, [72]
conspicuousness of in tropical forests, [73]
colours and form of, [74]
peculiar habits of tropical, [76]
tropical and temperate compared as to colour, [164]
females do not choose their partners, [200]
with gaily-coloured females, [204]
numbers and variety of, [255]
influence of locality on colours of, [255]
Buttressed trees, [31]
C.
Calamus, [41]
Callithea, imitated by species of Catagramma and Agrias, [257]
Callithea markii, [75]
Campylopterus hemileucurus, pugnacious and ornamental, [214]
Cattleyas, [51]
Cecropias, trees inhabited by ants, [89]
Celebes, large and peculiarly formed butterflies of, [259]
white-marked birds of, [263]
Centipedes, [97]
Ceylon and Malaya, resemblances of fauna of, [327]
Chameleons, [113]
Chameleon, cause of changes of its colour, [170]
Chemical action changes colours, [183]
Chili, humming-birds of, [141]
Chiroptera, [119]
Chrysobactron Rossii, [238]
Clark, Rev. Hamlet on leaf-cutting ants, [86]
Climate of Equator, general features of, [17]
Climates of Timor, Angola, and Scotland compared, [14]
Climbing plants of tropical forests, [37]
uses of, [39]
Cockatoos, [100]
Cœlogynes, [51]
Coloration of tropical birds, [110]
Colour, cause of change of, in humming-birds, [144]
Colour in nature, problems of, [159]
how far constant, [161]
as affected by heat and light, [161]
of tropical birds, [163]
of tropical butterflies, [164]
of temperate and tropical flowers, [165]
changes of, in animals produced by coloured light, [167]
voluntary change of, in animals, [170]
not usually influenced by coloured light, [171]
Colour, the nature of, [180]
how produced, [183]
changed by heat, [183]
a normal product of organization, [185]
as a means of recognition, [196]
proportionate to integumentary development, [198]
not caused by female selection, [198]
Colour absent in wind-fertilized flowers, [233]
same theory of, in animals and plants, [234]
of flowers and their distribution, [235]
Colour, nomenclature of, formerly imperfect, [247]
Colour-development as illustrated by humming-birds, [212]
local causes of, [216]
in animals, summary, [216]
Colour-perception, supposed recent growth of, [244]
Colour-sense, origin of the, [241]
need for, [243]
not of recent origin, [246]
not wholly explicable, [248]
Colours, classification of organic, [172]
protective, [172]
warning, [174]
sexual, [177]
typical, [179]
of animals, how produced, [184]
theory of protective, [187]
theory of warning, [189]
theory of sexual, [192]
theory of typical, [215]
Colours and ornaments of humming-birds, [127]
Colours of fruits, attractive, [224]
protective, [225]
Colours, which first perceived, [243]
Cometes sparganurus, very pugnacious, [214]
Compositæ, arborescent in oceanic islands, [276]
Continent, past changes of the great Eastern, [321]
Continents of Tertiary period, probable aspect of, [343]
Copridæ, [95]
probable use of horns of, [202]
Crematogaster, genus of ants, [83]
Cross-fertilization of flowers, use of, [228]
complex arrangements for, [229]
Cuckoos, [104]
D.
Danaidæ, warning colours of, [174]
Danainæ, Acræinæ and Heliconiinæ, local resemblances of, [256]
Daphne pontica, [230]
Darwin, Mr., on mode of cross-fertilization and its use, [228]
not too highly rated, [252]
on vegetation of Galapagos, [272]
on use of scented leaves, [277]
on former union of West Indian islands and S. America, [306]
on oceanic islands, [307]
revolution in thought effected by, [284]
Deserts on line of tropics, [28]
Desmoncus, [41]
De Vry, Mr., on the sugar-palm, [43]
Dews, cause of heavy tropical, [10]
Diagram of mean temperature at Batavia and London, [5]
of rainfall at Batavia and London, [15]
Dianthus alpinus, D. glacialis, [232]
Distribution of humming-birds, [138]
Dragons or flying-lizards, [113]
Drugs from equatorial forest-trees, [36]
Duke-of-York Island, pale-coloured insects of, [259]
Islands, remarkable white plumaged birds of, [263]
Dyes from equatorial forest-trees, [36]
Dynastidæ, [95]
probable use of horns of, [202]
E.
Earl, Mr. George Windsor, on division of Malay Archipelago, [307]
Earth-sculpture or surface-geology, [250]
Earthworks, North American, [292]
Easter Island, sculptures on, [291]
Eciton, genus of foraging ants, [87]
Elateridæ, luminous species perhaps mimetic, [205]
Emperor-moth, protective coloration of, [174]
Environment, relation of living things to, [254]
Epicalia, sexes of, differently coloured, [178]
Epilobium angustifolium, E. parviflorum, [233]
Epimachinæ, [150]
Equator, cause of uniform high temperature near, [6]
short twilight at, [21]
Equatorial climate, general features of, [17]
uniformity of in all parts of the world, [18]
local diversities of, [19]
Equatorial forests, general features of, [29]
Equatorial forest-belt, cause of, [27]
Equatorial heavens, aspect of, [23]
Equatorial zone, temperature of, [3]
Ethiopian Region, [317]
Eugenes fulgens, [134]
Eunica and Siderone, resemblance of species of, [257]
Euplœa, pale species of, in Moluccas and New Guinea, [258]
Euro-Asiatic continent, Miocene fauna of, [323]
Eustephanus, [141]
Eustephanus galeritus, [143]
Euterpe oleracea, [43]
Evaporation and condensation, equalising effects of, [16]
F.
Female birds, greater brilliancy of some, [211]
Female insects, greater brilliancy of some, [203]
Ferns, [46]
Ferns, preponderance of in Tahiti and Juan Fernandez, [269], [270]
Fiji Islands, pale butterflies of, [259]
Fire-ants, [83]
Fishes, causes of general coloration of, [171]
Flowering trunks, probable cause of, [34]
Flowers, comparative scarcity of in equatorial forests, [60]
Flowers and insects, [64]
Flowers of temperate zones brilliantly coloured, [165]
comparatively scarce in tropical forests, [167]
Flowers, attractive colours of, [228]
fertilized by insects, [228]
attractive odours of, [230]
when sweet-scented not conspicuously coloured, [230]
attractive grouping of, [231]
alpine, why so beautiful, [232]
why allied species differ in beauty, [233]
when wind-fertilized not coloured, [233]
relation of colours of, to distribution, [235]
and fruits, recent views as to action of light on, [236]
Flowers of Auckland and Campbell’s Isles, bright-coloured, [238]
Flying-lizards, [113]
Foliage, two chief types of, in tropical forests, [33]
colours of, [221]
Foot of savages does not approach that of apes, [289] (note)
Forest-belt, cause of equatorial, [27]
Forest-belts, temperate, [29]
Forest-tree, section of a Bornean, [32]
formed from climbers, [32]
Forest-trees, characteristics of, [30]
Forest-trees of low growth, [34]
Forest-trees, uses of equatorial, [35]
Forests, effect of on rainfall and drought, [19]
devastation caused by destruction of, [20]
equatorial, [29]
undergrowth of tropical, [34]
Formica gigas, [81]
Foxes, none in Isle of Wight in 1605, [305]
Frogs and toads, [116]
Frog, with bright colours uneatable, [175]
Frogs of oceanic islands, [309]
Fruit-bats, [119]
Fruits of equatorial forest-trees, [36]
Fruits, attractive colours of, [224]
protective colours of, [225]
greater antiquity of protected than attractive, [227]
G.
Galapagos, colours of productions of, [163]
poor in flowers and insects, [235]
weedy vegetation of, [272]
Gardner, Dr., on a large water-boa, [115]
Geckos, [112]
Geiger, on ancient perception of colour, [245]
Geranium pratense, G. pusillum, [233]
Gibbons, [116]
Ginger-worts, [47]
Gladstone, Mr., on the colour-sense, [245]
Glow-worm, use of its light, [205]
Goliath cuckoo, [105]
Gosse, Mr., on Jamaica humming-birds, [132], [135]
on the pugnacity of humming-birds, [134]
on food of humming-birds, [137]
Gould, Mr., on the motions of humming-birds, [131]
Grammatophyllums, [51]
Green, why the most agreeable colour, [244]
Grisebach, on cause of vivid colours of arctic flowers, [237]
Guilielma speciosa, [42]
Gums from equatorial forest-trees, [36]
H.
Habenaria chlorantha, [230]
Habits of humming-birds, [130]
Heat due to condensation of atmospheric vapour, [14]
changes colours, [183]
Heliconiinæ and Acræinæ, local resemblances of, [256]
Hindostan and Africa, resemblances of fauna of, [328]
Hooker, Sir J. on flowers of Auckland Isles, [238]
on deficient odour of New Zealand flowers, [277]
Hornbills, [107]
Horns of beetles, probable use of, [202]
Howling-monkeys, [118]
Humming-birds, number of, [124], [133]
distinctness of, [125], [129]
structure of, [125]
colours and ornaments of, [127]
descriptive names of, [129]
motions and habits of, [130]
display of ornaments by males, [134]
food of, [135]
nests of, [137]
geographical distribution and variation of, [138]
of Juan Fernandez, [140]
influenced by varied conditions in South America, [147]
relations and affinities of, [148]
sternum of, [151]
eggs of, [152]
feather-tracts of, [152]
resemblance of swifts to, [152]
nestlings of, [153]
differences from sun-birds, [154]
I.
Iguanas, [113]
Indian peninsula once an island, [325]
ancient fauna of, [325]
Insects, wingless, [97]
general observations on tropical, [98]
Insular plants and insects, relations of, [267]
Interference-colours in animals, [184]
Islands, influence of locality on colour in, [257]
J.
Jacamars, [105]
Juan Fernandez, humming-birds of, [140]
insects of, [270]
abundance of humming-birds in, [273]
L.
Land and sea, peculiar distribution of, [311]
existing distribution of, very ancient, [312]
Leaf-insects, [92]
Leaves, supposed use of odours of, [277]
Lemuria, an hypothetical continent, not required, [328]
Leopoldinia major, [45]
Lepidoptera, diurnal, [72]
Leptalis, a good case of mimicry, [189]
Leptena erastus, [256]
Light, theory of, as producing colours, [161]
action of, on plants, [222]
supposed direct action of, on colours of flowers and fruits, [236]
Lizards, [111]
Local causes of colour-development, [216]
Locusts, richly-coloured tropical, [94]
Longicorns, [95]
Lophornis ornatus, very pugnacious, [214]
Lord Howe’s Island, white rail in, [264]
Lubbock, Sir John, on colour-perception in insects, [255]
M.
Macaws, [100]
Madagascar, white-marked butterflies of, [260]
Madagascar once united to Africa, [325]
Madagascar and Malaya, resemblances of fauna of, [328]
Male birds, origin of ornamental plumage of, [205]
Male birds which incubate, [212]
Male humming-birds produce a shriller sound, [215]
Males, theory of display of ornaments by, [207]
Malva sylvestris, M. rotundifolia, [233]
Mammals, [116]
Mammalia, supposed variations of, comparable to those of butterflies, [261]
local resemblances of, in Africa, [262]
Mammalia of Palæarctic Region, [315]
of Ethiopian Region, [317]
of Oriental Region, [319]
of Miocene period in Euro-Asia, [321]
Man, antiquity and origin of, [280]
indications of extreme antiquity of, [285]
highly developed at very early period, [286]
antiquity of intellectual, [290]
Mangroves, [58]
Manicaria saccifera, [41]
Mantidæ, [91]
Mantis resembling an orchis-flower, [173]
Marantaceæ, [47]
Marmosets, [118]
Marshall, Messrs. on barbets, [106]
Martins, M. Charles, on increased size of leaves of arctic plants, [236]
Mates readily found by birds, [200]
Mauritia, palm, [40]
Maximiliana regia, [41]
Meiglyptes, [150]
Meldola, Mr. R., on variable colouring in insects, [170]
Meliphagidæ in Auckland Isles probably flower-fertilizers, [239]
Melliss, Mr., on flora of St. Helena, [275]
Migrations between N. America and Euro-Asia, [334]
between N. America and South America, [335]
Mesembryanthemum, stone, [223]
Meteorological phenomena, intensity of, at the equator, [23]
Mimicry, theory of, [189]
Mimosa pudica, [59]
Mivart, Professor, on animal origin of man, [284]
on the divergent affinities of man and apes, [288]
Mongredien, Mr., on showy and fragrant flowers, [230]
Monkeys, [116]
Monkeys and pigeons, [102]
Moseley, Mr., on humming-birds of Juan Fernandez, [143]
Moseley, Mr. H. N., on birds conveying seeds to islands, [268]
Moths, conspicuously-coloured caterpillars of, uneatable, [175]
Motmots, [105]
Mott, Mr. Albert, on antiquity of intellectual man, [291]
Mounds of N. America, antiquity of, [296]
Mound-builders, a semi-civilized race, [297]
Müller, Dr. Hermann, on fertilization of alpine flowers, [232]
on fertilization of Martagon lily, [231]
on variations of insect-fertilized flowers, [275]
on differences of allied species of flowers, [233]
Musa paradisiaca, [48]
Musaceæ, [48]
Mygale, a bird-catching spider, [97]
Mysis chameleon, changes of colour of, [171]
N.
Nearctic Region, mammalia of, [329]
birds of, [330]
Neotropical region, mammalia of, [331]
birds of, [332]
Nests of humming-birds, [137]
Newton, Professor, on appearance of living humming-birds, [130]
New Zealand, poor in flowers and insects, [235]
New World, regions of the, [329]
North American earthworks, [292]
Nuttall, Mr., on the rufous flame-bearer, [131]
Nymphalidæ, local resemblances of species of distinct genera of, [257]
O.
Oceanic Islands, peculiar floras of, [269]
theory of, [307]
Odontomachus, genus of ants, [82]
Odour deficient in New Zealand flowers, [277]
Odours absorbed unequally by differently coloured stuffs, [266]
of flowers attractive, [230]
Œcodoma cephalotes, [85]
Œcophylla smaragdina, [82]
Ogle, Dr., on colour and sense-perception, [265]
Oil from palms, [45]
Oncidiums, [51]
Optical theory of colour, [180]
Orchids, [49]
Oriental Region, [319]
Ornamental humming-birds, the most pugnacious, [214]
Ornaments, display of, by male humming-birds, [134]
Orthoptera, [91]
P.
Palæarctic Region, [314]
Palms, [40]
height of, [41]
climbing, [41]
Palm-wine, [43]
Palm-trees, uses and products of, [42]–46
Pandanaceæ, [49]
Papilio, pale varieties of, in Moluccas and New Guinea, [258]
Papilionidæ and Nymphalidæ, local resemblances of, [255]
Papilio nireus, changes of colour of pupa of, [168]
Parrots, [99]
red in Moluccas and New Guinea, [264]
black in New Guinea and Madagascar, [264]
Passeres, [108]
Phyllostoma, [120]
Phasmidæ, [91]–93
Phœnix sylvestris, [45]
Phaëthornithinæ, [136]
Pheasants, brilliant plumage of, in cold countries, [163]
Pheidole, genus of ants, [84]
Philippine Islands, metallic colours of butterflies of, [259]
white-marked birds of, [263]
Picariæ, [103]
Pickering, Mr., on plants of Pacific Islands, [269]
Pieridæ and Lycænidæ, local resemblances of, [256]
Pigeons, [102]
black in Australia and Madagascar, [264]
Pigs, white poisoned in Virginia, black not, [265]
Pipes from N. American mounds, [295]
Plantain, [48]
Plantain-eaters, [197]
Plants, protective coloration in, [223]
Platycerium, [47]
Plumage of tropical birds, [109]
of humming-birds, [128]
Polyrachis, genus of ants, [81]
Polyalthea, tree with flowers on trunk, [35]
Polygonum bistorta, P. aviculare, [233]
Pontia rapæ, changes of colour of chrysalis of, [168]
Ponera clavata, terrible sting of, [82]
Portraits on sculptured pipes from mounds, [295]
Prosthemadera in the Auckland Isles, [239]
Protective colours, theory of, [187]
Psittacula diopthalma, sexual difference of colour of, [178]
Pterylography, [151]
Pyramid, the Great, [298]
the Great, indicates an earlier civilization, [300]
Pythons, [115]
R.
Rabbits, why white-tailed, [197]
Rainbow, how described by ancient writers, [245]
Rainfall at London and Batavia, diagram of, [15]
Rainfall, greatest recorded at Batavia, [24]
Ramsay, Prof. on ancient fresh-water deposits, [313]
Raphia tædigera, [41]
Rattan-palms, [42]
Recognition aided by colour, [196]
Reed, Mr., on humming-birds in Juan Fernandez, [146]
Mr. Edwyn C., on insects of Juan Fernandez, [270]
Reptiles, [111]
Reptiles of oceanic islands, [309]
Rhamphococcyx, [105]
S.
Salvin, Mr., on the pugnacity of humming-birds, [134], [214]
Saüba ant, [85]
Saxifraga longifolia, [233]
S. cotyledon, [233]
S. oppositifolia, [233]
Scorpions, [97]
Screw-pines, [49]
Scythrops, [105]
Seeds, how protected, [226]
Sensitive-plants, [59]
Sexes of butterflies differently coloured for recognition, [196]
Sexual colours, [177]
theory of, [192]
Sexual selection not a cause of colour, [198]
neutralized by natural selection, [210]
Sickle-bill humming-bird, [136]
Size, correspondence of, in tropical flowers and insects, [236]
Sky, colour of not mentioned in old books, [245]
Smith, Mr. Worthington, on mimicry in fungi, [223]
Smyth, Professor Piazzi, on the Great Pyramid, [298]
Snakes, [114]
Sobralias, [51]
Soil, heat of, [8]
influence of temperature on climate, [8]
Solenopsis, genus of ants, [84]
Sorby, Mr., on composition of chlorophyll, [221]
South America, extinct fauna of, [336]
geographical changes of, [338]
its parallelism with Africa, [339]
an area of preservation of ancient types, [339]
Spices from equatorial forest-trees, [36]
Spiders, [97]
Spruce, Dr. Richard, on number of ferns at Tarrapoto, [47]
on inconspicuousness of tropical flowers, [61]
on use of aromatic secretions of leaves, [278]
Stainton, Mr., on insects attacking scented leaves, [277]
Stick-insects, [92]
St. Helena, indigenous flowers of, [275]
St. John, Mr., on large python, [115]
Structure of humming-birds, [125]
Sugar from palm-trees, [44]
Sunda Islands and Japan once joined to Asia, [326]
Sun-birds, differences from humming-birds, [154]
Sun’s noonday altitude in Java and London compared, [6]
Sun’s rays, heating effect of, [7]
Sunrise in the equatorial zone, [22]
Swifts, resemblances of to humming-birds, [152]
Symmachia trochilus, [75]
colubris, [75]
T.
Tahiti, preponderance of ferns in, [269]
Temperature of London and Batavia compared, [6]
of different latitudes, various causes of, [7]
Temperature, influenced by heat of soil, [8]
influenced by aqueous vapour of atmosphere, [9]
Temperature of tropical and temperate zones, cause of, illustrated, [12]
Tertiary faunas and their relations, [344], [347]
Thaumastura cora, very pugnacious, [214]
Timor and Scotland, climates compared, [14]
Timor and Flores, white-marked birds of, [263]
Toucans, [106]
Tree-frogs, [116]
Tristan d’Acunha, bright-coloured Pelargonium of, [275]
Trochilidæ, [125]
Trogons, [105]
Tropical vegetation, concluding remarks on, [65]
probable causes of its luxuriance and variety, [66]
Mr. Belt on, [67]
Tropical birds, dull-coloured, [110]
coloration of, [110]
green, [110]
Tropics, limitation of, [3]
aspects of animal life in, [121]
Trunks, variety of, [31], [33]
probable cause of flowering, [34]
Twilight, short at equator, [21]
Typical colours, [179]
V.
Vanda lowii, [51]
Vampyre-bats, [119]
Variation, how influenced, [142]
Vegetation, equatorial, [27]
Vipers, green, [114]
Vitality a cause of bright colour, [193]
W.
Warning Colours, theory of, [189]
Wasps and bees, [90]
Wave-lengths of coloured rays, [180]
Weale, Mr. J. P. Mansel, on plants of Karoo, [223]
on Ajuga ophrydis, [223]
Webber, Mr., on food of humming-birds, [137]
West-Indian Islands, large and brilliant butterflies of, [261]
peculiarly coloured birds of, [262]
Whip-snakes, [114]
White animals poisoned where black escape, [265]
White colours influencing sense-perception, [265]
White colour doubly prejudicial to animals, [266]
White tropical birds, [110]
Wilson, Dr., on pottery from N. American mounds, [295]
Winds, influence of on temperature, [11]
direction of near equator, [11], [12]
cause of cold near equator, [12], [13]
Wolves in England show its union with continent, [305]
Woods from equatorial forest-trees, [36]
Z.
Zebra, possible use of its stripes, [197]
Zingiberaceæ, [47]
Zoological regions, [314]
Zoological regions of the New World, [329]

LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, BREAD STREET HILL.

Transcriber's Notes

The following changes have been made to the text as printed.

1. Illustrations and footnotes have been located in appropriate paragraph breaks.

2. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Other than these and particular changes noted below, inconsistencies in spelling have been retained as printed.

3. Where a word is used repeatedly in the same way, hyphenation has been made consistent, preferring the form most often used in the printed work, or failing that the more usual form in general use at the time of publication. No typographical change has been made within direct quotes from other works.

4. Page 47: "single volcanic mountains" has been changed to "[single volcanic mountain]".

5. Page 51: "Cælogynes" has been changed to "[Cœlogynes]".

6. [Page 115] and [Index]: "Dr. Gardiner" has been changed to "Dr. Gardner". (George Gardner, author of "Travels in the Interior of Brazil", London, 1846).